Xo Is  0  b 

PROPERTY  OF 

Poland  Spring  Library. 


MAINE  STATE  BUILDING, 

SOUTH  POLAND,  =  =  MAINE. 

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Maine  State  Building. 


PRESENTED  BY 


. > 


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REPORTS 


OK  THE 


Commissioners  of  the  United  States 


TO  THE 

INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION 

HELD  AT 

VIENNA,  1873. 


PUBLISHED  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE 
BY  AUTHORITY  OF  CONGRESS. 


EDITED  BY 


ROBERT  H.  THURSTON,  A.  M.,  C.  E., 

PROFESSOR  OF  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING  AT  THE  STEVENS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY; 
MEMBER  OF  THE  SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


VOLUME  IV. 

ARCHITECTURE ;  METALLURGY ;  GENERAL  INDEX. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 

1  8  7  6. 


\\V- 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


A«.— BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EXHIBITION.— L.  BRIDGES. 

Art. 

The  exhibition .  1 

Buildings  of  the  exhibition .  10 

Pavilions . 20 

Buildings  in  Vienna . 26 

Construction  of  buildings . 31 

Railroad  structures . 44 

A.— CONSTRUCTION  OF  DWELLINGS  IN  VIENNA.— J.  R.  NIERNSEE. 

Historical  sketch .  1 

Construction  and  embellishment .  16 

Architectural  features .  20 

B.— ARCHITECTURE  AND  MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION.  -N.  L.  DERBY. 

Terra-cotta ;  tiles ;  cements .  1 

Metals  used  in  construction .  23 

Stone  and  wood .  28 

Architectural  arrangements .  40 

Sanitary  precautions .  40 

C.— WOOD  INDUSTRIES.— N.  M.  LOWE. 

American  exhibits  and  methods .  1 

Exhibit  at  Vienna . 10 

Building . 11 

Wood-carving .  15 

Furniture .  16 

Musical  instruments .  20 

D.— WORKING  OF  STONE— ARTIFICIAL  STONE.— L.  J.  HINTON. 

Stone-cutting  machines .  1 

Cut  and  carved  stone-work .  17 

Paving  sidewalks  and  halls .  28 

Cement,  stucco,  terra-cotta .  39 

Artificial  stone .  49 

E.— METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL.— W.  P.  BLAKE. 

Statistics  of  production  of  iron .  1 

Austrian  exhibits  of  iron  and  steel . 4 

Austrian  iron  and  steel  manufacture .  7 

Iron  mining  in  Austro-Hungary .  17 

Mills  and  furnaces .  20 

Rotary  puddler .  32 

Hydraulic  forging. .• .  34 


IV 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Art. 

Wire-rope  traces .  35 

German  exhibit .  36 

Growth  of  German  iron  and  steel  industry .  39 

Statistics .  43 

Mills  and  furnaces .  45 

Care  of  work-people .  65 

French  iron  and  steel-making .  90 

Mines;  mills;  furnaces .  91 

Engines  and  machinery .  113 

Swedish  iron  industry .  120 

Ackerman  on  Swedish  iron-making.., .  128 

Spanish  and  Russian  iron-making .  148 

British  iron  and  steel  industries .  152 

Mines,  mills,  and  furnaces  in  the  United  States .  158 

Eothwell’s  map .  163 

Sellers’s  machine  for  puddling  ;  rolls .  164 

Statistics .  166 

Iron  industries  of  Asia .  167 

Hydraulic  forging  ;  llaswell’s  method . 174 

Iron  as  an  artist’s  material .  185 

Marks  of  Swedish  iron .  191 

F.— METALLURGY  OF  LEAD,  SILVER,  CORPER,  AND  ZINC— H.  PAINTER. 

Exhibits  from  the  United  States .  1 

Zinc  desilverization  at  the  Germania  Works .  10 

Spanish  exhibits .  12 

Age  and  progress  of  mining  and  metallurgy  in  Spain .  17 

French  exhibits .  19 

Progress  and  condition  of  French  industries .  23 

Lead  refining . 24 

Italian  exhibits .  30 

Sketch  of  the  growth  of  Italian  metal  industries .  35 

Cost  of  ruiuing  and  shipping  oros .  40 

Belgian  exhibits . 41 

History  of  Zinc  Mining  Company ;  works .  46 

Swedish  ores .  47 

Lundin’s  furnace .  49 

Copper  extraction . 56 

Silver-zinc  ores .  61 

Norwegian  ores .  62 

Statistics  of  mining  in  Norway . 63 

German  exhibits .  68 

Growth  of  German  metal  and  mining  industry .  .  69 

Freiberg  ores,  works,  and  furnaces .  74 

Roasting  ores .  82 

Sulphuric  acid  manufacture .  108 

Arsenical  products .  121 

Smelting  processes .  136 

Refining  of  silver-lead .  153 

Antimonial  lead .  157 

Pattiusoniziug .  160 

Copper  vitriol .  208 

Separating  gold  from  silver .  220 

Harz  processes . 238 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  V 

Art. 

Silesian  ore-reduction .  321 

Work  in  the  Rhine  provinces . 333 

Austro-Hungarian  metal-industry . 369 

Exhibits  of  Austro  Hungary . 370 

Production  of  Austro-Hungary .  370 

Hungarian  mint . 459 

Russian  metal-industries .  486 

Ores  ;  furnaces  ;  fuel .  488 

Turkish  industries .  498 

Greek  exhibits ;  prospects .  501. 

Statistics .  508 

Saxon  purchases  of  ores .  509 

G.— GENERAL  INDEX. 

R  C — IT 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


REPORT 


ON  THE 


BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EXHIBITION 


AND  ON 


o  \v 


RAILROAD  STRUCTURES. 


LYMAN  BRIDGES, 

MEMBER  OF  THE  ARTISAN  COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1876. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Art.  Page-. 

1.  Location  and  extent  of  buildings  and  grounds .  . .  5 

2.  The  city  of  Vienna . 5 

3.  The  Industrial  Palace , .  . „  5 

4.  Arrangementof  exhibits . 6 

5.  Location  of  smaller  buildings . 6 

6.  The  grounds . 6 

7.  The  American  school-house . ^ . .  6 

8.  The  United  States  section. — Location  of  space  and  of  exhibits _ ....  7 

9.  Number  of  exhibitors  and  their  success .  . .  7 


CHAPTER  II. 

BUILDINGS  of  thf.  exhibition. 


10.  Style  oi  architecture .  8 

11.  Foundation;  walls;  general  dimensions .  8 

12.  Details  of  construction .  8 

13.  The  dome  and  rotunda. — Designer;  dimensions .  9 

14.  Elevating  the  great  circular  girder .  9 

15.  Framing  of  the  roof  of  the  dome . 9 

16.  The  lantern .  10 

17.  Other  details .  11 

18.  The  art-building . , .  II 

19.  The  machinery-hall.. . 11 

THE  PAVILIONS. 

20.  The  jury-pavilion  ;  imperial  pavilion . . .  1L 

21.  Schwarzeuberg  pavilion . . . .  12 

22.  Pavilion  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . .  . . 1 .  12 

23.  The  school-houses  and  other  annexes .  12 

24.  Japanese  pavilions . 12 

25.  Building  of  the  Noue  Freie  Presse .  13 

CHAPTER  III. 

BUILDINGS  IN  THE  CITY  OF  VIENNA. 

26.  The  Strauss  Music-Hall .  14 

27.  The  arsenal . . . . . .  14 

28.  Its  construction  and  arrangement .  14 

29.  Apartment-buildings. — Exhibits  of  models. .  15 

30.  The  Heiurichshof ;  construction  and  arrangement . 15 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


31.  Methods  of  superintendence .  16 

32.  General  construction . 16 

33.  Special  services .  16 


4 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Art.  Page. 

34.  Building-materials. — Artificial  stoue .  IT 

35.  Plastering .  17 

36.  Lumber . 17 

37.  Cements .  18 

38.  Composition  of  Austrian  cement ;  method  of  use . .  18 

39.  Preservation  of  timber .  18 

40.  Brick-making .  19 

41.  Apartment-kilns . 19 

42.  Advantages  of  continual  kilns . : . .  21 

43.  Bricks  made .  21 

CHAPTER  V. 

RAILROADS  AND  THEIR  STRUCTURES. 

44.  Exhibits  by  railroads .  22 

45.  Subsidies  ;  character  of  construction .  22 

46.  Continuous  ties  ;  details .  23 

47.  Saxby  &  Farmer’s  switch .  23 

48.  Austrian  railroad -signals . 24 

49.  Conclusion . .  25 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

1.  The  Ringstrasse,  Vienna .  5 

2.  South  portal  of  the  Industrial  Palace .  8 

3.  Circular  girder  of  the  dome .  9 

4.  The  girder  partly  raised .  10 

5.  Great  girder  iu  position .  11 

6.  Stagings  under  the  dome . 12 

7.  Vertical  section  of  the  rotuuda .  10 

8.  Swiss  restaurant .  13 

9.  Russian  restaurant .  14 

10.  Strauss  Music-Hall  . 15 

11.  Imperial  Austrian  Arsenal .  16 

12.  The  Heinrichshof . 17 

13.  Imperial  hotel  ..i .  18 

14-18.  Apartment-kiln .  20 

19.  Northwestern  Railroad-station .  20 

20.  Engine-house  and  turn-table .  21 

21.  Northern  Railroad-station,  Vienna .  22 

22.  Imperial  apartmeut  in  station .  23 

23-29.  Lantern-signals,  &c .  27-29 

30-43.  Basket  and  other  signals .  29-31 


Fig.  F— The  Kingstrasse,  Vienna, 


. 


THE  BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EXHIBITION. 


CHAPTER  I. 


INTRODUCTION. 

LOCATION  AND  EXTENT  OF  BUILDINGS  AND  GROUNDS;  TtlE  CITY  OF  VIENNA;  THE 

Industrial  Palace  ;  Arrangement  of  exhibits  ;  Location  of  smaller  build¬ 
ings;  The  grounds  ;  Erection  of  the  American  school-house  ;  The  American 

department;  Location  of  space  and  of  exhibits;  Number  of  exhibitors 

AND  THEIR  SUCCESS. 

1.  The  plan  of  the  International  Exhibition  at  Vienna  wasconceived  and 
executed  under  the  most  favorable  circumstances.  The  government  of 
Austria  appropriated  22,000,000  of  florins,  or  about  $11,000,000.  The  lo¬ 
cation  was  all  that  could  have  been  desired,  in  the  Prater,  which  is  a  park 
of  4,000  acres,  consisting  of  lawns,  gardens,  and  forests.  It  is  five  times 
larger  than  the  Champs  de  Mars,  the  site  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1867,  twelve  times  larger  than  that  of  London  in  1862,  twenty-two  times 
larger  than  the  Crystal  Palace  grounds  in  New  York  in  1852,  and  twen¬ 
ty-nine  times  those  of  the  exhibition-grounds  in  Hyde  Park,  London, 
in  1851.  It  was  directly  connected  with  all  parts  of  the  city  by  steam 
or  horse  railways,  excellent  paved  streets,  or  by  steamers  on  the  Dan¬ 
ube.  Eivers  bound  it  on  the  north  and  east.  The  suburbs,  Wieden 
and  Leopoldstadt,  which  would  be  called  wards  in  this  country,  bound 
the  Prater  on  the  south  and  west. 

2.  It  is  entirely  within  the  city  of  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria, 
which  is  composed  of  nine  towns  which  have  been  consolidated  into  one 
grand  city  of  1,100,000  inhabitants.  The  old  town,  covering  but  one- 
twentieth  of  the  area  of  the  present  city,  was  formerly  surrounded  by 
an  immense  ditch  and  parapet  which  the  present  Emperor  caused  to  be 
levelled,  and  a  magnificent  boulevard  now  beautifies  its  former  site. 
Taxes  are  remitted  for  twenty  years  to  any  person  building  on  this 
avenue.  The  American  embassy  was  located  on  this  boulevard,  the 
Danube  and  Prater  being  in  the  foreground,  and  the  exhibition 
occupying  the  best  portions  of  the  latter.  The  site  of  the  main  build¬ 
ing  is  the  imperial  garden,  surrounded  by  long-preserved  forest-trees, 
lawns,  fountains, 'and  beautiful  pavilions,  built  and  occupied  by  enterpris¬ 
ing  people  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  city  of  Vienna  is  seen  on  a 
background,  beyond  which  are  the  Soemmering  Mountains. 

3.  The  main  exhibition-buildings  extend  from  east  to  west  2,800  feet, 
and  are  78  feet  in  width.  The  main  central  trausept,  extending  through 
the  rotunda,  is  625  feet  in  length  and  80  feet  in  width.  There  are  also 
sixteen  minor  transepts,  540  feet  in  length,  including  the  crossing  of  the 
east  and  west  transept,  and  47  feet  in  width.  Between  these  transepts 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  187a 


are  open  courts,  100  feet  wide,  all  of  which  were,  either  wholly  or  iu 
part,  covered  with  wooden  pavilions  by  nations  occupying  the  adjoining 
transepts. 

4.  The  nations  represented  in  the  exhibition  were  placed  in  the  same 
relative  position  iu  the  building  as  they  occupv  on  the  globe,  from  east 
to  west.  Thus  Japan,  China,  Turkey,  Egypt,  Russia,  Greece,  Hungary, 
Austria,  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  Italy, 
Switzerland,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Great  Britain,  Brazil,  South 
America,  and  the  United  States  were  assigned  space  in  the  order  named, 
Japan  and  the  United  States  occupying  the  extreme  eastern  and  western 
ends  of  the  main  buildings,  and  Russia  and  the  United  States  occupying 
the  extreme  ends  of  the  Machinery- Hall,  with  the  other  countries  inter¬ 
vening,  in  the  order  of  their  geographical  location. 

5.  The  pavilions  were  located  as  nearly  as  practicable,  in  accordance 
with  the  same  general  idea,  so  that  it  was  easy  to  locate  the  position  of 
the  exhibits  of  any  nationality.  The  Machinery-Hall  was  located 
parallel  with  and  north  of  the  main  buildings.  The  kunst-  or  art- 
hall  was  placed  upon  the  eastern  extension  of  the  main  buildings,  its 
western,  or  nearest,  line  being  350  feet  from  the  east  portal.  The  build¬ 
ings  lor  the  floral  and  horticultural  exhibitions  were  about  500  feet 
south  of  the  art-hall. 

The  exhibition  of  cattle,  stock,  and  swine  was  held  about  one  mile 
east  of  the  main  exhibition,  in  a  portion  of  the  Prater  where  ample 
provision  had  been  provided  for  all  applications  for  space.  All  the 
space  allowed  by  the  General  Direction  to  be  used  for  buildings  was  taken 
up  and  occupied. 

6.  The  Deneral  Direction  transplanted  all  of  the  most  valuable  trees 
that  it  was  necessary  to  move,  and  constructed  streets,  lawns,  fountains, 
and  sanitary  arrangements,  bringing  city  water  and  gas  into  the 
grounds.  When  it  seemed  impossible  to  complete  the  buildings  and 
grounds  by  the  1st  day  of  May,  4,005  soldiers  were  detailed,  and  they 
were  finally  completed  and  opened  on  the  day  appointed. 

The  great  prosperity  of,  and  enterprise  exhibited  in,  manufactures 
and  in  architectural  and  building  improvements,  as  well  as  in  the  beauti¬ 
fying  of  its  numerous  parks,  gave  sure  promise  of  a  result  which  should 
bear  favorable  comparison  with  the  great  Paris  Universal  Exposition. 

7.  In  accordance  with  orders  received  from  the  United  States  Execu¬ 
tive  Commissioner,  the  writer  shipped  all  the  finished  work  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  school-house,  including  sash  and  doors,  from  Chicago  to  \  ienna, 
purchased  the  timber  iu  Austria,  and  erected  the  building  in  the  most 
eligible  location  to  be  found  adjoining  the  United  States  department. 
The  size  of  this  building  was  34  by  50  feet:  16  feet  high.  There  were 
two  principal  rooms,  oue  on  either  end,  the  school-room  being  27  by  33 
feet,  and  the  recitation-room  15  by  33  feet.  Each  was  lighted  from 
three  sides.  This  last  room  was  used  tor  a  reception,  reading,  and 
writing  room  for  Americans,  and  for  the  business-meetings  of  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Commission.  There  were  also  two  vestibules  and  cloak-rooms 


THE  UNITED  STATES  SECTION. 


7 


between  the  principal  rooms.  There  was  a  ventilating-cupola  on  the  top 
of  the  building.  Complete  ventilation  was  secured  throughout.  The  build¬ 
ing  was  built  of  balloon-frame,  sided  outside,  and  neatly  sheathed,  and 
was  papered  inside.  Blackboards  were  on  the  walls.  The  National  School- 
furniture  Company  furnished  forty-eight  seats,  which  were  placed  in  posi¬ 
tion  for  scholars,  a  teacher’s  desk,  globes,  books,  charts,  maps,  and  com¬ 
plete  apparatus  for  illustrating  everything  taught  in  any  district-school 
in  America.  The  recitation-room  had  a  carpet,  tables,  chairs,  and  desk. 
This  was  a  rendezvous  for  Americans.  The  entire  cost  of  this  building 
was  $4,813,  which  was  within  the  amount  specified  in  the  order  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Van  Buren;  it  was  pronounced  by  all  visitors  the  most  complete 
school-room  at  the  exposition. 

8.  The  United  States  section. — The  American  department,  or 
the  United  States  section,  occupied  the  extreme  western  end  of  the 
main  building,  all  of  the  western  cross-transept,  except  about  100  feet 
of  the  north  end,  (which  was  assigned  to  South  America  and  Brazil,) 
and  the  open  court  which  was  between  the  two  southwestern  transepts. 
This  the  United  States  covered.  In  the  foregoing  space  Groups  I,  II, 
III,  IV,  V,  VI,  VIII,  IX,  X,  XI,  XII,  XIV,  XV,  XVI,  XVII,  and 
XXIII  were  exhibited.  The  educational  exhibit  was  made  partly  in 
the  American  school-house  and  partly  in  the  main  building.  It  was 
an  honor  to  the  country. 

The  machinery  exhibit  was  located  in  the  western  end  of  the  machin- 
erv-hall,  and  contained  many  ingenious  and  valuable  exhibits.  The 
exhibit  of  agricultural  machines  was  made  in  a  separate  building  adjoin¬ 
ing  the  machinery  department,  aud  both  here  and  in  the  field  the 
exhibits  of  the  United  States  were  unsurpassed.  The  sewing-machine 
exhibit  from  the  United  States  was  located  in  a  covered  court  between 
two  transepts.  It  surpassed  that  of  any  other  country. 

In  the  fine-art  exhibit,  G.  P.  A.  Healy,  of  Chicago,'  and  A.  Bierstadt, 
of  New  York,  were  honored  with  medals,  justly-earned  laurels.  The 
former  exhibited  a  portrait  of  Pope. Pius  IX  and  the  Romanian  princes  ; 
the  latter  presented  his  matchless  views  of  American  scenery. 

9.  While  the  representation  from  the  Uuited  States  included  nearly 
twice  as  many  exhibitors  as  were  represented  at  the  Paris  exhibition  in 
1867,  the  magnitude  of  this  exhibition  was  not  understood,  and  the  dis¬ 
tance  from  America  was  so  great  that  our  countrymen  did  not  compre¬ 
hend  its  importance  and  the  benefits  to  be  expected  to  accrue  to  exhib¬ 
itors. 

Notwithstanding  the  lateness  of  the  appropriation  by  Congress,  the 
great  distance  to  be  travelled,  and  the  fact  that  the  articles  for  exhibi¬ 
tion  were  transported  by  sailing-vessels,  the  Uuited  States  department 
was  opened  by  the  middle  of  May,  1873.  Our  exhibitors  obtained  more 
than  their  share  of  the  awards  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  exhibitors. 


CHAPTER  II. 


BUILDINGS  OF  THE  EXHIBITION. 

Style  ok  architecture  ;  Foundations;  Walls;  General  dimensions;  Details 

OF  CONSTRUCTION  ;  TlIE  ROTUNDA  ;  DESIGNER  ;  DIMENSIONS;  ELEVATING  THE  GREAT 

CIRCULAR  GIRDER;  FRAMING  OF  THE  DOME;  LANTERN;  TlIE  ART-BUILDING;  Ma- 

chinery-hall;  The  pavilions;  The  jury;  The  imperial,  The  Schwarz enberg 

AND  THE  SaXE-COBURG-GOTHA  PAVILIONS  ;  SCHOOL-HOUSES  AND  OTHER  ANNEXES  ; 

The  Japanese  pavilion  and  the  pavilion  of  the  Neue  Freie  Pricsse. 

10.  The  principal  buildings  erected  by  the  Austrian  government  were 
in  the  renaissance  style  of  architecture. 

11.  The  site  selected  for  these  buildings  has  a  peculiar  alluvial  bot¬ 
tom,  a  water-bed  from  the  Danube,  having  a  depth  of  6  feet,  which  gives 
no  stability  to  foundations,  so  that  it  was  necessary  to  drive  piles  wher¬ 
ever  buildings  were  erected.  Upon  these,  grout  was  placed,  and  upon 
the  grout,  masonry  was  laid  in  cement  well  bedded  in  the  grout,  and 
carried  up  to  the  top  of  the  ground,  where  the  brick  walls  were  started. 
The  walls  of  all  the  main  buildings  were  of  brick,  strengthened  by  pilas¬ 
ters.  The  main  buildings  were  2,800  feet  in  length,  crossed  by  principal 
and  minor  transepts  from  540  to  G25  feet  in  length,  and  from  47  to  SO 
feet  in  width.  Between  these  cross-transepts  extended  open  courts,  100 
feet  wide  on  the  north  and  south  of  the  main  east  and  west  transept. 

12.  The  outside  walls  were  covered  with  cement-stucco,  and  the  prin¬ 
cipal  portion  of  the  lower  story  was  liued  iu  imitation  of  stone.  The 
roofs  were  arched  and  covered  with  zinc,  having  standing  grooves. 
The  inside  walls  of  the  transepts  had  columns  2  feet  in  front  of  the 
pilasters,  these  columns  furnishing  a  finish  to  and  division  of  exhibits ; 
the  walls  being  furred  and  covered  with  tinted  canvas,  stretched  from 
the  clerestory  windows  to  the  floor. 

The  principal  portal  was  the  south  central  entrance,  opposite  the 
grand  entrance  to  the  park.  The  north,  the  east,  and  the  western  portals 
were  principal  entrances.  The  transepts  assigned  to  the  different  na¬ 
tions  had  each  an  entrance,  over  which  their  names  and  national  seals 
were  placed. 

In  the  frieze  and  panels  of  the  pilasters  were  inscribed  names  of  noted 
artists,  mechanics,  engineers,  and  other  celebrated  men.  Between  the 
projections  of  the  main  center  and  the  last,  or  end,  double  cross-trau 
septs  on  both  north  and  south  fronts,  there  were  in  all  twelve  colonnades. 
12  feet  wide,  flagged  below  and  roofed  above.  These  colonnades  covered 


Fig.  2.— Thk  South  portal. 


>IH<T>lin-MlVOCl  MV'IODMIO  M H.f, — '};  ’OI.J 


THE  ROTUNDA. 


9 


the  galleries  connecting  the  two  end  and  the  two  center  transepts.  These 
galleries  were  used  for  the  sanitary,  the  clerical,  and  the  police  arrange¬ 
ments  below,  and  for  the  officers  of  the  commissions  of  the  countries  con¬ 
nected  with  them  or  whose  exhibits  were  adjacent. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  main  entrance,  with  the  coat  of  arms  of  the  Aus¬ 
trian  Empire,  the  colounades,  and  the  dome  with  the  crown  and  lantern. 

13.  The  dome. — Notwithstanding  the  many  miles  of  courts  and  tran¬ 

septs  through  which  we  passed  and  admired  for  the  symmetry  and  fore¬ 
thought  of  its  arrangement,  the  great  feature  of  the  exhibition  was  the 
grand  central  dome,  located  at  the  center  of  the  main  buildings,  and  which 
constitutes  a  portion  of  the  rotunda,  a  structure  which  has  never  been 
equalled  in  modern  architecture.  The  dome  was  built  from  the  designs 
of  J.  Scott  Russell,  the  celebrated  English  engineer.  It  is  built  of  iron, 
and  weighs  4,000  tons.  It  is  supported  upon  thirty-two  pairs  of  double 
iron  columns,  80  feetin  height,  each  bearinga  vertical  pressure  of  109  tons. 
They  were  incased  in  sheet-iron,  giving  the  appearance  of  solid  columns, 
4  by  10  feet  each.  Inside  of  this  ring  of  columns  the  dome  has  no  sup¬ 
port.  The  diameter  of  the  dome  is  354  feet,  its  circumference  1,080  feet, 
and  its  altitude  257  feet  to  the  crown,  or  lantern,  including  which  its 
total  height  is  28-i  feet.  This  is  the  largest  rotunda  in  the  world,  being 
3.17  times  larger  than  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London  ;  2.26 
times  larger  than  the  dome  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome;  2.22  times  larger 
than  the  dome  of  the  International  Exhibition  Buildings  at  Loudon. 
Upon  this  ring  of  columns  rests  an  immense  iron  circular  girder,  or  ring, 
which  was  riveted  and  bolted  together  on  the  ground,  and  raised  by 
hydraulic  pressure.  The  columns  were  placed  in  position  as  the  ring, 
or  girder,  was  raised.  Fig.  3  shows  the  position  of  the  girder  as  it  was 
being  raised.  ' 

14.  The  foundations  of  the  columns  were  carried  upon  pieces  of  stone, 
supported  on  piles,  and  well  laid  in  cement.  They  projected  4  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  railway-track  was  laid  in  a  circle 
on  the  inside  of  the  ring,  upon  which  track  cars  were  brought  with  the 
iron  ring-girder  completed  in  sections.  The  latter  were  placed  upon 
the  stone  piers,  or  foundations,  connected,  and  then  hydraulic  pressure 
was  applied,  and  the  ring  began  to  ascend.  As  fast  as  the  sections  of 
the  column  could  be  inserted  it  was  so  placed.  Fig.  4  shows  the 
iron  .ring-girder  raised  to  one  half  its  full  height.  Fig.  5  shows  the 
iron  ring-girder  after  it  has  arrived  at  its  destination,  when  the  stagings 
are  being  finally  replaced  by  sections  of  the  columns. 

L5.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  upper  side  of  this  ring-girder  slopes  at 
an  angle  of  thirty  degrees,  which  is  also  the  slope  of  the  cone  ;  upon  this 
circular  rested  the  radial  girders,  which  were  each  200  feet  long,  and 
were  riveted  and  bolted  to  the  ring  at  the  bottom  and  at  each  circular 
ring  above.  The  columns  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the  dome  con¬ 
tained  iron  stairways  and  hydraulic  lifts  by  which  visitors  ascended  to 
the  dome. 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  design  of  the  engineer  was  to  build  the  cone  from  the  lower  ring- 
girder,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  using  staging  ;  but.  the  Austrian 
architect  and  engineer  built  a  staging,  as  shown  in  Fig.  G,  and  placed 
the  upper  ring-girder  upon  this  staging  in  the  place  designed  for  it. 
They  then  connected  the  radial  girders  from  the  lower  ring-girder  to 
the  upper  ring-girder,  and  the  columns  around  the  upper  dome.  The 
roof,  between  the  radial  girders,  is  composed  of  3Gb  iron  plates,  tapering 
uniformly  upward  from  the  circumference  to  the  apex  of  the  cone, 
and  riveted  together  like  the  plates  of  a  ship. 

1G.  The  upper  dome,  or  lantern,  is  10b  feet  in  diameter,  and  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  thirty  iron  columns  5b  feet  in  height.  It  is  lighted  by  win¬ 
dows  40  feet  high  and  lb  feet  wide  between  the  columns.  It  is  sur¬ 
mounted  by  an  imperial  crown  GO  feet  in  height,  making  the  total 
height  of  the  dome  above  foundations,  (main  columns,  80  feet;  cone,  10b 
feet ;  windows,  40  feet ;  crown,  GO  feet,)  280  feet.  The  foundations  meas¬ 
ure  20  feet  additional. 

The  inside  of  the  iron  dome  was  lined  with  canvas  in  sections,  laced 
together  through  rings  under  each  radial  girder.  The  canvas  was 
painted  to  imitate  fresco,  the  figures  being  21  feet  in  length,  or  about 
four  times  the  size  of  life,  their  great  height  making  them  appear  but 
of  natural  size  when  seen  from  the  Hoor  of  the  rotunda. 

Forming  a  part  of  the  rotunda  is  an  outer  ring,  or  arcade,  40  feet  wide 
and  8b  feet  high,  Opening  into  four  charming  gardens,  or  open  courts,  thus 
making  the  ground  floor  of  the  rotunda  440  feet  in  diameter. 

l  io.  7. 


CROSS -SECTION-  OK  THE  ROTUNDA  OF  THE  VIENNA  EXHIBITION. 


Fig.  4. — The  Dome-girder  partly  raised. 


ART-BUILDING - MACHINERY-HALL. 


11 


The  sketch,  Fig.  7,  shows  the  lower  or  main  columns  supporting 
the  outward  or  lower  ring-girder,  upon  which  the  frustum  of  the  cone 
rested.  There  is  also  placed  a  second  ring-girder  to  receive  the  press¬ 
ure  of  the  inner  edge  and  to  distribute  the  pressure  around  the  cone. 
The  columns  become  part  of  the  cone  itself,  being  connected  both  to 
the  radial  and  the  ring-girders,  thus  adding  strength  to  each  and  to  all 
parts  by  an  ingenious  system  of  iron  chain-cables,  or  parabolic  cate¬ 
naries,  ending  in  the  summits  of  the  columns  supporting  this  dome 
The  weight  of  the  cone  anchors  the  columns  on  the  other  side,  aud  it 
is  claimed  that  should  an  earthquake  or  any  other  power  be  sufficient 
to  move  this  4,000  tons  of  iron  the  whole  structure  would  move  bodily, 
including  the  columns.  It  is  certainly  the  most  grand,  practical,  and 
imposing  dome  the  world  has  ever  seen,  and  it  is  no  less  a  triumph  of 
skill  and  art  in  engineering.  It  is  an  illustration  of  the  practical  use 
of  iron  in  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  scientific  problems  of  archi¬ 
tectural  construction.  The  dimensions  on  Figure  7  are  in  metres. 

18.  The  art-building. — The  kunst,  or  art-hall,  was  east  of  the 
main  building,  standing  in  a  uorth  and  south  Hue,  or  at  right  angles  to 
the  main  building,  its  nearest  side  being  350  feet  east  of  the  east  portal. 
It  was  100  feet  wide  by  600  feet  long,  with  a  large  corridor  at  the 
ceuter  of  sides  and  ends  for  the  exhibition  of  statuary.  The  building 
was  of  brick,  with  the  universal  stucco-finish  outside.  The  inside  was 
divided  into  suitable  galleries  and  studios,  and  was  well  lighted  from  the 
roof.  In  addition  to  the  paintings,  some  of  the  choicest  statues  and 
statuettes  were  here  exhibited. 

In  addition  to  the  art-building  proper,  there  were  open  wooden  pavil¬ 
ions,  connecting  either  end  of  the  art-hall,  extending  406  feet,  with  circu¬ 
lar  returns  of  700  feet  in  length,  and  to  the  triumphal  arch  which 
completed  the  eastern  end  of  the  series  of  principal  buildings.  This 
last  series  of  pavilions  was  almost  wholly  devoted  to  the  exhibition  of 
statuary,  fountains,  terra  cotta,  plaster,  artificial  stone,  and  similar 
materials. 

19.  The  Machinery-Hall. — The  Machinery-Hall  was  125  feet  wide 
and  2,060  feet  long,  all  in  one  room,  60  feet  in  height,  having  brick  walls, 
the  outside  covered  with  stucco,  colored  so  as  to  give  it  the  appearance 
of  bluestone;  the  roof  was  of  iron,  built  light  but  strong.  Two  rail¬ 
way-tracks  ran  through  the  entire  length  of  the  inside,  and  with  a  par¬ 
allel  track  on  the  outside  gave  excellent  facilities  for  shipment  of  heavy 
machinery  either  to  or  from  the  exposition.  The  designs  for  the  shaft¬ 
ing  were  made  by  the  Austrian  engineer,  and  were  all  uniform.  Each 
nation  was  giveu  as  much  power  as  was  desired. 

20.  Pavilions. — Among  the  pavilions  surrounding  the  principal  ex¬ 
hibition  buildings  were  the  imperial  and  jury  pavilions,  located  on  the 
east  and  west  of  the  grand  entrance.  They  were  both  of  brick,  finished  in 
imitation  of  stone  outside.  The  former,  for  the  use  of  the  imperial  fam¬ 
ily,  consisted  of  a  reception-room,  Emperor’s  room,  Empress’s  room,  arch- 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


duke’s  room,  aiul  ample  ante  rooms,  all  oil  one  floor.  The  interior  dec¬ 
oration  was  replete  with  the  products  of  artistic  skill,  botli  in  design 
and  in  execution.  Tlie  jury  pavilion  contained  the  assembly  and  com¬ 
mittee  rooms  for  each  group.  A  portion  of  its  structure  was  enlarged  to 
two  stories  in  height.  The  general  direction  and  imperial  commission 
pavilions  were  on  either  side  of  the  grand,  or  main,  entrance,  and  con¬ 
nected  with  a  semicircular  corridor  connecting  the  main  buildings. 
Ample  provisions  for  telegraphing,  reading,  and  writing  were  here 
afforded,  and  an  nterpreter  for  every  nation  was  furnished  by  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Direction. 

21.  The  Schwarzenberg  estate  erected  an  extensive  and  symmetrical 
wooden  pavilion,  in  the  Swiss  style  of  architecture,  and  filled  this,  besides 
covering  all  the  ground  adjoining  and  assigned  to  them,  with  the  most 
complete  exhibition  of  everything  useful,  either  to  eat,  to  wear,  or  for 
manufactures,  that  could  be  crowded  into  so  small  a  space.  The  most 
noticeable  articles  were  sugar,  sirups,  honey,  beet-sugar,  cereals,  alco* 
hoi,  spirits,  fish,  game,  wool,  flax,  iron,  steel,  wood,  lumber,  every  kind 
of  wooden  ware,  and  illustrations  of  the  ceramic  arts.  This  pavilion 
was  designed  and  executed  with  great  skill,  and  would  repay  many  days 
of  study.  This  estate  is  located  in  several  parts  of  Austria  and  Ger¬ 
many,  though  mostly  in  Austria,  and  includes  a  greater  number  of 
acres  than  some  of  the  states  of  this  union.  It  is  owned  by  Prince  -T. 
Adolphus  Schwarzenberg  of  Vienna. 

22.  The  pavilion  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe  Coburg-Goth  a  was  next  in  size 
and  in  importance  as  a  complete  exhibition.  It  was  also  constructed  in 
the  Swiss  style  of  architecture,  built  of  wood,  and  with  much  skill  and 
good  judgment.  Similar  articles  were  exhibited  to  those  shown  as  just 
described  by  the  Schwarzenberg  estate. 

23.  The  United  States,  or  American,  school-house  was  adjacent  to  the 
Portuguese,  Swiss,  and  Swedish  school-houses,  which  were  all  built  of 
wood,  and  smaller  than  that  of  the  United  States;  that  of  the  Swedish 
nation  was  in  the  form  of  a  cottage.  The  largest  room  was  used  for 
the  exhibition  of  samples  of  their  text-books,  desks,  and  articles  made 
by  girls.  The  German  school-rooms  were  tilled  with  drawings,  models, 
and  contained  a  few  desks.  The  Persian,  Turkish,  Russian,  French, 
English,  and  Egyptian  pavilions,  the  light  house  of  the  maritime  board, 
the  Swiss  music-hall,  a  house  of  artificial  stone,  Wagner’s  stable,  Wag¬ 
ner's  green  (iron)  house,  a  water-tower  (of  iron,)  the  military  barracks 
lvrupp’s  pavilion,  the  Russiau  peasants’  house,  and  the  American,  Itus 
sian,  Swiss,  Swedish,  Tyrolese,  Austrian,  English,  and  German  restau. 
rants  were  also  erected  in  the  Swiss  style  of  architecture;  and  many 
others  were  objects  of  interest.  Permits  for  the  erection  of  about  three 
hundred  withiu  the  iuclosure  were  granted  by  the  General  Direction, 
and  as  many  more  were  erected  without  the  inclosure  and  within  the 
Prater. 

24.  The  Japanese  pavilious  were  made  in  their  own  peculiar  style, 


Fig.  6. — The  Stagings  under  the  dome. 


Fig.  8. — Swiss  kestauiulnt. 


THE  PAVILIONS. 


13 


with  one  story,  and  the  universal  veranda  in  trout.  The  woods  used 
were  brought  from  Japan,  and  tbe  buildiugs  were  erected  by  mechanics 
from  Japan,  who  put  them  up  in  a  masterly  and  skilful  manner.  It 
was  almost  impossible  to  discover  a  joint.  One  of  their  workmen,  while 
drawing  his  plane  toward  himself,  as  is  their  custom  wheu  planing  a 
piece  of  wood,  made  a  shaving  28  feet  long.  One  peculiar  feature  of 
these  Japanese  houses  was  that,  while  they  were  built  strongly,  their 
sides  were  entirely  of  paper  except  where  strength  was  especially  re¬ 
quired.  Their  windows  were  of  paper,  also;  their  shingles  were  of  palin- 
leaves,  and  were  nailed  on  with  wooden  nails,  or  pegs,  similar  to  those 
used  in  pegging  a  boot. 

25.  The  Neue  Preie  Presse  building  was  of  brick,  and  had  the  form  of 
a  cross ;  the  inside  was  fiuished  with  stucco,  or  cement,  and  lined  in  imi¬ 
tation  of  stone;  a  portion  of  the  center  had  the  appearance  of  being  two 
stories  in  height.  The  newspaper  to  be  published  here,  and  for  which 
this  building  was  erected,  was  the  earliest  and  most  ardent  supporter 
of  the  exhibition  in  the  empire,  and  was  the  recoguized  organ  of  the 
General  Direction,  publishing  daily  in  this  building  accounts  of  the 
latest  current  events.  Oue  of  the  most  useful  and  most  scientifically- 
constructed  structures  witfiin  the  exhibition  grounds,  was  that  of  the 
'.Vaguer  iron  green-house,  erected  near  the  floral  and  horticultural  ex¬ 
hibition  halls.  The  system  of  heating  by  hot  water  was  excellent,  the 
ventilation  good,  and  light  perfectly  under  control.  The  design’  was 
symmetrical  and  complete. 


CHAPTER  III. 


BUILDINGS  IN  THE  CITY  OF  VIENNA. 

Thk  Strauss  Music-Hall;  Arsenal:  Its  construction  and  arrangement:  Apart¬ 
ment  buildings;  Models;  Heinrichshoe. 

20.  Fig.  10  represents  the  Strauss  music  pavilion,  or  hall,  iu  the 
Yolks  Garten.  One  of  the  features  of  this  pavilion  is  that  the  covered 
stand  for  the  orchestra  is  octagonal,  and  is  half  without  and  half  within 
the  buildings,  so  that  the  music  can  be  heard  within  or  without,  as  the 
weather  may  permit  the  audience  to  sit  outside  or  may  drive  them  with¬ 
in  doors.  The  Strauss  band,  of  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  per¬ 
formers,  gave  two  concerts  each  day  within  the  exhibition  grounds. 

27.  The  adjutant-general's  department,  the  quartermaster’s  depart¬ 
ment,  and  ordnance  department,  of  the  empire,  have  all  of  their  execu¬ 
tive  offices  located  at  the  arsenal,  which  is  some  two  miles  from  the 
center  of  the  city  and  immediately  on  the  outer  circle  of  the  improved 
or  newly  built-up  portions  of  the  city.  This  arsenal  has  been  pronounced 
by  Gen.  William  T.  Sherman  to  be  the  finest  and  most  complete  in  the 
world.  The  grounds,  both  within  and  without  the  inclosure,  were  beauti¬ 
fied  by  parks  and  fountains. 

2S.  The  imperial  arsenal  is  built  of  brick,  the  outside  being  in  the 
form  of  a  rectangle,  with  projecting  corners  and  centers,  in  the  Tudor- 
Gothic,  or  castellated  style  of  architecture,  with  battlements  all  around. 
It  has  thick  walls,  for  defense  against  musketry.  This  building  varies 
from  50  to  100  feet  in  width  and  from  three  to  four  stories  high.  The 
intermediate,  or  cross,  buildings  within  the  inclosure  are  quite  as  exten¬ 
sive  as  the  outer  buildings.  One  building  is  used  as  an  art  and  military 
museum,  with  all  the  war  relics  and  articles  captured  from  the  enemy 
during  hundreds  of  years  past.  On  the  walls  and  ceilings  are  painted 
the  successful  battles  of  the  Austrian  empire.  At  the  main  entrance 
of  this  military  museum  a  hall,  or  corridor,  is  devoted  to  the  exhibi¬ 
tion  of  full-sized  statues  of  the  great  generals  and  of  the  Emperors  and 
Empresses  of  the  empire. 

Great  care  is  takeu  to  exhibit  the  keys  of  captured  cities — in  former 
generations  the  symbols  of  possession. 

The  foundery  and  machine-shops  for  the  manufacture  of  large  guns 
and  of  small-arms  and  of  gun-carriages,  an  immense  carpenters’ and 
wheelwrights’  shop,  a  harness  and  saddlery  shop,  aud,  in  fact,  the  man¬ 
ufacture  of  all  war-materials,  are  provided  for  in  buildings  within  the 
arsenal. 

The  government  has  established  a  chapel  at  the  center  of  one  end  of 
the  iuclosure. 


Fig.  9. — Russian  kjsstaukant. 


Fig.  10. — Strauss  music-hali,. 


APARTMENT-BUILDINGS. 


15 


29.  Apartment-buildings. — Models  aud  plans  of  apartment-build¬ 
ings  were  exhibited  from  G-reat  Britain,  France,  Germany,  aud  Austria. 
Those  from  London,  Berlin,  Paris,  Pesth,  aud  Vienna  claimed  the  most 
attention.  Perhaps  the  most  notable  models  were  from  Pesth,  Hun¬ 
gary,  where  blocks  and  buildings  on  both  sides  of  whole  streets  were 
shown,  nearly  all  apartment-houses,  of  from  four  to  six  stories  in  height, 
and  all  masonry  fire-proof  buildings. 

30.  Fig.  12  shows  a  representative  apartment-building  fronting  on  the 
grand  boulevard,  or  Ringstrasse,  in  the  city  of  Vienna,  and  known  as  . 
the  Heinrichshof,  (Henry  House.)  It  covers  an  area  of  150  by  310  feet, 
is  six  stories  high  at  the  centers  and  corners,  aud  elsewhere  five  stories 
high.  A  cellar  extends  under  the  entire  bnildiug.  The  lower  story  is 
occupied  by  cafes ,  or  shops,  and  all  above  first  story  are  used  for  apart¬ 
ments,  usually  suites  of  rooms.  The  best  suites  have  bath-rooms  and  all 
sanitary  accommodations,  all  arranged  complete  on  the  floor  occupied. 
This  building  has  a  capacity  for  one  thousand  persons  above  the  stores, 
or  first  floor.  The  buildings  are  built  of  brick  and  are  fire-proof,  the 
floor-girders  being  of  iron,  with  brick  floors,  and  the  roof  of  tiles.  There 
are  sixteen  flights  of  stone  steps  with  iron  railings,  all  distinct,  from  bot¬ 
tom  to  top.  There  are  three  open  courts,  say  60  by  200  feet  inside, 
running  across  the  building  aud  between  the  outside  walls.  These 
courts  give  light  and  ventilation,  and  are  connected  with  the  streets 
by  large  arches  of  sufficient  dimensions  to  admit  a  large  carriage. 
Twenty  carriages  could  enter  the  courts  without  inconvenience.  Over 
one  of  these  courts,  above  the  second-story  windows,  a  glass  room 
has  been  erected,  aud  an  extensive  restaurant  fitted  up  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  cafes  at  either  side  of  it.  The  other  courts  are  paved  and 
kept  open,  aud  the  janitor  is  compelled  to  keep  them  clean.  The  en¬ 
trances  to  the  apartments  are  through  the  arched  passages.  A  janitor 
lives  in  rooms  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs  at  the  entrance,  whose  duty  it 
is  to  attend,  day  or  night,  and  to  receive  messages  when  the  occupants 
are  absent,  and  to  keep  the  keys  when  not  occupying  the  rooms.  Any 
number  of  rooms  are  leased  as  desired.  Meals  are  served  iu  the  apart¬ 
ment  a  la  carte ,  or  occupants  may  come  down  to  the  restaurant  in  the 
first  story  or  to  the  cafe,  as  preferred.  Families  left  in  their  apartments 
can  always  call  upon  the  porter  for  anything  required  or  for  protection. 
In  mauy  similar  buildings  the  hydraulic  lift,  or  elevator,  is  now  placed, 
the  city  water-works  pressure  being  sufficient  to  operate  it  without 
steam.  The  operation  is  so  simple  that  a  child  can  manage  it,  and 
the  upper  stories  of  apartment-buildings  are  thus  made  as  available 
as  the  lower  and  more  expensive  stories. 

Adjoining  this  main  building,  an  apartment-building  has  a  chapel 
with  a  hall  iu  the  second  story.  The  American  embassies  in  Vienna, 
Paris,  and  Berlin  are  iu  apartment-buildings.  These  buildings  com¬ 
bine  all  requisites  both  for  business  aud  for  residence,  and  in  thickly- 
settled  cities  must  come  into  general  use. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 

Superintendence;  General  construction;  Special  devices;  Building-mate¬ 
rials;  Artificial  stone;  Plastering;  Lumber;  Cements;  Preservation  of 
timber;  Brick-making;  Apartment  kilns. 

31.  When  a  building  is  to  be  erected  that  is  of  sufficient  importance 
to  justify  the  employment  of  an  architect,  the  plans  and  specifications 
are  completed  by  him,  and  a  competent  superintendent  is  employed, 
who  proceeds  to  erect  an  ollice  upon  the  grounds  immediately  adjacent 
to  the  place  whore  the  building  is  to  be  erected.  This  superintendent 
makes  plans  of  all  the  details,  and  remains  upon  the  ground  until  the 
building  is  completed,  the  architect,  or  engineer,  giving  his  instructions 
to  the  contractors  through  this  superintendent. 

32.  Iron  girders,  extending  from  the  walls  or  partitions,  are  almost 
universally  used  to  support  brick  arches,  upon  which  the  floors  are  laid. 
Brick  partitions  are  usually  built  upon  these  girders  and  arches.  The 
stagings  erected  around  the  buildings  are  much  m  *re  extensive  than 
those  used  in  this  country.  They  usually  build  them  six  feet  or  more 
in  width  for  each  story,  and  have  incliues  from  one  story  to  another, 
allowing  them  to  remain  until  the  completion  of  the  building.  The 
stagings  contain  almost  as  much  lumber  as  many  American  buildings. 

The  foundations  receive  careful  attention,  and  for  a  heavy  masonry 
building  are  always  placed  upon  piles  and  grout.  All  buildings  are 
intended  to  be  fire-proof  from  the  ground  to,  and  including,  the  roof. 
The  walls  are  either  brick,  stone,  or  iron.  The  stair-ways  are  of  sto.ie, 
artificial  stone,  or  iron,  or  brick,  with  cement  covering  and  faciugs. 
Roofs,  whether  of  slate  or  tile,  are  laid  in  cement.  The  flues,  for  venti¬ 
lation,  smoke,  and  ashes,  are  often  made  of  hollow  tile;  in  fact,  many 
walls  and  ceilings  are  made  of  hollow  brick,  the  ceilings  being  laid  in 
stucco  or  plaster. 

33.  In  oue  instauce,  in  Vienna,  we  saw  a  building  being  erected  where 
the  joists  were  logs  split  in  the  middle,  having  a  diameter  of  from  10  to 
10  inches.  This  face  was  laid  downward  on  the  walls  and  brick  par¬ 
titions ;  cement  was  laid  on  top  until  there  was  a  surface  sufficiently 
level  to  permit  the  tile-floor  to  be  laid  above.  The  under  side  was 
covered  with  a  net-work  of  rushes,  aud  secured  by  wire  well  nailed  to 
the  face  of  the  logs  above.  Upon  this  lathing  of  rushes  the  plastering 
was  finished.  The  mortar  is  mixed  in  wooden  boxes,  and  that,  as  well 
as  the  brick  and  tile  used  on  the  building,  is  usually  carried  to  the  place 


Fig.  11. — Imperial  Austrian  arsenal. 


Fig.  12. — Heinrichshof. 


BUILDING-MATERIALS. 


17 


where  used  by  women.  Thebuildngs,  which  are  built  of  brick  and  faced 
with  stucco  outside,  are  sometimes  painted  when  completed,  and  are 
usually  renewed  and  painted  once  in  from  three  to  five  years,  so  that  a 
freshly-finished  appearance  is  given  to  buildings  erected  many  years 
siuce. 

34.  Building-materials. — Buildiug  materials  of  all  kinds  were  ex¬ 
hibited  by  every  European  country.  Even  Japan  sent  some  excellent 
samples  of  wood,  stone,  iron,  and  pottery.  The  stone  used  in  the  ex¬ 
position  buildings  and  grounds  by  the  Austrian  government  is  a  mag¬ 
nesian  limestone,  of  a  durable  nature,  obtained  from  inexhaustible  quar¬ 
ries  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  above  the  city  of  Vienna. 

The  exhibition  of  artificial  stone  and  of  terra  cotta  was  probably  super¬ 
ior  both  in  quality  and  quantity  to  any  similar  collection  ever  before 
brought  together.  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  aud  Austria 
vied  each  with  the  other  in  the  endeavor  to  produce  the  most  substan¬ 
tial,  elegant,  aud  artistic  specimens  of  this  art.  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  excelled  in  the  production  of  stone  possessing  the  first-named 
quality.  The  Ohailly  artificial-stone  house  from  Germany,  16.  by  20 
feet  inside,  had  a  roof  of  only  6  inches  thickness  in  the  center  and  12 
inches  thick  at  the  sides,  with  the  arch  of  6  inches  rise,  aud  no  support 
in  the  center.  We  saw  twenty  men  standing  on  the  flat  top,  making 
no  perceptible  impression  upon  it.  This  building,  of  which  the  walls, 
floor,  and  roof  were  entirely  of  artificial  stone,  had  another  noticeable 
feature  in  the  steps  outside.  Twelve  steps  were  made  in  one  piece,  and 
the  entire  twenty  steps  were  made  in  only  two  pieces.  A  report  upon 
the  artificial  stone  and  terra  cotta  exhibited,  alone  would  profitably  oc¬ 
cupy  the  entire  space  allotted  to  this  report;  but  as  the  duty  of  describ¬ 
ing  these  articles  was  assigned  to  another  commissioner,  a  more  extended 
notice  need  not  be  given  here. 

35.  Plastering. — Plastering  is  used  very  extensively  on  walls  aud 
ceiliugs.  Walls  are  very  seldom  painted  inside.  As  the  walls  are  usu¬ 
ally  of  brick  inside,  much  of  the  plastering  is  given  a  stucco  or  plaster-of- 
Paris  finish  in  a  larger  number  of  coats  than  is  usual  in  this  country. 
Many  buildings  have  one  or  more  coats  of  brown  mortar  before  the 
hard  finish  is  put  on.  Many  columns  and  pilasters  are  finished  with 
plaster  of  Paris,  then  painted  in  imitation  of  stone  or  of  marble ;  and  it 
is  so  well  done  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  it  is 
an  imitation  or  the  real  article.  In  some  cases,  when  the  flat  side  of 
timbers,  as  previously  described,  were  used  to  support  floors,  rushes 
were  secured  to  their  under  side  by  having  wires  nailed  to  the  timbers 
overhead,  then  the  ceilings  were  plastered. 

36.  Lumber. — A  large  proportion  of  the  lumber  used  in  Vienna  is 
brought  from  the  country  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Salzburg  Alps  and  down 
the  Danube.  It  consists  of  fir  and  of  a  species  of  pine,  similar  to  our 
Norway  pine,  having  a  harder  grain  than  our  Michigan  white  pine, 

The  Schwarzenberg  estate  and  that  of  Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha,  and  some 
2  B 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Hungarian  exhibitors  showed  some  choice  specimens  of  hardwood,  the 
latter  especially;  and  the  French  department  also  exhibited  some  beau¬ 
tiful  specimens  of  walnut  and  ash  veneering. 

37.  Cements. — A  very  tine  representation  of  water-lime  and  hydraulic 
cements  was  shown  from  Austria,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  and 
Spain,  and  several  specimens  came  from  the  United  States.  The  Roman 
aud  Portland  cements  were  best  represented  in  the  British  section. 

38.  The  Austrian  cement  most  used,  and  the  standard  in  Vienna,  was 
manufactured  about  fifteen  miles  above  Vieuua,  on  the  Danube.  It 


has  the  following  composition  : 

Water .  0.50 

Lime .  58.50 

Magnesia.... .  3.55 

Silicate  of  magnesia . . .  0. 30 

Iron .  G.  60 

Clay . 4.  75 

Carbonic  acid .  0.50 

Sulphuric  acid . 1 .  2.  10 

Potash' . 0.  95 

Flint-dust  .  18.  GO 

Clay  and  sand .  3.  G5 


100.  00 

This  hardens  under  water  in  about  thirty  minutes,  and  in  less  time 
above  water.  Buildings  faced  with  it  two  hundred  years  ago  are  now 
standing  in  the  city  of  Vienna.  The  majority  of  buildings  built  in  that 
city  are  constructed  with  large,  coarse  brick,  and  with  thick  joints 
outside,  so  as  to  give  a  good  boud  to  bind  the  cement  or  stucco  fac¬ 
ings.  They  are  almost  universally  faced  with  cement  in  imitation  of 
stone.  The  window  sills,  caps,  corbels,  and  cornices  are  in  many  in¬ 
stances  built  of  burnt  clay  and  cemented  over,  the  corners  aud  moldings 
formed  in  molds  like  the  inside  stucco  or  hard-finish  work  in  this  coun¬ 
try.  The  aim  seemed  to  be  to  have  all  outside  cement-work  done  as 
early  in  the  season  as  possible,  that  it  may  become  hard  before  the  frosts 
occur.  , 

39.  Preservation  of  timber. — In  the  exhibit  of  timber  and  railway- 
ties,  by  several  processes  of  preservation,  it  was  demonstrated  that  the 
life  of  timber  was  exteuded  four  or  five  times.  Over  fifty  patents  have 
been  obtained  in  England  alone  for  processes  intended  to  prevent  the 
decay  of  wood.  France  and  Germany  have  also  granted  patents  for 
the  same  purpose.  Some  have  aimed  to  prevent  wet-rot  and  some  dry- 
rot  ;  and,  from  the  year  1737,  when  the  first  attempt  was  made,  up  to  the 
present  time,  boiled  oil,  corrosive  sublimate  or  chloride  of  mercury, 
(kyauizing,)  sulphate  of  copper,  sulphate  of  iron,  chloride  of  zinc,  and 
the  sulphate  of  iron  with  a  succeeding  application  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
which  is  said  to  form  oxide  of  iron  in  the  pores  of  the  wood,  have  all 


Fig.  13.— Imperial  hotel. 


PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER - BRICK. 


1  9 


been  tried.  These  methods  were  fully  examined,  and  after  inspecting 
specimens  illustrating  the  use  of  several  processes,  and  particularly  a 
railroad-tie  rom  Germany  which  had  been  in  use  for  over  fifteen  years, 
which  seemed  just  as  good  as  the  day  it  was  cut,  and  which  was  war¬ 
ranted  to  last  ten  years  more,  it  was  concluded  that  the  process  of 
creosoting,  by  which  this  tie  was  preserved,  was  the  best  of  all  those 
observed.  The  process  consists  in  placing  the  timber  in  an  iron  boiler, 
similar  to  a  steam-boiler,  from  25  to  75  feet  long  and  6  feet  in  diameter, 
and  closing  the  boiler,  extracting  the  air  by  an  air  pump.  When  the 
vacuum-gauge  indicates  a  vacuum  of  20  inches  of  mercury,  the  creosote, 
which  is  stored  in  tanks  adjacent  to  the  boiler,  is  admitted  at  a  temper¬ 
ature  of  120°  F.,  and  tills  the  cylinder  to  within  about  2  inches  of  the 
top.  .  A  pressure  of  from  100  to  150  pounds  per  square  inch  is  then 
applied,  the  pressure  being  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  timber  and 
the  quantity  of  the  creosote  required  to  be  introduced.  One  cubic  foot 
of  timber  will  absorb  a  gallon  of  creosote,  weighing  ten  pounds.  From 
four  to  eight  hours  is  considered  a  sufficient  time  for  creosoting  ordi¬ 
nary  timber. 

We  found  railways  in  Austria,  Germany,  Italy,  France,  Belgium,  and 
Great  Britain  using  creosoted  ties  altogether;  and  after  collating  all 
the  information  obtained  from  engineers  and  master-mechanics,  we 
found  the  cost  to  be  from  12  to  20  cents  (gold)  for  creosoting  each  tie. 
The  average  length  of  use  was  twenty-one  to  twenty-five  years.  In 
some  instances,  creosoting  was  advised  for  ties  and  piling,  and  burnet- 
izing  for  bridge  and  building  timber. 

40.  Brick-making. — The  process  of  brick -manufacture  and  all  kinds 
of  clay-burning  for  building  purposes,  as  exhibited  by  Austria  aud  Ger¬ 
many,  is  a  great  improvement  over  the  methods  usually  adopted  in  the 
United  States.  The  brick  are  made  either  by  hand  or  by  machinery, 
then  dried  or  baked  until  they  can  be  handled  easily,  and  until  there 
is  room  in  some  of  the  compartments  of  the  kiln  for  a  charge. 

41.  The  principal  yards  have  permanent  kilns  built  of  brick,  either 
circular  or  in  the  form  of  an  ellipse,  and  made  in  compartments,  each 
of  which  has  a  separate  entrance  and  independent  connection  with  the 
chimney.  A  down  draught  is  secured  from  the  top,  where  the  fuel  is 
placed,  to  the  chimney,,  which  is  either  built  within  the  kilns  or  entirely 
outside,  but  which  has  its  draught  invariably  connected  with  the  bot¬ 
tom  of  the  kilns.  The  fuel  used  is  generally  fine  coal,  which  falls 
around  all  the  bricks,  and  the  flame  and  heated  gases  surround  and 
pass  through  all  portions  of  the  materials  being  burned.  While  some 
of  the  compartments  are  being  burned,  others  are  being  filled  and  still 
others  being  discharged.  The  proprietors  of  a  large  brick  and  tile 
works  at  Vienna  informed  us  that  their  kilns  had  not  been  without  fire 
in  some  portion  for  fourteen  years.  At  one  side  of  these  kilns  an 
approach,  or  incline,  was  constructed,  so  that  wagons  could  deliver  coal 
on  the  top  of  the  kilns,  precisely  where  it  would  be  required  in  feeding. 


20 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1ST:?. 


Fig.  19. — Northwestern  railway  station,  Vienna,  Austria, 


BRICK-MAKING. 


21 


42.  Engravings  showing  the  plan  and  sections  of  these  kilns  are  here 
given.  (Figs.  14-18.) 

It  is  claimed  that  great  economy  is  attained  in  the  use  of  fuel,  and 
that  time  is  saved  in  burning  clay  for  building  purposes  : 

1st.  By  the  diminished  amount  of  fuel  required. 

2d.  By  the  correct  regulation  of  the  draught,  by  draught-rods  aud 
dampers  connected  with  the  chimney. 

3d.  That  all  heat  not  required  for  the  burning  of  any  number  of  kilns, 
or  compartments,  can,  by  the  system  of  the  circular  ovens  and  draughts, 
be  used  in  other  compartments. 

The  ring  oven  is  a  continuous  annular  canal,  with  brick  arched  roofs, 
having  an  outer  wall  aud  a  covered  space  to  protect  the  ovens  from 
the  weather  without.  The  doors  of  the  compartments  are  made  air¬ 
tight  when  the  compartment  is  tilled  and  its  contents  beiug  burned* 
The  compartments  have  connecting  doors  made  in  a  similar  mauuer, 
so  that  two  or  more  compartments  can  be  worked  together  if  desired. 
The  theory  is  also  advanced  that  the  coal  is  converted  largely  into  gas¬ 
eous  combustible  compounds  to  a  certain  degree,  and  thus  a  flame  is 
obtained  which  more  thoroughly  permeates  the  mass  of  brick  to  be 
burned. 

43.  The  size  of  the  bricks  exhibited  aud  burned  at  Vienna  was  from 
four  to  seven  times  the  size  of  those  usually  manufactured  in  the  United 
States.  They  were  thoroughly  burned,  and  cost  about  one-half  as  much 
as  an  equal  number  of  cubic  feet  made  in  the  United  States. 

The  same  construction  of  kilns  answers  for  the  burning  of  lime  and 
cement,  with  the  single  exception  that  for  lime  and  cement  the  kilns  are 
lined  inside  with  tire-brick  on  account  of  the  greater  heat  required, 
although  some  of  the  manufacturers  in  Austria  recommend  a  fire-brick 
lining  in  all  these  kilns.  About  two  thousand  of  their  large  bricks  are 
placed  in  320  cubic  feet,  which  has  been  found  practically  to  be  the 
most  economical  proportion. 


CHAPTER  V. 


RAILROADS  AND  THEIR  CONSTRUCTIONS. 

Exhibits  by  railroads;  Subsidies;  Character  of  construction;  Details;  Saxby 
&  Farmer’s  switch ;  Austrian  railroad-signals;  Conclusion. 

44.  The  principal  railway  companies  of  Austria  and  Germany  were 
represented  at  theexhibition.  The  Northern,  Western,  State,  and  South¬ 
ern  railways  of  Austria  made  the  best  display,  having  each  a  pavilion 
devoted  to  the  exhibition  of  their  superstructures  and  railway-plant, 
as  well  as  their  management. 

The  Northwestern  Railway  Company  erected  a  model  station,  having 
full-sized  tracks  and  rolling-stock.  Elevations  of  their  principal  depots 
and  other  buildings  were  exhibited,  showing  excellent  plans  for  con¬ 
struction.  One  especially  noteworthy  detail  was  their  simple  and  ap¬ 
parently  perfect  system  of  tickets. 

45.  The  government  of  Austria,  in  order  to  secure  for  military  pur¬ 
poses  the  completion  of  the  trunk  railway-lines  centering  in  Vienna,  has 
guaranteed  5  per  cent,  upon  their  cost  of  construction.  This  indorsement 
has  not  been  abused,  and  but  a  single  railway  has  ever  received  anything 
from  the  government  on  this  account.  This  assistance  has  had  the  effect 
of  increasing  the  total  length  of  road  during  the  past  ten  years  from 
8,500  miles  to  2S,155  miles  of  first-class  railway  in  operation  at  the  pres¬ 
ent  time.  Double  tracks  are  laid  down,  with  rare  exceptions,  with  ma¬ 
sonry  viaducts  and  masonry  or  iron  bridges.  The  grades  are  kept  within 
a  low  maximum  by  constructing  numerous  tunnels  and  viaducts.  The 
roadways  are  kept  in  good  condition  by  trenches  5  feet  wide  and  at 
least  2  feet  deep  ou  both  sides  of  the  road-beds,  with  cross  culverts, 
built  of  stone  where  practicable. 

The  foundations  of  the  road-beds  consist  of  large  paving-stones  or 
rubble-stone  about  a  foot  in  thickness.  Upon  this  foundation,  which 
serves  as  a  medium  of  drainage  also,  broken  stone  is  placed  up  to  and 
levelled  to  receive  the  ties.  The  spaces  between  the  ties  are  then  filled  with 
the  same  material.  After  the  iron  is  laid  down,  the  center  of  the  track  is 
ballasted  with  small  stone,  making  the  center  of  the  track  level  with  the 
top  of  the  rails,  and  a  space  is  left  under  the  center  of  each  rail  for  water 
to  escape  through.  When  broken  stone  cannot  be  obtained,  gravel  is 
used  for  ballasting  in  the  same  manner  above  the  bottom  of  the  tie. 

The  road-bed  is  extended  at  least  2  feet  outside  of  the  ties,  and  great 
care  is  taken  that  the  slopes  are  uniform  and  continuous.  The  ties  are 


Fig.  21.-  Northern  railway  station,  Vienna. 


.Oft 


Fig.  22. — Imperial  apartments  at  the  station. 


RAILROAD-STRUCTURES.  23 

usually  9  feet  feet  long  by  5  or  6  inches  thick  and  at  least  10  inches  wide. 
Baltic  fir  is  generally  used. 

The  cuts  through  which  the  Austrian  railways  pass  are  sloped  evenly 
and  turfed,  and  the  embankments  are  also  turfed  or  paved.  When  turfed, 
the  employes  keep  the  grass  cut  to  prevent  fires.  When  the  cuts  are 
of  quicksand  or  of  a  treacherous  nature  and  danger  of  land-slides  exist, 
cross-hedges  are  planted  so  that  the  roots  shall  take  hold  of  the  soil  and 
keep  the  surface  from  sliding  down  and  filling  the  trenches.  Sometimes 
the  cuts  have  paved  gutters,  at  intervals  of  50  to  100  feet,  to  conduct  the 
water  coming  down  the  face  of  the  cut  to  the  trenches.  At  considerable 
altitudes,  when  obstructions  by  snow  are  anticipated,  rows  of  trees  are 
planted  at  the  top  on  either  side  of  the  cuts. 

46.  In  exhibit  152  of  group  18,  in  the  German  department,  was  shown 
a  continuous  cast-iron  railway-tie,  to  be  laid  lengthwise  the  track,  with 
the  rail  placed  upon  the  tie,  and  four  iron  bolts  extending  through  from 
one  rail  to  the  other.  The  tie  was  12  inches  wide  and  of  iron  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  bolted  to  the  rail  every  2  feet.  Great  dura¬ 
bility  and  economy  was  claimed  for  this  device. 

The  Southern  Railway,  extending  between  Vienna  and  Trieste,  has 
larger  viaducts  and  a  greater  proportion  of  embankments  paved  with 
stone  than  any  other  that  we  found. 

The  railways  of  Austria  have  swing  or  lift  gates  at  all  road-crossings 
where  viaducts  are  not  practicable. 

The  North  Railway  Station  at  Vienna,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  21,  is 
one  of  the  large  stations  at  that  city.  It  is,  perhaps,  as  complete  as  any, 
and  is  located  at  the  Prater-Stern,  at  the  main  entrance  of  the  Prater. 
It  has  six  tracks,  under  an  iron  and  glass  roof,  between  the  main  build¬ 
ings.  The  buildings  on  either  side  of  the  main  tracks  are  built  in  the 
Norman  style  of  .architecture,  varying  from  three  to  five  stories  in 
height,  are  of  brick,  and  look  like  a  castle,  as  seen  from  the  outside. 

The  department  for  baggage,  the  waiting-rooms,  and  the  restauration 
arrangements  are  well  arranged  within  the  buildings  next  the  street. 
The  corresponding  building,  across  the  tracks,  is  occupied  by  the 
general  offices  of  the  company,  and  behind  it  is  the  freight  department. 
This  railway,  as  well  as  several  other  of  the  main  lines,  have,  as  one  of 
its  principal  features,  an  Emperor’s  suite  of  rooms,  consisting  of  a  re¬ 
ception-room,  (Fig.  22,)  ante-room,  and  cabinet  or  closet  arrangements. 
It  is  decorated  and  furnished  beautifully,  and  has  handsome  carpets. 
When  the  imperial  family  arrive  or  depart,  a  carpet  is  stretched  from 
the  cars  to  this  suite  of  rooms,  and  from  the  rooms  to  the  carriages. 

47.  One  of  the  most  interesting  modifications  of  railway  switches 
was  exhibited  in  the  British  section  by  Messrs.  Saxby  &  Farmer,  who 
showed  a  very  elaborate  model  of  their  safety-switches  and  signals.  An 
operator  is  located  iu  the  upper  story  of  a  building,  which  is  usually 
about  8  feet  wide  and  as  long  as  required  for  the  number  of  switches  to 
be  controlled.  The  building  has  windows  on  all  sides.  Upright  levers, 


24 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


resembling  locomotive  reversiug-levers,  are  liere  placed  along  the  center 
line  of  the  room.  Beneath  the  floor  are  weights  and  counter  weights, 
and  the  heavy  rods  and  wire  cords  that  connect  with  the  various  signals 
and  switches  which  are  operated  from  this  point,  and  which  extend 
frequently  a  half  mile  on  either  side  of  the  signal-station.  The  levers 
are  all  numbered,  and  each  one  bears  the  numbers  of  all  other  levers 
which  must  be  moved  before  it  can  be  itself  moved.  The  lever  moves 
the  signal  for  the  switch  before  the  switch  is  changed.  The  operator 
has  a  chart  of  all  the  switches,  signals,  and  tracks  on  the  wall  before 
him,  and  in  addition  he  has  a  telegraphic  chart  immediately  before  him 
which  shows  the  present  location  of  all  approaching  trains.  A  black 
lever  moves  the  switch-points  by  a  line  of  positive  connection  of  bell 
(franks  and  rods  connecting  with  a  bar  between  the  two  points  ;  a  blue 
lever  governs  the  locking-mechanism  which  holds  the  latter  in  place. 
A  similar  line  of  connections  leads  to  a  long  pivoted  plate,  lying  beside 
one  rail  which,  when  the  lever  is  changed,  rises  up  like  one  side  of  a 
parallel  ruler,  above  and  to  one  side  of  the  rail,  and  then  swings  over 
to  its  new  position.  The  plate  connects  with  a  three-way  crank,  and 
the  latter  with  bolts  which  shoot  into  the  cross-piece  between  the 
points.  The  car-wheels  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  plate  swinging 
over  during  the  passage  of  a  train.  Red  and  green  levers  manage  the 
home  and  green  signals,  and,  by  suitable  wire  cords,  either  turn  the 
lights  by  night  or  lower  the  semaphore  arms  by  day. 

We  had  witnessed  the  operation  of  this  ingenious  mechanism  in  Man. 
Chester  and  in  London,  England,  where  one  man  controlled,  in  the 
former  place,  about  fifty  signals  and  switches,  and  in  the  latter  place 
over  a  hundred.  The  manipulations  were  at  the  rate  of  thirty  signals 
and  switches  (with  all  their  points)  per  minute.  It  was  all  done  with 
such  perfect  precision  that  it  seemed  almost  impossible  that  an  acci¬ 
dent  should  occur.  This  subject  is  well  worth  the  consideration  of  the 
railway  managers  of  America. 

48.  The  Austrian  signal-service  was  adopted  by  a  congress  of  railway 
officials  iu  October,  1872,  and  is  most  complete  in  its  operations 
both  by  day  and  night.  Observatiou-houses,  iu  which  sentinels  are 
stationed,  are  built  on  every  mile,  and  ofteuer  when  many  curves  occur, 
and  no  train  is  allowed  to  pass  one  of  these  stations  unless  the  track  is 
clear  for  one  mile  ahead,  the  information  being  commuuicated  by  tele¬ 
graph.  Very  complete  books  of  explanation  aud  instruction  are  pub¬ 
lished  by  each  company  for  the  guidance  of  all  employes.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  signals  iu  general  use,  one  called  the  visible,  or  optical, 
and  one  called  the  audible,  signals.  During  the  day-time  the  hand  sig¬ 
nal-flag  (Fig.  23)  is  usually  used;  sometimes,  however,  the  hand  signal- 
disk  (Fig.  24)  is  used.  The  lantern  is  used  iu  the  evening.  Figs.  23, 
24,  25,  26,  and  27  are  used  to  stop  trains.  In  addition  to  the  above, 
the  disks  in  the  day-time  and  red  lanterns  iu  the  night  are  sometimes 
placed  iu  the  center  of  the  track,  the  disk  standing  at  right  angles  with 


RAILROAD-SIGNALS. 


25 


the  track.  To  slacken  speed,  the  signal-man  holds  out  a  red  flag  hori¬ 
zontally,  facing  the  train,  as  in  Fig.  28;  or  he  holds  out  the  hand  signal- 
disk,  turning  its  surface  toward  the  train  but  outside  of  the  track,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  29;  or  he  plants  the  disk  in  the  ground,  at  the  same 
place  and  in  the  same  position  as  held  above.  He  uses  the  green  lantern 
in  the  night  in  the  same  manner  as  in  Fig.  31.  In  the  absence  of  any  flag 
the  arms  are  extended  facing  the  approaching  train,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
30.  Sound-boxes,  or  torpedoes,  are  placed  on  the  track  in  the  night 
when  no  lantern  is  at  hand.  When  the  road  is  free  and  clear,  the  sig¬ 
nal-man  faces  the  track  with  the  red  flag  wound  on  the  pole  or  staff, 
(Fig.  32,)  or  the  red  signal-disk  is  held  facing  the  track,  (Fig.  33.)  In  the 
night,  the  white  lantern  is  held  against  the  train,  as  in  Fig.  34. 

Fig.  35  represents  the  signal-post  with  its  arm  extended  upward  at 
an  angle  of  45°,  which  signifies  that  the  road  is  clear.  When  the  sig¬ 
nal-post,  (Fig.  36,)  is  used  for  signaling  trains  to  stop,  the  arm  is  placed 
in  a  horizontal  position  at. right  angles  to  the  track.  For  slackening- 
speed,  the  arm  of  the  signal-post  is  depressed  at  an  angle  of  45°  and  at 
right  angles  with  the  track. 

In  Fig.  36  is  shown  the  changing  illuminated  signal  which  is  attached 
to  switches.  The  same  colors  and  movements  of  the  signals  answer  for 
the  day-time. 

A  similar  system  of  train-signals  for  the  movement  of  all  trains,  and 
the  disks  and  other  signals,  are  placed  before  or  on  the  locomotive  and 
on  the  rear  end  of  the  rear  car  of  each  train.  Another  kind  of  visible 
signals  is  called  the  optical  telegraph,  consisting  of  signal-posts  with 
movable  baskets  with  cross  and  flat  disks  and  arms.  The  baskets  are 
placed  in  position  as  required  by  the  rules  of  the  company.  Figs.  37, 
38,  39,  40,  41,  42,  and  43  are  the  principal  positions  of  the  baskets.  In 
the  night,  lanterns  are  placed  in  the  baskets  and  a  similar  system  is 
used. 

The  audible  signals  are  :  Sound-boxes ;  steam-whistle  of  the  locomo¬ 
tive;  signal- whistle;  signal-trumpet;  station-lock;  electric  clock-work; 
electric  signals. 

The  electric  signals  are  perfectly  arranged,  and  under  the  control  of 
one  person  at  headquarters,  and  are  connected  with  every  signal-station 
on  the  line.  Each  signal-man  has  a  key,  and,  even  when  not  a  telegraph- 
operator,  he  reports  to  headquarters  by  taps  the  position  or  passage 
of  trains  at  his  station,  and  receives  orders  in  the  same  way.  The  pos¬ 
sibility  of  two  trains  trying  to  pass  each  other  on  the  same  track,  as  is 
attempted  sometimes  in  this  couutry,  cannot  occur. 

49.  Conclusion. — In  conclusion,  the  International  Exhibition  at  Vien¬ 
na,  in  1873,  was  a  grand  success.  In  its  great  advancement  of  art  and 
science,  and  in  the  benefits  accruing  from  it  to  each  nation  taking  part, 
it  has  met  all  reasonable  expectations.  To  none  were  the  benefits  so 
great  as  to  the  Austrian  nation.  Many  claimed  it  to  be  a  failure  be¬ 
cause  the  receipts  at  the  gates  were  not  equal,  by  about  $4,000,000,  to 


26 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  IS73. 


the  cost  of  construction  and  management.  This  was  not  the  case. 
Several  times  that  amount  was  left  in  the  empire  by  foreigners  during 
that  year,  and  business  connections  were  consummated  which  insured 
that,  even  as  a  matter  of  dollars,  no  loss  was  sustained.  The  education 
of  the  people  of  the  empire,  who  literally  poured  into  Vienna  by  excur¬ 
sion-trains,  was  worth  all  that  the  exhibition  cost  the  Austrian  govern¬ 
ment.  The  Austrian  officials,  it  is  a  pleasure  as  well  as  a  duty  to  add, 
were  untiring  in  their  courteous  attentions  to  foreign  representatives, 
and  no  request  was  made  to  them  that  was  not  granted. 


RAILROAD-SIGNALS. 


27 


RAILROAD-SIGNALS, 


29 


30 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1-L.i. 


Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  35. 


Fig.  34. 


RAILROAD-SIGNALS. 


31 


INDEX. 


Art.  Page. 

American  school-house .  7  6 

Annexes,  (see  Pavilions) .  23  12 

Apartment-buildings  at  Vienna;  exhibit  of  models . 29  15 

Heinrichshoff .  30  15 

Architecture,  style  of. . 10  8 

Arsenal  at  Vienna . 27  14 

construction  and  arrangement .  28  14 

Art-Building .  18  11 

Bricks . •. .  43  21 

making  of .  40  19 

Brick-kilns,  apartment  .  41  19 

continual,  advantages  of .  42  21 

Building,  Art .  18  11 

Buildings,  (see  Construction.) 

exhibition,  location  and  extent . 1  5 

location  of  smaller .  5  6 

machinery-hall .  19  11 

materials  for,  (see  Materials) . 

Neue  Freie  Presse,  (see  Pavilions  and  Vienna) . .  25  13 

Cements . . .  37  18 

Austrian;  methods  of  use .  38  18 

Construction  of  buildings,  general  construction .  32  16 

methods  of  superintendence .  31  16 

.  special  services .  33  16 

Exhibition-buildings,  details .  12  8 

Dome  and  rotunda .  13  9 

details . 17  11 

framing  of  roof  of  dome . 15  9 

girder,  circular,  elevating  of .  14  9 

lantern . 16  10 

Exhibits,  arrangement  of .  4  6 

in  United  States  section .  8  7 

Exhibitors,  number  of,  and  their  success .  9  7 

Foundations  of  Exhibition-buildings .  11  8 

Grounds  of  the  Exhibition .  6  6 

location  and  extent .  1  5 

Heinriehschof ;  construction  and  arrangement .  30  15 

Imperial  pavilion .  20  11 

Industrial  palace .  3  5 

Japanese  pavilion .  24  12 

Jury  pavilion .  20  11 

Lumber . i .  36  17 

preservation  of .  39  18 

Materials  for  buildings,  artificial  stone .  34  17 

bricks .  43  21 

making  of . 40  19 

brick-kilns,  apartment . .  41  19 

continual .  42  21 


34 


INDEX. 


Materials  for  buildings,  cements . 

Austrian . , . 

lumber . 

preservation  of . 

Machinery-hall . . . 

Music-hall,  Strauss . 

Neue  Freie  Presse . 

Palace,  industrial . 

Pavilion,  imperial . 

Japanese . 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 

school-house  and  other  annexes . ^ . 

Schwarzenburg . 

Plastering . 

Railroad,  construction,  character  of . 

exhibits . 

signals,  Austrian . 

subsidies . 

switches,  Saxby  and  Farmer’s . 

ties,  continuous,  details . 

Rotunda  and  dome . 

details . 

great  circular  girder . 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  pavilion . 

School-house,  American . 

buildings . 

Schwarzenburg  pavilion . 

Stone,  artificial . . 

Strauss  music-hall  at  Vienna . 

Superintendence  of  buildings,  methods  of . 

United  States  section,  location  of  space  and  exhibits 

Vienna,  buildings  in . . 

apartment-buildings . 

arsenal . 

Heinrichshof . . 

Strauss  music-hall . 

city  of . 

Walls  of  exhibitiou-buildings . 


Art. 

Page 

37 

18 

38 

18 

36 

17 

39 

18 

19 

11 

26 

14 

25 

13 

3 

5 

20 

11 

24 

12 

22 

12 

23 

12 

21 

12 

35 

17 

45 

22 

44 

22 

48 

25 

45 

22 

47 

23 

46 

23 

13 

9 

17 

11 

14 

9 

22 

12 

7 

6 

23 

12 

21 

12 

34 

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26 

14 

31 

16 

8 

7 

26 

14 

29 

15 

27 

14 

30 

15 

26 

14 

2 

5 

11 

8 

c 


A. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  DWELLINGS  IN  VIENNA. 


-T.  R.  NIERNSEE. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


REPORT 


ON  THE 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  EMBELLISHMENT 


PRIVATE  DWELLINGS  IN  VIENNA. 


JOHN  r;.  NIEENSEE,  F.  _A_.  X. 

MEMBER  OF  THE  ARTISAN  COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1875. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  SYSTEM  OF  DWELLINGS  ADOPTED  IN 

VIENNA. 

Art.  Page. 

1.  Size  and  situation  of  the  city  of  Vienna .  5 

2.  Origin  of  “apartment-houses” .  5 

3.  Great  size  of  the  ancient  apartment-houses .  5 

4.  Extension  of  the  city  in  1858,  and  previous  slow  growth .  5 

5.  Origin  of  the  Zins-House  or  house  for  rent .  6 

6.  Description  of  its  arrangement . r .  6 

7.  Details  of  kitchen .  7 

8.  New  impulse  to  building  in  1858 .  7 

9.  Present  system  developed .  7 

10.  Influence  of  the  configuration  of  the  city  on  plans  for  building .  8 

11.  Usual  disposition  and  uses  of  the  stories .  8 

12.  Distinction  between  “  apartment”  and  “  tenement  ”  house . 8 

13.  Description  of  a  “Palais,”  or  first-class  dwelling .  9 

14.  Building-groups . 10 

15.  Description  of  an  example .  10 

CHAPTER  II. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  EMBELLISHMENT  OF  DWELLINGS. 

16.  Nature  and  varieties  of  building-materials  abounding  near  Vienna .  11 

17.  Complete  stone  and  marble  buildings  rare  ;  brick  generally  used,  with  stucco 

or  cement  finish . . . .  11 

18.  Peculiar  and  ingenious  mode  of  plastering  ceilings .  12 

19.  Excellent  quality  of  sands  and  cements;  use  of  iron .  12 

20.  Peculiar  mode  of  mixiug  lime  and  mortar . 13 

21.  Consequent  durability  of  the  walls .  13 

22.  Stringent  building-laws  ;  great  thickness  of  walls . 14 

23.  Description  of  floors  and  ceilings . ,  14 

24.  Precautions  against  fires  and  accidents . 15 

25.  Laws  relating  to  flues,  roofs,  and  windows .  15 

26.  Construction  of  doors,  windows,  and  floors .  16 

27.  Description  of  the  porcelain  stove  of  Germany .  16 

28.  Rigid  enforcement  of  building-regulations .  17 

29.  Description  of  the  “  self-centering”  arched  floors,  known  as  the  “  Welsh”  and 

“  Bohemian  ”  arches .  17 

CHAPTER  III. 

ARCHITECTURAL  FEATURES  OF  DWELLINGS  IN  VIENNA. 

30.  Architectural  development  dates  from  thirteenth  century  ;  few  examples  of 

that  date  remaining .  20 


4 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Art.  Page. 

31.  Architecture  flourishes  under  Joseph  I  and  Charles  VI,  and  is  depressed  dur¬ 

ing  the  French  wars .  20 

32.  Great  impulses  to  building-arts  in  1845  and  1857 ;  improvements  projected 

by  imperial  decree  of  1857 .  21 

33.  Influence  of  that  decree  on  architecture .  21 

34.  Great  benefit  of  popular  instruction .  23 

35.  Remarkable  skill  of  Viennese  artisans  in  general .  23 

36.  Great  beauty  of  the  new  theaters  and  railway-stations .  21 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


Plate  I  . Plan  of  principal  floor  of  small^apartment-house.' 

Plate  II,  (A-II) _ Elevation,  section,  and  floor-plans  of  an  apartment-house  in 

Vienna. 

Plate  III,  (A-D) _ Floor-plans  of  an  apartment-house'in  Vienna. 

Plate  IV,  A  and  B.. Floor-plans  of  an  apartment-house  in  Vienna. 

Plate  V,  (A-H)...*. .Elevation,  sections,  and  plans  of  an  apartment-house  in  Vicuna. 

Plate  VI . Plans  of  first-class  apartment-house  in  Vienna. 

Plate  VII . “  Palais  ”  of  L.  Epstein  ;  principal  floor. 

Plate  VIII . Principal  floor  of  apartment-house  called  “  Henry  VCourt,”  Opera 

Ring,  Vienna. 

Plate  IX . Principal  floor  of  apartment-house,  by  the  Union'  Building  Asso¬ 

ciation,  Vienna. 

Plate  X . Facade  of  a  dwelling  in  Vienna. 

Plate  XI . Details  of  the  self-sustaining  “platzel”  or  flat-crown  arches,  as 

constructed  at  Vienna. 


CHAPTER  I . 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH  OF  THE  VIENNA  SYSTEM  OF  DWELLINGS. 

Vienna,  its  size  and  location;  Origin  of  apartment-houses  ;  Size  ;  Extension  of 
the  city  in  1858;  Its  previous  slow  growth;  Origin  of  the  zins  or  rented 
house;  Arrangement;  Development  of  present  system  ;  Apartment-houses, 
their  arrangement;  Examples. 

1.  To  fully  elucidate  the  subject  of  this  report  on  “  private  dwellings,” 
we  give  a  brief  historical  sketch,  showing  the  origin  of  this  class  of 
dwellings,  and  the  causes  which  gave  them  the  peculiar  and  distinctive 
features  of  their  present  form,  as  habitations  for  the  large  majority  of 
the  people  of  this  city — Vienna. 

The  capital  of  the  Austrian  Empire  is  situated  in  the  vast  valley 
called  the  March-field,  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube.  It  was  known 
already  as  a  Roman  city  in  the  second  century,  and  was  adopted  by  the 
Hapsburg  family  as  their  residence  A.  D.  1276.  The  city  has  remained  in 
their  possession  to  the  present  day.  It  now  contains,  in  round  num¬ 
bers,  1,000,000  inhabitants,  and  is  over  twelve  English  miles  in  circum¬ 
ference.  Up  to  the  year  1859,  the  city  proper  was  small,  and  was  sur 
rounded  by  high  and  formidable  walls,  encircled  by  a  deep  moat,  over 
which  twelve  bridges  gave  access  to  the  inner  or  old  town,  around  which 
grew  up  gradually  thirty-four  new  districts  or  suburbs. 

2.  The  inner  city  was  mostly  occupied  by  the  palaces  of  the  nobility, 
and  by  large  ancient  buildings,  subdivided  aud  used  for  lodgings  or  so- 
called  “  apartment-houses.”  They  were  not  generally  (or  were  only  im¬ 
perfectly)  suited  to  that  purpose.  The  same  plan  was  used,  but  in  a 
more  humble  and  cheaper  way,  aud  on  a  smaller  scale,  iu  the  suburbs  of 
later  date. 

3.  Some  conception  of  the  magnitude  of  those  old  structures  used  as 
u  apartment-houses”  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  several  of  them, 
which  are  still  existing,  and  used  for  the  same  purpose,  contain  each 
from  ten  to  twelve  different  large  interior  court-yards,  and  a  much  larger 
number  of  staircases.  Such  are  the  so-called  “Burger  Hospital,”  in  the 
inner  city,  near  the  new  opera-house,  the  Drahtner  Court,  aud  the  Count 
von  Stahremberg  mansion,  in  one  of  the  suburbs,  said  to  contain  each 
from  1,500  to  2,000  inhabitants.  Many  of  these  old  buildings  are  from 
six  to  seven  stories  in  height  above,  and  generally  two  cellars  in  depth 
under  ground. 

4.  Since  the  demolition  of  the  old  fortifications  iu  185S,  the  filling  up 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


of  the  large  trench  and  leveling  of  the  glacis,. large  building-space  has 
been  gained,  which  has  been  extensively  built  upon  already,  and  which 
is  now  adorned  with  numerous  magnificent  edifices  and  splendid  palaces. 
The  central  part  of  the  old  town,  or  city  proper,  which  is  of  almost 
circular  form,  is  surrounded  by  a  wide  street,  called  the  Biugstrasse,  a 
superb  avenue,  with  wide  sidewalks,  rides  and  carriage  drives,  and  trav¬ 
ersed  by  street-railways.  It  is  crossed  at  the  north  end  by  the  Danube 
Canal,  and  on  the  west  by  a  smaller  stream,  called  the  Biver  Wien. 
Thus  the  demolition  of  the  old  wall  and  improvements  connected 
therewith  have  incorporated  the  formerly  outlying  thirty-four  suburbs, 
with  the  old  town,  into  one  city,  the  extreme  outlines  of  which  are  still 
surrounded  by  a  barrier  and  ditch,  called  the  Lines.  The  new  “  Danube 


Eegulations,”  begun  in  1S70,  will  furthermore  add  a  very  extensive  tract 
in  expansion  of  the  city. 

5.  Prior  to  the  enlargement  of  the  city  in  1838,  the  old  dwelling-house 
or  “/.ins-house”  (house  for  rent)  was  only  an  aggregation  of  living- 
rooms,  which  were  to  be  more  or  less  separated  or  united,  according  to 
the  wants  or  wishes  of  the  tenant,  and  which  had  to  be  occupied 
whether  right  or  wrong,  suitable  or  otherwise,  on  account  of  the  scarcity 
of  dwellings  in  the  old  metropolis.  For,  while  the  population  in  the  fifty 
years  between  1800  and  1830  had  more  than  doubled,  the  number  of 
houses  increased  only  by  2,000  in  the  same  period.  Before  the  great 
political  changes  of  1848,  and  the  subsequent  enlargement  of  the  city 
in  1838,  the  want  of  space,  great  cost  of  building-sites,  and  particularly 
the  old  oppressive  building-laws,  requiring  heavy  arched  cellar  and 
ground  floors,  (before  the  rolled-iron  beams  and  light  arches  were  in¬ 
vented,)  and,  consequently,  walls  three  and  four  feet  in  thickness,  and 
compelling  many  other  expensive  constructions,  it  was  almost  impos¬ 
sible,  even  for  business-men  of  good  means,  to  rent,  in  any  eligible  neigh¬ 
borhood  in  the  city,  a  house  embracing  more  than  three  or  four  apart¬ 
ments,  inclusive  of  kitchen. 

0.  For  this  reason,  many  badly-planned  and  ill- ventilated  apartment- 
houses  were  erected,  consisting  of  very  small  suits  of  rooms,  arranged 
to  sublet  rooms  to  secondary  tenants,  to  the  great  inconvenience  of  all. 
Thus  were  developed  those  rows  of  apartment-houses,  (or  dwellings  for 
rent,)  called  “  zius-houses,”  in  the  former  suburbs  of  Vienna,  of  which 
Plate  I  shows  the  type,  four,  five,  and  even  six  stories  iu  height,  con¬ 
taining  several  separate  tenements  on  each  floor,  each  consisting  of  only 
three  or  four  apartments,  viz.  a  kitchen,  cue  or  sometimes  two  rooms,  and 
a  cabinet,  (hammer,)  which  latter  is  always  understood  to  be  a  small  room 
with  only  one  window.  Even  the  latter  room  was  so  arranged,  with  a 
separate  entrance  from  the  kitchen,  so  as  to  be  able  to  sublet  it.  A 
stair  and  corridor,  always  of  fire-proof  construction,  give  access  to  all  the 
rooms.  Better  and  larger  buildings  were  subsequently  arranged,  with 
more  rooms  and  conveniences,  such  as  the  addition  of  a  servant’s  room 
iu  connection  with  the  kitchen,  an  extra  chamber,  and  sometimes  an 


THE  ZINS-HOUSE. 


7 


“  ante-room  ”  and  j>antry,  better  arranged  and  more  completely  detached 
water-closets,  &c.  (See  Plates  II,  (A-H,)  and  III,  (A-D.) 

7.  The  construction  and  contrivance  of  the  generally  contracted 
kitchen,  particularly  where  a  cook  has  also  to  find  her  sleeping-place  in 
it,  are  really  ingenious.  A  large  portion,  generally  the  back  half  of  the 
kitchen,  is  devoted  to  the  cooking,  and  often  the  stand-up  or  covered 
bedstead  is  divided  off  by  a  beam  or  girder  lying  across  from  wall  to 
wall  (for  all  the  partitions  are  of  brick)  about  the  height  of  the  head,  say 
five  and  a  half  to  six  feet  at  most,  above  the  floor,  from  which  beam  the 
brick  arching  is  turned  up  toward  the  ceiling,  and  the  large  open  mouth 
of  the  chimney  in  the  back,  or  so-called  middle,  wall  of  the  house ;  by 
forming  thus,  as  it  were,  a  mantle  or  large  hood  over  the  range,  and  the 
space  within  the  cross  or  hearth  beam  is  in  the  shape  of  the  large  kitchen- 
chimney  of  ancient  castles  and  monasteries,  an  excellent  draught  is 
created  both  for  the  fire  and  for  carrying  off  effectually  all  the  odor  of 
cooking.  Their  compact  brick  and  plastered  kitchen-ranges,  with  brass- 
bound  curbs,  and  with  no  iron  but  the  top  plates,  glazed  earthen  ves¬ 
sels  for  cooking,  small  stew-holes  and  ovens,  all  wonderfully  neat,  com¬ 
pact,  and  effective,  are  well  contrived  and  worthy  of  study  and  imita¬ 
tion.  When  the  cooking  is  done,  the  fire  is  never  kept  up  a  minute 
longer  than  absolutely  necessary.  A  curtain,  sliding  on  rings  on  a 
rod  fastened  to  the  hearth  beam,  is  drawn  close.  No  sign  or  smell 
indicate  the  presence  of  the  cooking-apparatus.  The  floor  is  generally 
laid  with  hard  stone  or  encaustic  tiles. 

8.  After  1858,  the  enlargement  of  the  city  space,  and  the  altered  politi¬ 
cal  and  social  conditions  of  the  citizens,  brought  about  by  the  changes  of 
1848,  gave  building  matters  a  new  impulse  and  direction.  The  desire  of 
the  inhabitants  for  a  better  system  in  the  arrangements  of  their  dwell¬ 
ings,  more  compatible  with  their  new  views  and  wants,  was  ably 
seconded  by  several  of  their  most  eminent  architects  and  master- 
builders,  who  devised  and  perfected  such  plans  as  made,  finally,  the 
living  in  rented  apartments  not  only  bearable,  but  pleasant  and  con¬ 
venient,  nay,  made  it  absolutely  comfortable  aud  even  luxurious,  more 
economical,  and  devoid  of  much  care  and  responsibility,  as  compared 
with  living  in  entire  and  separate  houses  after  our  American  fashion. 

9.  From  this  time  dates  the  present  complete  system  of  apartment- 
houses  of  the  various  classes,  and  of  more  or  less  pretension,  which 
constitute  virtually  the  “  private  dwellings’7  of  at  least  nine-tenths  of 
the  citizens  of  Vienna.  Only  the  highest  and  wealthiest  of  the  nobility, 
perhaps  a  score  of  millionaires,  and  the  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
some  wealthy  bankers,  and  a  few  merchants  occupy  entire  houses  (here 
called  palaces)  by  themselves.  The  eminent  architects,  Vanderniill 
and  Siccardsburg,  are  said  to  have  been  the  promoters,  if  not  virtually 
the  founders,  of  the  present  perfected  system  of  apartment-houses.  The 
requirements  of  an  average-sized  tenement  under  this  system  are  an 
isolation  from  the  common  stair  and  corridor  of  the  house  by  means  of 


8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


an  inclosed  vestibule,  or  ante-room,  giving  access  to  the  kitchen,  and  to 
at  least  one  living-room.  This  should  also  afford  access  to  the  water- 
closet  and  pantry,  all  well-lighted  and  ventilated.  In  connection  with 
the  kitchen  should  be  a  servants’  room,  which  ought  to  communicate 
with  a  chamber  and  nursery. 

Plate  IV  represents  the  details  of  the  ground  and  first  floor  of  such 
an  apartment-house,  which,  at  the  same  time,  forms  a  group  building  be¬ 
longing  to  four  different  owners,  fronting  on  three  streets,  and  facing 
on  the  main  street  132  feet,  with  a  depth  of  174  feet  on  the  side  streets, 
with  four  separate  entrances  or  carriage-ways,  each  84  feet  in  width, 
and  leading  to  a  very  ornate  grand  common  court-yard  of  04  feet  in 
length,  and  38  feet  in  width.  There  are,  besides,  several  smaller  courts 
one  for  the  use  of  each  building,  with  a  large  fire-proof  stair-case  of  G 
feet  width  of  steps  for  each.  The  general  arrangement  and  uses  of  each 
set  of  apartments  will  be  seen  in  Plate  V,  (A-H.) 

The  ground-floor  is  occupied  by  otlices  and  reception-rooms,  the  first 
floor  by  the  living-rooms  of  the  owners,  and  the  third  floor  only  by  one 
separate  tenant. 

10.  Before  proceeding  further  with  the  description  of  the  development 
of  the  dwelling,  from  its  simplest  to  its  most  expanded  and  ornate  form, 
we  must  take  note  of  a  peculiar  local  feature  in  the  configuration  of  the 
main  business  streets  of  the  city,  in  regard  to  their  influence  on  the  ar¬ 
rangements  and  construction  of  these  buildings.  Where  broad  main, 
streets  lead  from  the  circumference  of  the  outer  districts  to  the  inner, 
or  old  city,  the  ground-floor  of  a  dwelling  on  such  a  street  is  generally 
devoted  to  business  purposes,  while  in  the  less  frequented  side  streets 
that  floor  is  used  for  inferior  lodgings,  work-rooms,  or  shops. 

11.  The  first  floor  above  the  ground  ( ebencr  erde — even  with  the 
ground)  is  called  the  ground-floor,  or  parterre,  and  what  with  us  in  Amer. 
ica  is  called  the  second  floor  is  with  them  the  first  floor,  also  called 
“ belle  etage,”  or  “best  floor.”  In  many  of  the  buildings  of  greater  pre¬ 
tensions,  a  lower  or  intermediate  story  interposes  between  the  ground 
and  principal  floors,  and  is  hero  called  a  “  mezzanine ,”  an  Italian  term, 
corresponding  in  meaning  to  the  French  “entresol?  This  is  generally 
used  for  domestics’  lodgings  and  other  purposes.  The  section  immedi¬ 
ately  below  the  ground-floor  is  called  “ souterrain ,”  or  sub-cellar,  and  in  it 
are  generally  the  stables  of  the  larger  and  more  pretentious  town-houses 
when  devised  as  apartment-houses.  It  is  accessible  by  convenient  in¬ 
clined  planes,  called  “ ratnpe ,”  for  the  descent  of  the  horses.  Below  this 
sub-cellar  is  frequently  the  cellar  proper,  for  fuel,  wines,  &c.  The  place 
directly  under  the  roof,  with  us  called  garret ,  is  never  allowed  to  be 
inhabited,  iu  accordance  with  the  existing  building-laws. 

12.  The  reader  of  this  description  of  the  “apartment-house,”  as  the 
principal  dwelling-place  of  the  population  of  Vienna,  must  not  confound 
it  with  what  is  familiarly  known  to  us  under  the  name  of  tenement -houses. 
The  so-called  apartment-house  in  Vienna  is  the  house  of  the  majority  of 


APARTMENT  AND  TENEMENT  HOUSES. 


9 


every  class  auci  condition,  from  the  poor  student  or  clerk  to  the  trades¬ 
man  and  merchant,  or  to  the  highest  nobility  of  talent,  industry,  wealth, 
or  title.  As  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the  system  expressed  himself, 
perhaps  sarcastically,  “No  city  in  the  world  is  better  calculated  for  life 
in  lodgings  than  Vienna,  as  all  the  necessaries  are  abundantly  provided 
out  of  doors.” 

13.  A  fine  example  of  a  first-class  apartment-house  is  represented  by 
Plate  VI,  in  which  A  represents  the  first  floor  and  B  the  plan  for  the  sec¬ 
ond  and  third  floors.  This  building  has  street-lights  only  from  two  sides ; 
the  remainder  is  lighted  from  the  courts.  It  shows  an  example  of  a 
dwelling  in  which  the  ground-floor  is  occupied  by  offices,  stables,  car¬ 
riage-houses.  The  first  or  principal  floor  is  wholly  occupied  by  the  owner 
of  the  building.  It  has  a  semicircular  private  stairway  and  a  large  main 
stairway  which  leads  to  the  upper  stories.  The  accommodations  in  the 
owner’s  dwelling,  on  the  first  floor,  are  very  extensive,  consisting  of 
culinary  and  domestics’  apartments,  pantries,  and  store-houses,  four 
water-closets,  bath  and  dressing  rooms,  ante-room,  teachers’  and  govern¬ 
ess’s  rooms,  nursery,  library,  boudoir,  reception  and  card  rooms,  parlors, 
dining-room,  and  billiard-room.  The  second  and  third  floors  are  each 
arranged  in  three  convenient  sets  of  apartments,  containing,  respectively, 
four,  twelve,  and  eight  rooms  per  set.  This  building  is  sometimes  called 
a  “palais,”  the  word,  nevertheless,  not  meaning  strictly  palace  ;  it  is  a 
sort  of  diminutive  of  the  latter  term,  which  they  only  apply  to  such 
buildings  (whatever  may  be  their  size)  as  are  not  strictly  “apartment- 
houses,”  but  are  occupied  only  by  the  owner,  his  servants,  and  imme¬ 
diate  dependents  and  employes. 

Another  example  of  these  first-class  apartment-houses  is  the  so-called 
“palais”  of  the  banker  Epstein,  Plate  VII,  showing  the  first  floor. 
This  splendid  dwelling,  builton  theCourt  Bing  in  1871, contains  in  souter- 
rain  (sub-cellar)  the  stables  of  the  owner,  accommodating  eight  horses, 
and  also  for  the  tenant  on  the  second  floor,  with  room  for  six  horses, 
with  the  necessary  feed  and  harness  rooms,  an  ice-cellar  and  ample 
cellarage  for  fuel  for  all,  and  heating-apparatus  for  the  larger  rooms  of 
the  owner.  On  the  parterre,  or  ground-floor,  are  located  the  offices  and 
counting-rooms  of  the  owner,  carriage-house  and  concierges  lodging,  and 
a  spacious  decorated  entrance-drive  to  the  court-yard.  On  the  first,  or 
principal,  floor  are  arranged  the  artistically-decorated  living-rooms  of 
the  proprietor,  with  renaissance  ceilings  in  stucco,  fresco-painting,  and 
gilding  by  skilled  artists,  walls  with  scagliola  marbles,  costly  and  taste¬ 
ful  walnut  wainscotings  and  tapestries.  The  walls  of  the  card-room  are 
decorated  with  fine  landscapes.  In  the  lettering  of  the  plan,  A  desig¬ 
nates  the  court-yard  ;  B,  small  open  courts  for  light  and  ventilation  of 
private  stairs,  corridors,  and  water-closets ;  C,  the  rectangular  grand 
stairway,  which  leads  also  to  the  second  floor,  and  is  highly  decorated 
with  variegated  marble,  scagliolas,  and  statuary  ;  D,  a  second  semicir- 
cidar  fire-proof  stair,  which  leads  to  the  second  and  third  floors,  oc- 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

cupietl  by  oue  tenant  on  the  second,  and  arranged  for  three  sets  of 
apartments  on  the  third  floor.  A  small  oval  private  staircase,  E,  leads  to 
the  upper  stories,  and  is  principally  used  by  the  servants.  The  owner’s 
lodging  contains,  Xo.  1,  ante-room;  Xo.  2,  teachers’  room;  Xo.  3,  sous’ 
room  ;  Xo.  4,  library;  Xo.  5,  work-room  or  study  of  the  owner;  Xo.  0, 
card-room;  Xo.  7,  dining-room ;  Xo.S,  music  or  ball  room ;  Xo.  9,  reception- 
room;  Xo.  10,  boudoir;  Xo.  11,  family  chamber;  Xo.  12,  nursery;  Xo.  13, 
daughters’  room  ;  Xo.  14,  governess’s  room  ;  Xo.  15,  baths;  Xo.  10,  ward¬ 
robe;  Xo.  17,  waiting-maid’s  room;  Xo.  18,  kitchen;  Xo.  19,  pantry;  Xo. 
20,  waiting-room  ;  Xos.  21  and  22,  closets ;  Xo.  23,  winter-garden  or  con¬ 
servatory  ;  and  besides,  three  water-closets.  The  servants’  rooms  are 
located  in  the  entresol,  or  mezzanine. 

14.  Building-group. — It  is  often  the  case  that  quite  a  number  of  other¬ 
wise  distinct  dwellings,  owned  by  different  parties,  are  grouped  together 
in  their  external  architectural  features,  under  one  general  design  and 
style,  for  the  sake  of  producing  a  grand  effect  by  a  combination  of 
masses,  which  could  not  be  as  well  accomplished  otherwise.  This  is  an 
effectual,  and  also  an  economical,  means  of  attaining  this  effect,  as  well 
as  of  combining  the  otherwise  small  courts  of  each  into  one  or  more 
larger  court-yards.  It  is  better  for  light  and  ventilation,  for,  as  a  rule, 
only  the  inferior  rooms,  corridors,  kitchens,  &c.,  are  located  on  those 
courts,  unless  the  latter  are  very  large  and  ornamental. 

15.  One  of  the  grandest  examples  of  this  kind  is  presented  by  the 
building,  Plate  VIII,  called  “Henry’s  Court,”  on  the  Opera  Ring.  It 
consists  virtually  of  three  separate  apartment-houses,  combined  under 
one  design  and  facade.  The  buildings  occupy  a  whole  square  of  310 
feet  length,  and  150  feet  in  depth,  bounded  by  four  streets.  The  cen¬ 
tral  building  forms  a  projection  on  the  plan,  and  is  one  story  higher 
than  the  side  or  end  buildings,  and  rises  like  a  tower  above  the  rest.  The 
facade  of  the  parterre  and  mezzanine  are  treated  as  a  grand  rustic  sub¬ 
base  or  dado.  The  windows  of  the  first  and  second  floors  are  coupled  in 
connecting  groups,  and  the  third  story  is  treated  with  pilastered  win¬ 
dows  and  intermediate  connecting  panels,  painted  in  rich  frescos  on  gold 
ground.  Architectural  decorations  and  statues  are  executed  in  terra¬ 
cotta  with  excellent  taste.  The  whole  forms  a  magnificent  apartment¬ 
dwelling. 

Plate  IX  represents  the  plan  of  the  principal  or  first  floor  of  another 
such  group  of  buildings,  on  a  very  irregularly-shaped  piece  of  ground, 
two  sides  and  a  corner  facing  ou  streets.  It  was  built  by  the  Uniou 
Building  Association.  The  effective  facade  is  treated  in  the  French 
renaissance  style.  The  ground-floor  contains  stores  and  restaurants ; 
the  four  upper  stories  are  each  divided  into  four  large  and  convenient 
apartment-lodgings.  This  building  has  just  been  finished. 


CHAPTER  II. 


CONSTRUCTION  AND  EMBELLISHMENT  OF  DWELLINGS. 

Viennese  building-materials  ;  Stone  buildings  rare,  brick  buildings  common  : 
Method  of  plastering  ceilings  ;  Quality  of  limes  and  cements  ;  Building- 
laws  ;  Floors,  ceilings,  and  details  ;  Precautions  against  fire  ;  Self-center¬ 
ing  arches. 

16.  Having  thus  fully  illustrated  the  origin  and  development  of  the 
present  system  of  dwellings  in  Vienna,  both  in  its  simplest  and  most 
expanded  and  ornate  design,  we  will  next  examine  the  methods  of  con¬ 
struction  and  embellishment.  The  materials  used  in  construction  first 
deserve  consideration ;  Vienna  is  extraordinarily  well  favored  in  regard 
to  the  abundance  in  the  vicinity  of  a  variety,  and  of  superior  qualities,  and 
also  by  extensive  land  and  water  communications  with  the  neighboring 
provinces.  Of  ordinary  hard  quarry-stones  for  foundations  there  is  an 
excellent  and  abundant  supply  in  the  vicinity.  Of  superior  sandstones, 
soft  and  of  middling  and  of  hardest  qualities,  generally  of  a  light-yel¬ 
low  or  pale-buff  color,  much  resembling  the  French  Caen  stone,  there 
are  sixteen  different  varieties  used  here.  The  Vienna  and  Emperor's 
sandstone,  the  Magarieth  and  Loretto  are  favorites,  and  are  extensively 
used  for  external  window  and  door  dressings,  ashlar  facings  of  walls, 
and  ornamental  cut-stone  work  in  general.  The  harder  kinds  are  gen¬ 
erally  used  for  steps  and  platforms  of  interior  stairs,  corridors,  and 
bases  of  the  buildings.  For  monumental  works,  columns,  &c.,  granite 
as  well  as  marbles  from  Karst,  Untersberg,  Salzburg,  and  Silesia,  and 
variegated  Hungarian  and  Bohemian  marbles  are  used. 

17.  Solid  sandstone  constructions,  except  for  Gothic  churches,  are, 
however,  rarely  used.  Only  facings  of  stone  for  public  buildings,  and 
the  more  costly  palaces  and  dwellings,  are  employed.  Of  entire  marble 
fagades  there  are  very  few  in  Vienna.  The  favorite  and  almost  univer¬ 
sal  building-material  is  brick  of  superior  quality  and  hardness,  which  is 
produced  in  immense  quantities  in  the  immediate  surroundings  of  the 
city.  Externally  the  walls  are  covered  with  a  superior  quality  of  mor¬ 
tar,  made  of  the  celebrated  Kuffstein  or  other  hydraulic  cement  mixed 
with  sharp  river-sand.  This  mor  tar  acquires  fully  the  hardness  of  the 
sandstones,  and  is  not  only  used  in  plain  surfaces,  but  all  their  cornices, 
window,  door,  and  other  architectural  decorations  and  features,  are 
worked  out  with  surprising  accuracy,  strength,  and  beauty  by  their 
skilled  masons  in  that  material.  To  illustrate  this  use  of  cement  a  view, 
taken  from  a  photograph,  is  annexed  of  the  front  of  a  new  dwelling 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


on  the  King  street,  (Plate  X,)  the  whole  of  which  is  done  in  this  hydraulic 
mortar.  *The  more  florid  ornaments,  capitals  of  columns  and  pilasters, 
&c.,  are  cast  in  cement  and  terra-cotta,  and  the  whole  is  colored  a  pleas¬ 
ant  and  uniform  light-buff  color,  resembling  stone.  The  masons  build 
both  the  stone  and  brick  walls,  turn  all  the  arches,  and  do  all  this  exter¬ 
nal  plastering  or  cement  stucco  and  coloring. 

IS.  The  interior  stucco  work,  or  plastering  of  walls  and  ceiling,  is 
done  by  the  regular  plasterer.  In  this  connection,  one  peculiarity  in  the 
mode  of  plastering  their  ceilings  deserves  special  notice.  Their  ceilings, 
and  also  the  floor-joists  of  their  solid  timber  floors,  where  the  beams  lie 
close  to  each  other,  side  by  side,  do  not  admit  of  lathing  for  plastering 
as  in  our  dwellings. 

They  adopt  the  following  method:  Stout  lathing-nails  with  rather 
large  flat  heads  are  driven  first  partially  (say  half  way)  into  the  ceiling- 
joists  at  distances  of  seven,  eight,  or  nine  inches  apart,  as  first,  second, 
or  third  quality  work  may  be  desired,  forming  regular  squares.  The 
uniform  spacing  of  the  nails  is  quickly  and  accurately  done  by  marks  or 
notches  cut  on  the  handles  of  the  small  hatchets  witli  which  they  drive 
them,  and  they  range  them  by  the  eye.  On  these  nails,  just  above  the 
heads,  stout  copper  wire  (also  of  a  size  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
work)  is  loosely  stretched  by  giving  the  wire  one  turn  around  each,  and 
in  a  direction  crosswise  of  the  ceiling-beams,  thus  forming  a  loose  wire 
netting  hanging  down  from  the  ceiling  from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  to 
one  inch.  Instead  of  laths  they  use  reeds  or  small  canes.  These  reeds 
come  in  bundles  of  about  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  six  to 
seven  feet  in  length  ;  none  of  the  reeds  must  exceed  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  at  the  thickest  end.  The  extremely  thin  ends  are  cut 
off,  so  as  to  have  none  less  than  one-quarter  inch  in  thickness  at  the 
smallest  end.  They  are  introduced  between  the  wires,  at  such  distances 
from  each  other  as  to  afford  a  proper  key  between  them  for  mortar. 
They  are  also  reversed  between  alternate  squares,  so  as  to  have  the  ends 
of  one  pushed  in  and  overlapped  between  the  thicker  ends  of  the  other 
square,  thus  equalizing  the  thickness.  After  this  the  nails  are  driven 
moderately  well  home ,  without  forciug  the  wires  into  the  reeds,  so  as  to 
injuriously  bruise  or  cut  them.  Xext,  rich  tenacious  plastering  mortar 
is  flung  on  them  with  a  scoop-trowel  and  then  finished  in  two  or  three 
coat  work,  as  with  us,  or  as  the  nature  or  finish  of  the  work  required. 
The  interstices  between  the  faces  of  the  reeds  and  their  round  shape  form 
a  frequent  and  excellent  key  or  holdfast  for  the  mortar.  The  reeds  are 
also  seasoned  before  being  used. 

19.  The  sand  used  for  building,  both  pit  and  river  sand,  is  of  supe¬ 
rior  quality,  as  also  are  their  common  aud  hydraulic  limes  and  cements. 
The  bricks  of  all  manufacturers  are  of  the  standard  size  of  11  iuches  in 
length,  5J  iuches  in  width,  and  iuches  in  thickness.  Of  woods, 
both  for  building  anti  ornameural  purposes,  they  have  an  abundant 
supply  from  the  forests  of  the  various  provinces.  They  are  generally 


MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


13 


transported  by  water.  The  hard  woods  of  Hungary,  such  as  oak,  ash, 
and  walnut,  are  particularly  rich  and  valuable.  Iron  has  been  brought 
into  use  in  the  construction  of  buildings  of  late  years,  and  is  employed 
principally  for  girders  and  beams.  Some  roofs  and  stairs  of  public 
buildings,  conservatories,  and  many  bridges,  both  on  the  arch  and  sus¬ 
pension  principles,  are  built  in  iron,  but  buildings  entirely  of  iron  have 
not  been  introduced  here  as  yet,  although  they  have  an  abundance  of 
superior  quality  throughout  the  empire. 

20.  Besides  the  excellent  quality  of  the  limes  and  sand  they  employ 
for  their  mortars,  their  treatment  in  mixing  and  using  them  is  worthy 
of  notice  and  of  imitation.  Their  first  proceeding  toward  the  erection 
of  a  new  building  is  the  digging  of  large  pits,  say  eight  to  ten  feet 
square,  and  of  about  the  same  depth.  If  the  ground  should  be  too  loose 
or  porous,  they  surround  or  case  them  with  light  brick  walls. 

The  lime  is  carefully  slaked  in  a  large  trough  supplied  with  a  small 
gate  and  a  tolerably  fine-meshed  wire  screen  at  one  end,  immediately 
above  the  lime-pit,  and  as  each  trough-full  is  thoroughly  slaked  and 
agitated,  aud  brought  to  a  uniform  degree  of  fluidity,  it  is  drawn  off 
into  the  lime-pit.  The  operation  is  repeated  until,  one  after  the  other, 
these  pits  are  filled.  The  number  of  lime-pits  thus  filled,  and  the  quan¬ 
tity  prepared,  is  generally  such  as  to  furnish  from  four  to  six  months’ 
supply  for  the  building  ;  and  as  one  is  emptied  it  is  freshly  filled  until 
its  turn,  at  the  proper  interval  of  time,  conies  again  for  use.  This  fluid 
slaked  lime,  originally  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream  or  molasses, 
will  cool  off,  settle,  and  consolidate,  in  the  course  of  several  weeks,  to 
about  the  consistency  of  soft  butter  or  paste,  and  the  water  separating 
from  it  during  its  partial  consolidation,  and  standing  to  the  depth  of 
several  inches  on  top,  will  keep  it  good  for  months,  or  even  a  year  or 
more,  in  the  proper  pasty  consistency,  ready  to  be  mixed  with  the  sand 
when  required  to  be  used  for  making  into  mortar.  If  the  lime  remains 
an  unusually  loug  time  in  the  pit,  aud  absorbs  all  its  own  water,  more 
is  poured  on  to  keep  it  in  its  pasty  condition  ;  for  when  it  once  hardens, 
it  is  no  more  fit  for  use  thau  plaster  of  Paris  after  it  has  set.  When  the 
lime  is  wanted  for  mixing  into  mortar,  it  is  lifted  out  of  the  pit  by  a 
long-handled  broad  hoe  and  put  into  the  mortar-mixing  trough  with  the 
proper  measured  proportion  of  sand  and  of  water  to  thoroughly  reduce 
it  to  a  semi-fluid  condition.  It  is  carried  in  round  flat  tubs  or  buckets  to 
the  workmen,  who  are  supplied  with  small  deep  troughs  holding  about 
the  quantity  of  a  good-sized  barrel.  The  mortar  is  used  in  so  fluid  a 
state  (almost  what  we  here  technically  call  u  grout”)  that  it  could  not 
be  taken  up  on  our  ordinary  trowel.  There  the  masons  use  large  concave 
trowels,  shaped  somewhat  like  sugar-scoops.  A  superior  and  skilled 
laborer,  called  a  mortar-mixer,  is  employed  in  the  preparation  of  the 
mortar. 

21.  This  system  of  slaking  and  cleaning  the  lime  by  running  it  through 
a  wire  sieve,  and  mixing  it  thoroughly  with  a  proper  proportion  of  sharp 


14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


clean  sand,  and  then  applying-  it  in  this  semi-fluid  state,  has  much  to  do 
with  the  superior  quality  of  their  mortar,  and  consequently  with  the 
strength  of  their  walls  and  the  durability  of  their  exterior  coating. 
Their  bricks  being  rough,  well  bedded,  and  rubbed  or  hammered  down 
into  this  soft  mortar,  filling  up  all  the  vertical  interior  joints  of  the 
brick-work,  it  gives  all  the  strength  and  solidity  of  “  grouted”  walls, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  mason  is  not  allowed  to  bring  the  mortar 
either  on  the  bed  or  the  vertical  joint,  nearer  than  within  half  an  inch 
of  the  face  of  the  wall.  This  is  required  to  give  a  proper  hold  or  ley  to 
the  mortar  when  both  the  exterior  and  interior  rough-cast  plaster  coat¬ 
ing-  is  put  on  in  the  finishing  of  the  building.  Some  buildings,  as  the 
new  arsenal,  some  railway-stations,  and  a  few  churches,  are  finished 
with  face  brick.  Sometimes  they  are  of  various  colors,  such  as  pale 
red,  gray,  or  buff;  or  they  are  dark,  and  dressed  off  with  terra-cotta  panels 
and  other  embellishments,  as  sandstone  window-trimmings,  bauds,  and 
bases. 

22.  The  construction  of  dwellings  is  in  many  respects  so  guarded,  and 
regulated  by  numerous  regulations  and  strict  building-laws,  that  the 
latter  give  a  certain  uniformity  to  the  former,  and  in  describing  their 
construction  we  almost  quote  the  law.  Thus  they  require  that  the  main 
walls,  front  and  rear,  should  not  be  less  than  18  inches  for  the  last  or 
topmost  story  of  the  building,  and  as  now  no  building  is  permitted  to  be 
more  than  four  stories  in  height  above  the  ground  floor,  or  thirteen  fath¬ 
oms,  78  feet,  from  the  top  of  the  cornice  to  the  sidewalk,  they  permit  the 
walls  for  two  stories  down  to  be  made  the  same  thickness,  while  they 
are  to  increase  in  thickness  by  the  width  of  one  brick,  six  inches,  and 
below  that  as  follows:  From  the  top  down,  IS  inches  for  fourth  and 
third  stories ;  2  feet  for  second  and  first  floors ;  24  feet  for  the  ground 
floor,  and  at  least  3  feet  thickness,  as  prescribed  by  law,  for  the  cellar. 
They  always  have  also  what  is  called  a  middle  wall,  in  which  the  chim¬ 
ney-flues  are  located,  and  as  the  floor-joists  are  to  lie  six  inches  on  the 
wall  on  each  side  of  this  wall,  and  as  the  law  prescribes  that  not  less 
than  one  foot  of  brick-work  shall  intervene  between  the  ends  of  these 
joists,  we  have  two  feet  in  thickness,  except  the  upper  story,  which  may 
be  eighteen  inches.  All  party-walls  must  be  at  least  one  foot  in  thick¬ 
ness  for  each  party.  All  division-walls  between  different  apart  ment 
lodgings  in  the  same  house  must  be  one  brick,  or  twelve  inches ;  interior 
partitions  one-half  brick,  or  six  inches  thick.  While  building,  the  front 
must  be  temporarily  fenced  in  for  six  feet  in  width  outside  the  buildiug- 
line  for  safety  of  passers-by. 

23.  Cellars  under  ground,  containing  stables  and  feed-rooms  or  work¬ 
shops,  must  have  a  brick  arched  ceiling.  Others  may  have  solid  timber 
joists  or  beams,  but  always  4  inches  depth  of  pugging  or  earth-filling 
(geuerally  of  old  plastering;  old  mortar-rubbish,  screened,  is  used  for 
that  purpose)  between  the  ceiling-joists  and  flooring.  Their  wooden 
floors  or  ceilings  between  the  stories  are  generally  of  two  kinds,  either 


LEGAL  REQUIREMENTS  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 


15 


of  floor-joists  standing  on  edge,  like  ours,  but  only  12  inches  apart  be¬ 
tween  centers,  or  for  wide  spans  solid  timber  laid  close  together  and 
connected  by  tree-nails,  all  with  4  inches  depth  of  pugging  between 
them  and  the  flooring.  The  latter  kind  (solid  timber)  are  always  used 
in  the  story  immediately  under  the  roof,  as  that  floor  must  be  made  fire¬ 
proof  by  being  paved  with  brick  laid  in  cement. 

24.  The  stair- walls,  when  of  brick,  must  run  up  to  the  roof-timbers,  and 
the  entrance  from  the  stair  to  the  roof-space  must  be  secured  by  an  iron 
door,  set  closely  into  stone  jambs.  The  roof-space  is  only  divided  into 
what  we  call  “  lumber-rooms  ’7  for  the  various  occupants  of  a  house.  No 
chamber  or  living-room  is  ever  permitted  there  under  any  circumstances. 
Each  chimney-flue  must  have  a  well-secured  double  iron  door,  opening 
under  the  roof  3  feet  above  the  floor,  for  cleaning.  Each  roof  over  45 
feet  in  length  must  have  a  G-incli  fire  partition- wall,  with  an  iron  door 
for  access  from  one  space  to  another;  and  the  fire- walls  must  run  at  least 
G  inches  above  the  roof-timber.  The  latter  are  not  permitted  to  connect 
with  each  other  or  rest  upon  this  fire  division-wall.  Each  house  must 
be  supplied  with  water,  either  by  means  of  a  well  in  the  court-yard  or 
by  public  water-works.  No  sub-cellar  or  sunk  basement  can  be  inhab¬ 
ited  unless  its  ceiling  is  at  least  4^  feet  above  the  sidewalk.  No  ground 
or  parterre  floor  shall  be  less  than  6  inches  above  the  pavement.  All 
stairs  and  connecting  corridors  and  halls  giving  access  to  the  various 
tenements  must  be  fire-proof,  either  of  stone,  brick,  or  iron.  Main  stairs 
areuot  to  be  less  than  34  to  4  feet  in  width,  and  the  steps  must  not  be  less 
than  11  inches  in  width  or  more  than  G  inches  in  height.  Stairs  opening 
on  a  well-hole  must  have  a  guard-railing  of  at  least  3  feet  in  height,  and 
the  top  rail  must  be  guarded  against  accidents  from  children  sliding  do  ten 
on  them  by  ornamental  knobs  or  projections  placed  every  3  feet  apart. 
This  is  a  simple  and  very  effective  safeguard  against  some  of  those 
dreadful  accidents  which  so  frequently  happen.  The  height  of  any 
story  shall  not  be  less  than  9  feet  in  the  clear. 

25.  The  division-wall  between  chimney-flues  and  any  wood-work  shall 
not  be  less  than  half  a  brick,  or  six  inches  ;  and,  in  addition,  a  brick  tile 
on  edge  shall  be  laid  between  the  chimney-wall  and  the  wood-work,  so 
as  to  cover  the  joints  between  the  brick.  The  flues  must  be  well  plas¬ 
tered,  both  inside  and  outside.  Chimney -flues  are  of  two  kinds:  either 
the  wide  flue  for  the  passage  of  chimney-sweeps,  18  inches  square,  or 
the  narrow  or  Russian  flue,  of  not  less  than  six  inches  square  for  one 
fire,  or  six  by  nine  inches  for  two  fires.  Flues  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  perpendicular,  but  should  in  no  case  be  drawn  more  than  at  an  an¬ 
gle  of  sixty  degrees  with  the  horizon.  No  wooden  cornices  are  allowed. 
They  must  be  either  of  stone  or  brick,  or  of  cast  or  galvanized  iron. 
Roofs  must  be  covered  with  tiles,  slate,  or  metal,  and  snow-boards  must 
be  provided.  Wooden  subpartitions  of  rooms  may  be  used,  if  well 
plastered  on  both  sides,  but  they  are  only  used  in  very  inferior  build¬ 
ings,  and  are  generally  half  a  brick  or  six  inches  in  thickness,  resting 


16 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


on  a  rolled-iron  beam  where  there  is  no  corresponding  support  below. 
There  should  be  one  water-closet  for  each  tenement,  of  not  less  than  two 
feet  nine  inches  in  width,  with  good  light  and  ventilation,  and  having'  a 
large  ventilating-pipe  carried  up  through  the  roof.  Where  public  sew¬ 
ers  pass  through  the  streets,  a  private  sewer  of  brick,  oval  in  shape,  of 
at  least  two  feet  in  width  and  three  and  a  half  feet  in  height,  must  be 
laid  in  cement-mortar  and  connect  with  the  former.  It  should  also  be 
ventilated  by  a  large  pipe  passing  up  above  the  roof. 

2G.  Xo  outside  steps  should  project  beyond  the  building-line  ;  and  no 
projections  of  bases  or  of  the  fronts  for  architectural  features  or  shop, 
windows  of  stores  should  exceed  nine  inches.  Balconies  and  bay  or 
oriel  windows  should  never  project  more  than  four  feet,  nor  exceed  tbe 
length  of  one  pier  and  a  window’s  width,  nor  be  less  than  nine  feet 
above  ground,  and  nine  feet  in  distance  from  a  neighbor’s  house. 
They  should  not  be  placed  in  a  street  of  less  than  forty-eight  feet  in 
width.  A  special  permit  is  required  for  them.  The  kitchen-hearth  should 
be  of  brick  or  stone  for  at  least  2  feet  in  width  outside  the  fire-place. 
Corridors  should  be  not  less  than  4  feet  in  width,  and  made  of  stone  or 
arched  in  brick.  The  windows  are  always  furnished  with  double  sashes, 
and  are  generally  made  in  the  Trench-casement  style,  opening  like 
folding  doors  at  the  center.  The  outer  ones  in  tbe  old  style  open  out¬ 
ward,  but  in  consequence  of  the  occurrence  of  many  accidents,  the  new 
law  obliges  them  to  be  made  to  open  inward,  like  the  inner  pair;  and 
this  occasioning  some  inconvenience  in  the  fastening  back  and  in  their 
use,  the  American  sash  or  hoisting  window  has  lately  come  into  use. 
Still  they  are  used  double,  saving  a  large  amount  of  fuel  in  winter  and 
dust  and  heat  in  summer.*  The  doors  are  generally  double  or  folding 
doors,  opening  at  tbe  center,  oue  half  generally  fastened  and  the  other 
free  for  ordinary  use.  They  are  very  convenient,  and  project  thus  much 
less  into  the  room.  In  large  houses  with  very  thick  walls,  the  half  wing 
of  such  a  door  is  generally  covered  by  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The 
kitchen  floors  are  often  completely  tiled  with  stone,  marble,  or  encaustic 
tiles.  The  floors  of  the  best  rooms  in  most  houses,  both  old  and  new, 
are  laid  with  parquetry  square  tablets  of  hard  variegated  wood,  such 
as  oak,  ash,  walnut,  or  mahogany.  They  are  sometimes  still  further 
enriched  by  inlaying  with  other  costly  woods.  They  are  tougued  and 
grooved  together,  and  laid  on  a  soft  pine  or  blind  floor.  They  are 
waxed  and  polished  frequently  and  quickly  by  regular  polishers,  who 
keep  these  floors  iu  order,  receiving  pay  by  the  year. 

27.  Earthenware  or  porcelain  stoves  are  invariably  used  for  heating 
apartments.  The  fire-door  or  heating-place  for  the  best  rooms  generally 
opens  upon  some  outside  corridor,  passage,  kitchen,  or  inferior  room. 
The  stoves  are  frequently  set  diagonally  across  a  corner  of  the  room, 
and  thus  do  not  take  up  much  space,  large  as  they  are.  They  are  fre- 
quentlv  of  the  size  of  a  book-case,  and  much  higher  than  the  modern 
ones.  They  are  generally  ornate,  and  are  sometimes  of  very  rich  and 

*  Iu  summer,  tlie  outer  windows  are  frequently  unshipped  and  stored. 


LEGAL  REQUIREMENTS  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 


17 


artistically-decorated  patterns.  They  certainly  give  out  a  very  pleasant 
and  uniform  warmth,  and  when  once  the  fire  is  made  it  lasts  through 
the  day  and  late  into  the  night,  having  all  the  uniformity  of  a  bake- 
oven.  Indeed  these  stoves  somewhat  resemble  the  oven,  as  inside  the 
outer  or  ornamental  shell  there  is  a  heavy  lining  of  brick  aud  clay. 
This  is  protected  by  a  grating  against  injury  from  careless  handling  of 
the  fuel.  Through  this  structure  the  flues  wind  around  with  many  turns 
until  the  smoke,  before  reaching  the  chimney,  has  parted  with  all  its 
available  heat.  The  heat  is  retained  for  a  great  length  of  time  by  the 
brick  and  earthenware  of  the  structure.  Thus  there  is  neither  the 
scorching  heat  of  an  iron  stove  nor  the  sudden  fluctuations  aud  extrava¬ 
gant  waste  of  an  open  fire-place;  and,  where  fuel  is  as  costly  as  in 
Vienna,  these  stoves  are  valuable  for  their  economy. 

28.  Before  commencing  a  building,  a  permit  must  be  obtained  by 
placing  a  copy  of  the  plans,  sections,  and  elevations  in  the  hands  of  the 
municipal  building-commissioner,  to  be  approved  and  signed  by  him. 
After  these  plans  are  examined  and  approved  as  in  conformity  with  the 
existing  building-laws,  no  deviations  are  allowed  without  special  notice 
to  the  proper  authorities.  The  building  and  the  materials  used  are  con¬ 
stantly  and  strictly  inspected  by  the  inspector  of  buildings,  aud  an  in¬ 
junction  is  quickly  served  if  bad  material  is  employed,  the  plan  altered, 
or  any  building-law  infringed.  Ho  newl,yfinished  building  can  be  occu¬ 
pied  until  inspected  and  approved  by  the  proper  authorities  as  of  safe 
and  proper  construction,  as  well  as  perfectly  dry  aud  as  complying  with 
all  sanitary  regulations.  In  matters  of  taste  in  the  external  decoration 
or  design  of  a  front  or  fa£ade  of  a  new  building  the  government  retains 
supervising  power.  Elevations  are  to  accompany  the  plans,  and,  al¬ 
though  in  regard  to  architectural  style  there  are  no  positive  regulations, 
yet  the  proper  authorities  suppress  or  modify  a  positively  ugly  exterior, 
at  least  in  so  far  as  it  would  offend  public  taste. 

29.  This  report  on  the  construction  of  the  dwellings  of  Vienna  cannot 
be  more  appropriately  closed  than  by  a  brief  description  of  two  kinds  of 
what  may  be  termed  self-supporting  brick  arches,  which  are  constructed 
in  Vienna  by  the  skilled  masons  without  the  use  of  centering  or  any  tempo¬ 
rary  supports  during  their  construction.  They  are  only  used  in  Austria, 
and  they  show  not  only  the  great  skill  and  dexterity  of  these  ma¬ 
sons,  but  such  a  mechanical  knowledge  applied  to  construction  as  is 
nowhere  else  applied  to  the  same  purpose.  This  construction  of  arch¬ 
ing  self-sustained  during  construction  no  doubt  had  its  origin  years 
ago  under  the  old  building-laws,  which  required  all  of  the  apartments  of  a 
ground-floor  or  parterre  to  be  arched.  As  that  floor  contains  generally 
not  only  lodging-rooms,  but  offices  and  fine  stores,  the  desire  naturally 
arose  to  produce  as  light-looking,  flat,  and  pleasing  an  arch  as  could  be 
safely  constructed  before  iron  beams  and  girders  came  into  use,  avoid¬ 
ing  the  heavy  and  clumsy-looking  barrel  and  gothic  arches  for  low- 
pitched  ceiliugs,  as  well  as  the  great  expense  of  centering  during  their 

2  p  D 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


construction.  There  are  two  kinds  of  these  so-called  “  Platzel-gewolbe ” — 
flat  self-sustaining  crown-arches.  The  self-sustaining  feature  consists  in 
its  power  of  supporting  itself  during  construction  without  centering. 
One  of  these  arches  is  called  the  “  Welsh,”  and  the  other  the  “  Bohe¬ 
mian.”  Why  Welsh  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain,  but  the  “Bo¬ 
hemian”  arch,  we  have  been  informed,  originated  in  the  kingdom,  now 
the  province,  of  Bohemia,  and  was  originally  designed  and  introduced 
by  the  very  skillful  masons  of  that  country,  who  still  preserve  their 
peculiarities  of  practice,  both  in  Prague  and  in  Vienna. 

Front  and  rear  walls  being  constructed,  and  the  building  in  the  rough 
entirely  put  up  and  roofed  in,  cross-girder  arches,  (called  gurten ,)  really 
brick  girders  in  the  place  of  the  present  iron  ones,  are  thrown  across 
the  rooms  to  be  arched.  These  cross-girder  arches  are  generally  two 
bricks  in  width,  and  one  and  a  half  to  two  bricks  in  height  at  the  cen¬ 
ter.  The  footings  or  abutments  are  always  carried  up  with  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  regular  walls  until  they  project  one  and  a  half  bricks 
beyond  the  inside  face  of  the  walls.  These  cross-gider-arches  are  after¬ 
ward  completed  on  a  regular  centering  of  wood  with  a  groove  of  about  li 
inches  in  depth  on  their  sides  for  the  support  between  three  of  these  flat- 
crown-arches.  The  same  depth  of  curved  groove  is  also  cut  in  the  front 
and  rear  walls  (following  the  shape  of  the  curve  of  the  arch)  while  con¬ 
structing.  For  the  “  Welsh  arclifl  the  girder-arches  are  generally  placed 
at  the  center  of  each  pier  between  two  windows,  being  from  10  to  12  feet 
apart.  The  Welsh  arch  is  never  used  over  that  width,  but  may  be  of 
the  full  length  required  by  the  depth  of  the  room,  although  not  usually 
over  IS  to  22  feet  in  length.  It  is  a  favorite  arch  for  halls  and  en¬ 
trance-passages  not  •exceeding  that  width.  For  the  “  Bohemian”  arch 
the  girder-arches  are  generally  placed  at  every  second  pier  of  a 
room,  say  10  or  IS  to  20  feet  apart,  corresponding  to  the  width, 
or  rather  to  the  depth,  of  the  room.  In  all  cases  these  arches  are 
used  in  square  apartments,  or  as  nearly  square  as  they  can  be  ar¬ 
ranged.  Through  the  girder-arches  run  strong  lock  or  anchor  irons,  to 
guard  against  the  pressure  on  the  sustaining- walls.  The  “  Welsh”  arch 
is  segmental  in  all  directions;  the  “  Bohemian  ”  is  a  spandrel  arch,  or 
dome,  growing  out  of  a  square  apartment.  The  courses  are  laid  in  the 
form  of  circular  arcs,  commenced  in  the  corners,  and  curved  and  declin¬ 
ing  toward  them.  In  either  of  the  two  methods,  every  course  of  the 
arch  laid  in  this  way  without  a  centering  is  really  complete  and  self-sus¬ 
taining,  very  nearly  as  much  so  as  if  the  whole  of  the  vault  were  flu¬ 
shed  and  finally  closed.  The  spandrels,  particularly  at  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  Bohemian  arch,  are  filled  up  solid  for  about  one-third  or 
one-fourth  of  the  size  of  the  vault.  Both  kinds  are  closed  with  half 
a  brick  or  six  inches  thickness  at  the  crown  or  center.  The  sole  guide 
for  the  mason  is  the  curve  and  nosiug-liue  on  the  wall  and  girders,  and 
a  center-pole  or  other  mark  for  height  set  up  for  the  closing-point  at 
the  crown.  The  rest  is  all  guided  by  the  practiced  eye  of  the  workman. 


WELSH  AND  BOHEMIAN  ARCHES. 


19 


The  rise  of  the  “Welsh  arch’7  is  generally  one  twenty-fourth  the  span. 
The  “Bohemian  arch”  is  also  very  flat  at  the  crown  as  compared  with 
a  full  center  hemispherical  dome.  The  Welsh  arch  is  generally  com¬ 
menced  by  one  mason  at  each  end;  the  “Bohemian  arch”  by  four 
masons,  one  in  each  corner,  until  the  corners  meet,  aud  they  are  then 
completed  by  two,  of  whom  one  finally  goes  on  top  the  yet  incomplete 
arch  and  hands  in  the  materials,  while  the  other  one,  in  the  central  hole 
below,  attends  to  the  setting  and  the  eye-line  of  the  courses.  These 
men  are  so  skilled  and  practiced  in  their  trade  that  they  hit  by  the  mere 
use  of  the  eye  the  true  lines  of  the  proper  curves,  as  perfectly  as  if  they 
were  guided  by  a  pattern  or  centering,  aud  attain  the  closing-point  at 
the  crown  with  the  utmost  precision.  Very  rich  mortar  is  used  for  these 
arches.  Each  brick  of  a  whole  course  has  to  support  itself,  and  skill  in 
the  mechanical  manipulation  consists  in  keeping  every  course  to  its 
proper  and  unbroken  curve  in  every  direction,  aud  the  courses  at  the 
proper  dip  to  the  plan,  as  well  as  in  applying  aud  bedding  the  brick  in 
its  proper  place  at  once,  by  merely  rubbing  it  as  it  were  into  its  bed  and 
into  position,  never  knocking  it  up  or  down,  or  back  and  forth,  by  the 
use  of  a  hammer,  aud  thus  breaking  and  disturbing  its  bond  or  adhesion 
to  the  mortar.  As  surely  as  this  is  done,  or  the  curve-lines  crippled,  the 
whole  will  come  down  after  six  or  eight  courses  more  have  been  applied 
at  the  very  point  at  which  those  disturbances  occurred.  These  arches 
are  often  finished  with  different-colored  bricks  aud  with  pointed  joints 
without  plastering,  to  show  the  beauty  of  their  mechanical  construction 
This  is  seen  in  many  old  buildings  and  in  the  corridors  and  entrances  to 
the  new  arsenal  and  other  “ rolibau ”  (“unplastered  or  raw  brick.”) 
The  plans  aud  sections,  Plate  XI,  will  show  the  general  principle  of  these 
ingeniously-constructed  arches. 


CHAPTER  III. 


ARCHITECT  UR  A.L  FEATURES  OF  DWELLINGS. 

Architectural  development  dating  from  tiie  thirteenth  century  ;  Few  ex¬ 
amples  remaining  ;  Reigns  of  Joseph  I  and  Charles  VI;  Effect  of  French 
wars  ;  Impulses  given  in  1845  and  1857 ;  Influence  of  the  decree  of  1857; 
Benefit  of  popular  instruction  ;  Skill  of  Viennese  artisans  ;  Beauty  of  new 
PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

30.  We  cannot  but  admire  the  architecture  and  the  embellishment  of 
the  new  dwellings  in  Vienna,  and  give  due  credit  to  the  architects  of  that 
city  for  the  great  advance  which  has  been  made  during  the  past  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years,  particularly  after  the  political  changes  of  1848,  and 
since  the  new  impulse  was  given  to  building  after  the  demolition  of  the 
old  fortifications  and  the  enlargement  of  the  city  by  the  incorporation 
of  the  formerly  outlying  thirty-four  suburbs  with  the  central  or  old  city. 
The  history  of  the  development  of  architecture  in  Vienna  can  only  be 
traced  back  through  its  remaining  monumental  buildings  as  far  as  the 
thirteenth  century.  Of  the  Roman  period  there  remain  only  two  exam¬ 
ples,  and  these  are  of  the  time  in  which  the  Gothic  style  had  already 
obtained  the  preference.  They  are  the  western  fagade  and  turret  of 
the  Cathedral  of  St.  Stephen’s,  and  the  nave  and  transepts  of  the 
Court  Church  of  St.  Michael’s.  More  abundant  are  the  remaining 
evidences  of  the  building  activity  and  architectural  development  of 
the  Gothic  style  in  the  fourteenth  ceutury.  The  fine  chapel  of  the 
Knights  Templars  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  the  St.  Augustine  and  Minorite 
churches,  the  nave  and  choir  of  St.  Maria  ou  the  Stairs,  the  tower 
and  choir  of  St.  Michael’s,  and  the  apsidal  choir  and  the  incompara¬ 
bly  beautiful  tower  of  St.  Stephen’s  are  illustrations  of  styles  which 
left  their  impress  also  on  the  private  dwellings  of  that  and  the  follow¬ 
ing  period  in  the  many  steep  roofs  and  gables,  projecting  oriels  and 
turrets.  Vienna  is  under  small  architectural  obligation  to  the  renais¬ 
sance  period,  as,  after  the  first  siege  of  the  city  by  the  Turks,  the 
whole  energy  of  its  people  was  expended  in  the  improvement  of  its 
fortifications,  and  in  more  peaceful  times  taste  in  art  was  principally 
directed  by  the  leading  fraternities  of  religious  orders,  who,  in  their 
numerous  new  church  buildings,  restorations,  and  remodelings,  often 
produced  depressing  combinations  of  styles,  either  too  plain  and  sober  or 
too  showy  and  pretentious. 

31.  During  the  reigns  of  the  Emperors  Joseph  I  and  Charles  VI.  an¬ 
other  impulse  to  the  building-arts  was  given  by  the  examples  of  their 
luxury  and  splendor-loving  nobles  and  the  princes  of  the  empire,  led 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH, 


21 


by  that  great  patron  and  admirer  of  the  fine  arts,  the  celebrated  Prince 
Eugene  of  Savoy,  who,  by  the  erection  and  embellishment  of  palaces 
and  public  buildings,  ably  seconded  by  the  talent  of  their  celebrated 
architect,  Fisher  of  Erbach,  produced  such  fine  works  as  the  Charles 
and  St.  Peters  churches,  the  imperial  summer  palace  at  Sohbubrun, 
the  imperial  winter  riding-school,  the  court  library,  and  many  public 
offices.  The  palaces  of  Prince  Engien,  Trautson,  Mannsfield,  Auers- 
berg,  Lichtenstein,  Schwarzenberg,  Dauuish,  and  Kinsky,  the  celebrated 
“Belvidere,”  and  numerous  other  equally  splendid  buildings  of  the 
times.  But  the  disastrous  and  long-continued  French  wars,  from  the 
very  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  and 
the  Hungarian,  Italian,  and  other  provincial  troubles  during  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  first  half  of  that  century,  and  up  to  the  final  political 
changes  in  1848,  had  retarded,  nay  paralyzed,  all  the  industrial  and 
fine  arts  in  Austria,  as  well  as  in  the  rest  of  Continental  Europe.  The 
little  of  what  was  done  during  that  period  in  domestic  architecture  was 
made  up  of  bad  imitations  of  debased  Italian  and  servile  copies  of  poor 
examples  of  French  and  Belgian  style,  derisively,  but  uot  not  inaptly, 
designated  by  the  fun-loving  art  critics  of  the  times  as  “the  curly  wig 
and  queue  style,”  on  account  of  the  many  unmeaning  twists  and  turns 
of  design,  meant  for  ornaments,  or  introduced  as  so-called  architectural 
features.  The  development  of  native  talent  and  taste  in  arts  were  also 
much  retarded  during  that  period  by  the  old  system  of  bureaucracy,  in 
which  councillors,  superannuated  and  incompetent  directors,  assumed 
the  control  of  the  public  taste,  affording  no  opportunity  for  the  exercise 
of  individual  talents. 

32.  But  after  the  displacement  of  this  old  depressing  system,  and 
after  the  call  of  the  talented  and  eminent  architects  Vanderuiill  and 
Sicardsburg  to  the  head  of  the  Vienna  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1845, 
and  with  the  enlargement  of  the  city,  and  the  establishment  of  schools 
of  design  and  industrial  and  technical  institutes,  museums,  art  schools, 
and  by  the  energetic  and  praiseworthy  exertion  of  the  Engineers  and 
Architects’  Association,  a  new  and  well-directed  impulse  was  given  to 
the  industrial  arts,  and  that  of  architecture  in  particular.  It  was  greatly 
aided  by  the  imperial  decree  promulgated  in  October,  1857,  directing 
the  erection  of  great  public  works  and  improvements  on  a  grand  scale. 
The  adoption  of  a  wide  Bing  street  around  the  inner  city  and  improve¬ 
ments  after  the  example  of  those  of  Paris  were  contemplated,  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  two  new  museums  for  art  and  natural  history  collections,  an  ex¬ 
change,  new  parliament  houses,  and  a  grand  university  building,  a  new 
“  Bath-house,”  (city  hall  or  hotel  de  ville,)  an  imperial  theater,  exten¬ 
sive  improvements  and  additions  to  the  imperial  palace,  a  palace  of  jus¬ 
tice,  the  new  opera-house,  and  many  others  were  projected,  for  which 
either  select,  local,  or  general  competition  among  architects  was  invited 
and  the  designs  of  native  artists  received  the  principal  premiums. 

33.  These  were  enterprises  of  such  importance  and  magnitude,  that 


22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


their  execution,  under  favorable  circumstances,  within  the  next  ten  or 
twenty  years,  will  mark  this  as  a  grand  epoch  in  architecture.  These 
works,  which  are  put  into  the  hands  of  the  most  worthy  masters  of  their 
arts,  will  add  a  luster  to  the  times,  and  magnificence  and  dignity  to  the 
great  imperial  city  of  Vienna.  Several  of  these  works  have  already  been 
commenced  ;  the  designs  and  models  for  all  of  them  are  prepared  and 
approved.  The  fondness  for  the  Gothic  style  for  ecclesiastical  structures, 
which  has  been  kept  alive  by  grand  old  examples,  and  nourished  by  the 
continual  repairs,  and  the  finally  thorough  restoration  of  that  splendid 
example,  the  southern  tower,  and  western  facade,  and  gable  of  the  church 
of  St.  Stephens,  was  in  later  years  followed  by  the  erection  of  the  rich 
Imperial  Votive  or  Memorial  Church,  the  new  Lazarite,  Elizabeth,  and 
several  other  conspicuous  church-structures  in  that  style.  The  new 
Hotel  de  Ville  is  also  now  building  in  tastefully  enriched  Italian  Gothic. 
In  many  of  the  proposed  new  public  buildings  above  mentioned,  the 
Italian  renaissance  style  is  predominant,  while  the  French  renaissance,  or 
louvre  style,  is  only  shown  in  more  isolated  examples.  Although  for 
private  dwellings  a  so-called  general  eclecticism  exists  here  as  elsewhere, 
there  is  an  acknowledged  predilection  toward  the  vigorous  and  massive 
forms  of  the  Italian  renaissance  in  preference  to  the  elaborate  and 
lighter,  but  therefore  probably  more  effete,  French  school  of  architecture. 

All  of  the  afore-mentioned  causes  of  building  impulse,  seconded  by 
these  projected  designs  for  the  erection  of  public  works,  had  also  an 
invigorating  and  salutary  influence  on  the  architecture  aud  embellish¬ 
ment  of  private  dwellings,  and  one  of  the  first  and  best  examples  of  the 
successful  reconciliation  of  tasteful  architectural  embellishments  with 
the  demands  of  practical  wants  and  domestic  usefulness  is  perhaps  the 
new  group  of  buildings  called  “  Henry’s  Court,”  the  apartment  houses 
already  alluded  to  under  the  head  of  plans  and  constructions. 

It  has  since  that  time  become  almost  a  point  of  honor  with  owners 
and  architects  to  give  the  facades  of  new  private  dwellings  more  or  less 
rich  architectural  embellishment.  Although  they  may  appear  some¬ 
times  overdone,  or  in  want  of  harmony  with  their  frequently  very 
economical  and  consequently  meager  internal  finish  and  arrangements, 
yet  we  find  many  tasteful  improvements  among  the  lately  erected 
dwellings.  Since  the  renewed  vigor  of  the  many  powerful  aud  energetic 
building  associations,  who  avail  themselves  of  the  best  constructive  and 
architectural  talent  of  the  country,  a  large  number  of  palatial  group 
or  block  buildings  have  been  erected  in  that  impressive  Italian  renais¬ 
sance  style,  which  gives  to  the  new  Eiug  street  more  the  appearance  of 
a  street  of  palaces  than  of  dwellings  or  apartment-houses.  It  is  worthy 
of  this  great  city,  aud  its  equal  can  rarely  be  found  elsewhere.  The 
great  Italian  cities,  in  their  most  flourishing  periods  of  architectural 
grandeur,  did  not  excel  it.  It  is  true  that  there  may  be,  in  some  portions 
of  the  new  King-street,  a  little  too  much  uniformity,  but  this  is  well 
compensated  by  the  large  number  of  independent  prominent  private 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ARCHITECTURE. 


23 


dwellings  and  real  palaces,  sncli  as  those  of  Grand  Dnkes  William  and 
Ludwig  Victor;  of  the  Duke  of  Wiirttemberg,  now  the  Hotel  Imperial; 
the  palaces  of  Todesco,  of  Epstein,  and  of  others;  the  Grand  Hotel,  the 
Hotel  de  France,  Hotel  Austria,  Hotel  Britannia,  Hotel  Metropole, 
Hotel  Donan,  and  many  more. 

34.  This  gratifying  advance,  not  only  in  the  higher  or  so-called  fine 
arts,  such  as  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture,  but  in  the  industrial, 
technical,  and  mechanical  arts  and  the  trades  connected  therewith, 
within  the  last  twenty-five  or  thirty  years,  is  evidently  mainly  due  to  the 
establishment  of  many  schools  and  educational  institutions  on  a  pop¬ 
ular  and  economical  scale,  which  are  accessible  to  the  humblest  and 
poorest  in  the  laud  for  a  small  compensation,  and  often  entirely  free  of 
charge,  where  all  the  elements  of  industrial  knowledge,  up  to  the  high¬ 
est  branches  of  art-culture,  are  taught,  and  where  the  students  are 
guided  by  the  ablest  professors,  and  their  equally  well  qualified  and 
competent  assistants,  and  senior  pupils — the  latter  of  whom  thus  are 
not  only  teachers,  but  are  executors  of  both  public  and  private  works. 
Thus  the  professors  of  the  academy  of  fine  arts  furnish  architectural 
designs.  Professors  of  painting  and  sculpture,  with  their  advanced 
pupils,  execute  work  on  public  and  private  buildings  of  the  empire,  in 
addition  to  that  done  by  regular  practitioners  of  those  arts. 

But  the  artisans  also,  the  masses  engaged  in  mechanical  occupations, 
have  derived  great  benefit  from  being  taught  the  art  of  drawing,  not  in 
its  msthetic  sense  only,  as  relating  to  forms  of  beauty,  but  in  its  tech¬ 
nical  sense,  as  enabling  them  to  understand  a  drawing  and  to  execute 
the  work  by  the  aid  of  the  graphic  plan  alone ;  and  they  are  taught  in 
a  practical  manner  so  that  they  can  execute  these  drawings  themselves. 
They  are  thus  able  to  dispense  with  the  aid  of  models,  which  previously 
could  be  furnished  only  by  a  few  cultivated  experts.  Now,  every  in¬ 
structed  and  skilled  artisau  being  competent  to  work  from  designs 
furnished  him,  or  to  furnish  and  execute  them  himself,  with  only  occa¬ 
sional  finishing-touches  by  the  professors  of  the  arts,  these  economical 
and  tasteful  architectural  embellishments  of  dwellings  have  become  the 
rule  instead  of  the  exception.  We  thus  find  the  skilled  mason  and 
stucco- worker  of  the  present  day  executing  any  design  laid  before  him. 
And  so  with  the  house-painter,  the  carpenter,  the  cabinet-maker,  the 
stone-cutter,  the  smith,  the  worker  in  any  wood,  mineral,  or  metal. 

35.  The  Viennese  thus  get  their  architectural  details  well  and  eco¬ 
nomically  executed  by  artisans,  their  designs  furnished  by  competent 
architects,  their  sculpture  done  iu  any  material  in  an  artistic  manuer, 
and  their  house-painting  either  in  plain  and  tasteful  style  by  the  skilled 
workman  or  in  the  highest  style  of  art  by  numerous  professional  artists. 
Every  one  of  their  better  class  of  dwellings  is  now  designed  and  ex¬ 
ecuted  with  a  tasteful  fagade,  and  they  are  often  enriched  with  consid¬ 
erable  architectural  embellishment,  and  sometimes  with  sculpture  ex¬ 
ecuted  in  stone,  cements,  or  terra-cotta;  entrance-halls,  public  or  grand 


24 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


stairways  are  furnished  in  the  same  manner,  and  often  further  enriched 
by  scagliola  or  real  and  variegated  marbles  on  the  walls  and  frescoes  ou 
the  ceiliugs.  The  walls  and  ceilings  of  the  living  and  social  rooms  iu 
their  dwellings  are  always  painted,  at  least  in  plain  and  tasteful  water 
or  encaustic  colors,  and  are  often  embellished  by  works  of  artists  in 
fresco  and  oil  painting.  They  are  thus  enabled  to  produce  their  pres¬ 
ent  and  their  best  style  of  buildings  by  the  combination  of  the  three 
sister  arts  of  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture,  giving  these  build¬ 
ings  a  harmonious  and  finished  appearance,  totally  unattainable  with 
the  mere  meager  architectural  composition  and  execution  such  as  is 
seen  in  less  favored  countries.  Drawing  has  been  incorporated,  for  at 
least  forty  years  past,  as  a  useful  and  necessary  branch  of  common  ed¬ 
ucation  in  the  ordinary  and  high  schools.  It  has  been  considered  as 
indispensable  in  the  school  system  as  grammar,  reading,  and  writing, 
and  the  masses  have  reaped  as  much  benefit  from  the  former  as  from 
the  latter.  The  public  taste  lias  been  vastly  improved. 

30.  1  cannot  close  this  paper  on  the  construction  and  embellishment 
of  dwellings  without  expressing  my  admiration  of  that  splendid  pro¬ 
duct  of  architectural  skill  and  artistic  embellishment,  the  new  opera- 
house,  and  of  several  of  the  lately  erected  new  theaters,  as  well  as  of 
the  grandeur  aud  palatial  magnificence  of  the  new  railway-stations. 
The  “  Staats-bahu  7’  and  2sew  Southern  stations  especially  are  structures 
which,  in  their  tasteful  designs  and  richness  of  embellishment  have 
not  thus  far  been  equaled  iu  any  part  of  the  world. 


INDEX. 


Art.  Page. 

Accidents,  precaution  against .  24  15 

“Apartment  Louses,”  origin  of .  2  5 

great  size  of  ancient  . .  3  5 

and  tenement,  distinction  between .  12  8 

Arched  floors,  self-centering .  29  17 

Welsh . . .  29  17 

Bohemian .  .  29  17 

Architecture,  development  dates  from  thirteenth  century .  30  20 

flourish  under  Joseph  I  and  Charles  VI .  31  20 

influence  of  the  decree  of  1857  .  33  21 

Art,  great  impulse  to  building,  in  1845  and  1857 .  32  21 

Artisans,  remarkable  shill  of  Viennese .  35  23 

Bohemian  arches,  description  of .  29  17 

Brick  building  generally  used  in  Vienna .  17  11 

Building,  new  impulse  in  1858 .  8  7 

present  system  of . .  9  7 

influence  of  the  configuration  of  the  city  in  plans  for .  10  8 

groups .  14  10 

description  of  an  example  of .  15  10 

materials,  nature,  and  variety  of,  near  Vienna .  16  11 

marble  and  stone,  rare,  brick  generally  used,  with  stucco  finish.  17  11 

laws,  stringent . 22  14 

regulations,  rigid  enforcement  of .  28  17 

Ceilings,  peculiar  and  ingenious  mode  of  plastering .  18  12 

description  of _ - . 23  14 

Cement,  excellent  quality  used . 19  12 

with  stucco  finish,  generally  used . 17  11 

Charles  VI,  architecture  flourishes  under .  31  20 

Decree,  improvements  in  architecture  projected  by  imperial,  in  1857  .  32  21 

influence  of .  33  21 

Doors,  construction  of .  26  16 

Dwelling,  description  of  first-class . : . . .  13  9 

Fire,  precaution  against . - . . .  24  15 

Floors,  description  of .  23  14 

construction  of . 26  16 

self-centerrng  arched . 29  17 

Flues,  laws  relating  to .  25  15 

French  wars,  architecture  depressed  during  the .  31  20 

Germany,  description  of  the  porcelain  stove  of .  27  16 

Groups,  building .  14  10 

description  of  an  example .  15  10 

House,  zins,  or  house  for  rent .  5  6 

description  of .  6  6 

details  of  kitchen .  7  7 

Improvements  projected  by  imperial  decree  of  1857 .  32  21 

Instruction,  great  benefit  of  popular .  34  23 

Iron,  use  of,  in  building .  19  12 

3  P  D 


26 


INDEX. 


a  i  t.  rage. 


Joseph  I,  architecture  flourishes  under .  31  20 

Kitchen,  details  of,  of  zins-house .  7  7 

Lime  and  mortar,  peculiar  mode  of  mixing .  20  13 

Marble  building  complete  rare .  17  11 

Materials,  nature  and  variety  of  building,  near  Vienna .  16  11 

Mortar  and  lime,  peculiar  mode  of  mixing .  20  13 

Palais,  first-class  dwelling .  13  9 

Plastering,  peculiar  aud  ingenious  mode,  ceilings .  18  12 

Porcelain  stoves  of  Germany,  description  of .  27  16 

Railway  stations,  great  beauty  of .  36  '  24 

Regulations,  rigid  enforcement  of  building .  28  17 

Roofs,  laws  relating  to .  25  15 

Sands,  excellent  quality  used .  19  12 

Stations,  great  beauty  of  the  railway .  36  24 

Stono  building  complete  rare .  17  11 

Stove,  description  of  German  porcelain .  27  16 

Stucco  or  cement  finish  generally  used .  17  11 

Tenement  houses,  distinction  between  apartment  and .  12  8 

Theaters,  great  beauty  of  the  new .  36  24 

Vienna,  size  and  situation  of .  I  5 

extension  of,  in  1858 .  4  5 

influence  of  configuration  of,  on  plans  for  building .  10  8 

nature  and  variety  of  building  material  near .  16  11 

Walls,  durability  of .  21  13 

great  thickness  of .  22  14 

Welsh  arch,  description  of .  29  17 

Windows,  laws  relating  to .  25  15 

construction  of .  26  16 

Zins-house,  or  house  for  rent .  5  6 

description  of .  .6  6 

details  of  kitchen .  7  7 


Vienna  Ex  hi  b i  tion  1  873 


A  rc  h  i  tec  t  u  re. 


PL  I. 


Plan  of  Principal  Floor  of  small  Apartment  House, 

Vienna, 


(ft. t*> 'Jyt/ivfo , ./( &■ /(?<.'/  /(.'.it 


Vienna  Ex h i  b i  ti o n  1  873 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  II.  (A.) 


H-h 


Vienna  Ex h i  b  i tio n  1  873. 


Architecture. 


Vienna  Exhibition  1  873 


A  rc  h  i  tec  t  ure. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  II.  (C.) 


Vienna  Ex h i b i ticsn  1  873 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  II.  (D.) 


ro‘ — ■<*  ' — *  ' 


r»t/  IfiAe&r  »_/ 'rf  &  'fljf’euu/J&Kca. u.> 


Vienna  Exhi  b  i  tion  1  873. 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  II.  IE.) 


t/n  Hi  cam-  c(hSot*i*'sJ?4ccrA,. ; 


Vienna  Ex  hi  b  i  tion  1  873 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  II.  (E) 


Vienna  Exhib-ition  1  873. 


A  rch  i  tec  t  u  re. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  It.  ( G.) 


(*/.  tiL  deM*  J-SZteCCAX ) 


Vienna  Exhi b ition  1  873 


A  rchitecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  II.  (H 


&  rettA***#*™*.) 


o,zozi 


Vienna  Exhibition  1873. 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House 


in  Vienna. 


PI.  III.  (A.) 


g  I 


H 


— -i— 


■x‘> 

II  %  |  - 

y'/itr/O'-Jtt/uy  6r  <J/  ■CliArtttdJ  e%UKfM.  / 


Cellar  Plan. 


/ 


Vienna  Exhi  bition  1  873 


Architecture. 


Architecture. 


3 '4* 


^ ,  i, ■fr'J’iV/ioyUyC/it'  /(&  c 


PI  III.  (O 


i,  ’r'6“. 


Vienna  Ex  hi  b  ition  1  873. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


Plan  afi*&2'v*Tloirr. 


Vienna  Exhibition  1  8? 3. 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI  HI.  CD.) 


\ 


Plan  oi'  J  oor. 


Vienna  Ex  hi  b  i  tion  1  873 


Architecture 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna 


PI. IV  (A.) 


- —  21*3'  O 

-rv3  /  ‘S’0‘ 


-  -r3lovo^-r^3*3^ 


’•v3"3%"-\s'ouSrw 


-r.r.rjwf-rjvi 


Cou  rt 


Vienna  Ex  hi  b  i  tion  1  873 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  IV.  <B.) 


A,  'uyuyn/ll'  &r  Sf  df-  '  fadet *•*->■&** f 


Vienna  Exhi  b  ition  1  873. 


A  rchitecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  V  (A.) 


■— 1  - 


Vienna  Exhibition  1873. 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  V  (B.) 


Section 


Vienna  Exhi  bition  1  873. 


A  rc  h  i  tec  t  u  re. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  V  (C.) 


Vienna  Ex  hi  b  ition  1  873. 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  V  (D.) 


Ground  Floor., 

?  °  O 


(^ttieueu-n/  _/ d&toi  cmo.  I 


Vienna  Exhibition  1873. 


Architecture 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PI.  V  (E.) 


Vienna  Ex h i  b i tion  1  873. 


A  re  h  i  tect  u  re. 


Vienna  Exhibition  1873. 


Architecture. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PL  V  (G.) 


- *r: 


Vienna  Exhibition  1873- 


Architect  u  re. 


Apartment  House  in  Vienna. 


PL  V.  ( H.) 


Vienna  Exhibition  1  873. 


Arch  i  tectu  re. 


Plan  of  a  First  Class  Apartment  House  Vienna.  PI  VI. 


A.  Prirvcipa.1  Floor . 


Ji.  2'\‘l  cLn.rl  3r.‘l  Floor. 


'AwMiu- J W J  1 1  .  •».  -V. . 


Palais'  of  L.  Epstein  —  Principal  Floor. 


Principal  Floor  of  Apartment  House,  called  "Henry’s  Court"  Opera  King,  Vienna. 


C'ourt. 


A  rch  i  tec  t  u  re 


PI.  IX. 


Vienna  Exhibition  1873. 


Principal  Floor  of  Apartment  House 
by  tHe  "Union  Building  Association"  of  Vienna. 


•  /&'■&>. /f  •&.  •/  ’< / f»'tr  j S2t'>cs.\ i > 


I 


Plate  X 


Facade  of  a  Dwelling  in  Vienna 


Vienna  Exhi  b  i tion  1  873. 


Architecture. 


PI.  XI. 


Details  of  the  self- sustaining  "Platz  ep  or  Flat-crown  Arches, 
as  constructed  at  Vienna. 


Plan  of  the  ’ ’Bohemian  "Arch. 
>  •:  ■■ . 


Section  (S'  the  Bohemian  Arch 


Section  of  the  Welsh  Arch . 


(if  ftfoSo&ulJ&tcOCX'.i 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  MATERIALS. 


N.  L.  DERBY. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


REPORT 

ON 

ARC HI TEC TU RE 


AND  THE 

MATERIALS  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


NELSON  L.  DERBY.  B.  A.. 

HONORARY  COMMISSIONER  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASH  IN  G  TON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1875. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TERRA  COTTA,  TILES,  AND  CEMENTS. 

Art.  Page. 

1.  Terra  cotta .  5 

2.  Austrian  terra  cotta ;  quality .  5 

3.  Extravagant  use  of  granite  in  the  United  States . 5 

4.  European  economy  in  the  use  of  stone .  5 

5.  Defects  of  design;  their  remedy  . .  6 

6.  Viennese  molded  brick .  6 

7.  Austrian  brick-manufacture  v .  6 

8.  English  tiles . § . . .  7 

9.  Roman  tiles  ;  their  uses .  7 

10.  Bonding  walls . 7 

11.  Brick-work  in  the  United  States .  8 

12.  Peculiar  kinds  of  bricks .  8 

13.  Lathing  and  furring .  8 

14.  Cements .  9 

15.  Red  cement  for  carved  brick-work .  9 

16.  Foundations  laid  in  cement .  9 

17.  Constrnction  of  basins .  9 

18.  Castings  in  cement . .  .  ...  10 

19.  Cement  structures .  10 

20.  Viennese  building .  10 

21.  Mastic . 11 

22.  Cement  breakwaters .  11 

CHAPTER  II. 

METALS  USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

23.  Wrought  and  cast  iron .  13 

24.  Castings  and  forgings .  13 

25.  Training  needed  in  the  United  States . . .  13 

26.  Galvanized  iron  and  roofing-metal . 14 

27.  Corrugated  iron . .• .  14 

CHAPTER  III. 

STONE  AND  WOOD. 

28.  Stone ;  Carrara  marble .  16 

29.  American  and  foreign  stone .  17 

30.  Bedding-stone .  17 

31.  Stairways .  17 

32.  Woods  used  in  Vienna .  17 

33.  Parquetry .  18 

34.  Work  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland .  18 

35.  Carpentery .  18 

36.  Framed  buildings .  18 

37.  Floors .  19 

38.  Scaffolding . 19 

39.  Partition-walls;  wood  in  interiors .  19 


4 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ARCHITECTURAL  ARRANGEMENTS  ;  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS. 

Art.  Page. 

40.  Peculiar  types .  21 

41.  Railway-stations .  21 

42.  Plans  and  models  exhibited .  21 

43.  Buildings  in  progress .  21 

44.  Styles  adopted . , . . . .  21 

45.  Opera-House  at  Vienna .  22 

46.  Governmental  work . 22 

47.  Defects  of  American  practice .  22 

48.  Drawings .  22 

49.  Milanese  arcade .  23 

50.  Exchange  at  Brussels .  23 

51.  Locating  public  buildings .  23 

52.  Variety  and  uniformity  in  design .  23 

53.  American  and  European  designs  compared .  24 

54.  Exhibition-buildings .  24 

55.  Landscape-gardening . 24 

56.  Defects  of  American  church-architecture . 24 

57.  Direction  of  improvement .  25 

58<  Perfected  plans  precede  work .  25 

59.  Cultivation  of  taste;  training .  26 

i 


TERRA  COTTA,  TILES,  AND  CEMENTS. 


Terracotta;  Molded  brick;  Austrian  manufactures  ;  Tiles;  Bonding  walls  ; 

Peculiar  kinds  of  bricks;  Lathing  and  furring;  Cements  ;  Foundations  ;  Ba¬ 
sins  ;  Castings  ;  Mastic  ;  Cement  breakwaters. 

1.  Terra  cotta. — Among  the  building-materials  which  met  the  eye 
in  the  greatest  abundance  at  Yienna  were  terra  cotta  and  molded 
brick.  Some  American  companies  are  now  commencing  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  these  articles,  as  well  as  of  tiles,  for  paving  purposes,  although 
we  still  import  largely. 

2.  The  most  beautifully  designed  and  most  richly  colored  terra  cotta 
was  exhibited  by  the  Austrians  themselves.  It  is  of  a  darker  color  than 
the  English,  something  between  cream  and  chocolate,  and  not  so  hard 
as  that  of  the  latter  country.  It  stands  frost,  however,  very  fairly,  and 
is  produced  at  a  moderate  figure  in  money.  Brackets,  columns,  balus¬ 
ters,  and  also  fountains  and  statues,  were  exhibited  by  the  Austrians 
and  the  North  Germans.  The  English  themselves  were  excessively  as¬ 
tonished  at  the  perfection  which  this  manufacture  had  reached  in  Aus¬ 
tria  and  the  beauty  of  the  designs.  It  is  well  known  that  this  material  is 
more  durable  than  stone,  as  is  now  apparent  in  the  British  Houses  of 
Parliament  in  London.  It  also  does  away  with  the  great  expense  at¬ 
tending  the  reproduction  of  the  same  pattern  in  stone.  The  architectural 
forms  above  cited  are,  in  many  cases,  used  merely  for  ornament,  and 
sustain  no  weight ;  they  are  therefore  made  in  this  case  to  the  greatest 
advantage  of  terra  cotta,  and  sometimes  of  cast  cement,  which  will  be 
referred  to  later. 

3.  As  a  contrast  to  this,  we  may  call  attention  to  the  enormous  quan¬ 
tity  of  cut  granite  employed  in  this  country,  at  which  foreigners  stand 
aghast. 

This  most  intractable  of  stones  is  never  used  on  the  continent  for  any 
other  portion  of  a  building  than  the  basement  and  foundations.  Our 
own  experience  shows  that  it  has  far  less  value  than  brick  in  resisting 
fire,  while  che  process  of  cutting  it  is  most  laborious  aud  expensive. 

4.  The  tendency  of  modern  improvement  is  certainly  to  the  production 
of  effect  with  economy  of  money  and  material.  The  French  will  pre¬ 
pare  a  better  meal  than  any  other  people  with  less  matter  and  at  half 
the  expense.  The  Germans  will  get  solid  enjoyment  out  of  small  sums 
of  money,  but  with  us  extravagance  and  lack  of  result  are  too  apt  to  go 
hand  in  hand.  The  stone  used  for  building  purposes  in  Paris  can  be 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


cut  with  a  knife  when  first  quarried,  and  becomes  quite  hard  on  expo¬ 
sure  to  the  air.  The  utmost  richness  of  design  is  tlins  rendered  possi¬ 
ble  at  small  expense. 

5.  Where  cast  iron  is  used,  as  in  this  country,  some  money  is  saved 
by  using  few  patterns  and  making  the  ornaments  of  every  story  of  a 
building  alike.  The  result  is  not  beautiful,  but  it  is  cheap.  But  why 
should  this  peculiarity  of  iron  be  copied  in  the  New  York  post-office f 
Differences  of  design  for  the  different  stories  were  possible  without  ad¬ 
ditional  expense,  but  now  every  door  and  every  window  on  the  exterior 
is  alike,  and  the  eye,  wandering  over  its  vast  expanse,  turns  sickened 
and  wearied  away  to  gaze  at  some  more  congenial  object.  The  neglect 
of  some  simple  matter  like  this  has  been  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  many 
of  our  most  prominent  buildings.  The  new  cathedral-building  on  Fifth 
avenue,  New  York,  is  an  imposing  and  striking  building,  but  in  the 
traceries  of  the  windows  and  above  the  main  portal,  which  in  the  old 
types  of  Europe  are  treated  with  the  delicacy  and  lightness  of  lace-work, 
there  is  here  a  heaviness,  a  clumsiness,  and  a  rigidity  excessively  dis¬ 
appointing  to  the  lover  of  art.  The  New  York  Evening  Post  not  long 
singe,  in  an  editorial,  said  that  our  people  are  not  sufficiently  educated 
in  art-matters,  or  in  building,  to  form  independent  opinions  on  these 
subjects.  They  are  too  apt  to  believe  implicitly  in  the  dictum  of  pro¬ 
fessional  men,  especially  if  they  possess  the  reputation  of  having  stud¬ 
ied  in  foreign  schools.  We  are,  however,  improving,  and  it  seems  the 
duty  of  the  Government  to  foster  in  every  way  the  growth  of  art-muse¬ 
ums  and  schools,  for  which  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  in  London, 
forms  the  best  existing  model. 

0.  Bricks. — The  molded  brick  exhibited  at  Vieuna  are  made  with 
little  additional  apparatus  and  form  a  very  effective  material  for  pro¬ 
ducing  architectural  effects.  Similar  varieties  have  been  used  for  cen¬ 
turies  in  Northern  Italy,  and  are  now  being  taken  up  quite  extensively 
in  England.  Hollow  cellular  bricks  were  to  be  seen  in  large  numbers; 
these  are  pierced  with  longitudinal  holes,  reducing  the  weight  about 
one-third,  and  are  quite  useful  in  springing  arches  and  vaults  between 
iron  beams  in  the  construction  of  fire-proof  floors.  They  are  made  also 
in  the  skew-back  pattern  and  are  much  superior  to  the  compositions 
lately  introduced  among  us  for  similar  purposes.  A  few  are  manufac¬ 
tured  at  present  in  New  York.  The  ordinary  building-brick  of  Vienna 
is  larger  than  ours,  being  at  least  a  foot  long  and  is  excessively  porous. 
They  are  laid  with  the  exterior  half  of  the  joint  open  and  an  inch  wide, 
for  the  purpose  of  keying  ou  a  coating  of  cement,  which  is  there  used 
as  a  substitute  for  mastic,  and  is  durable,  cheap,  and  capable  of  adapta¬ 
tion  to  all  architectural  forms. 

7.  The  most  important  terra  cotta  and  brick  works  in  Austria  are  the 
Wienerberger,  iu  the  environs  of  Vienna,  and  much  of  the  beauty  of  the 
modern  portion  of  this  city  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  use  of  their  mate¬ 
rials  by  Austrian  architects;  they  are  always  pleasing  in  desigu  and  in 
color. 


BRICK  AND  TILES 


7 


8.  The  best  exhibition  of  tiles  was  made  by  England.  We  all  know 
i  the  Minton  and  Maw  tiles,  and  we  import  such  a  quantity  of  them  that 
little  need  here  be  said  in  regard  to  them.  The  delicate  patterns,  how¬ 
ever,  which  these  firms  produce  render  it  impossible  to  bake  them  to  a 
sufficient  degree  of  flintiness,  and  the  result  is  that  they  do  not  stand 
much  wear  when  used  for  pavements.  They  lose  their  colors  and  chip 
around  the  edges,  as  may  be  seen  iu  the  Parliament  Houses  in  London, 
and  in  some  buildings  in  this  country.  Other  more  expensive  and  more 
durable  tiles  are  made  by  cutting  out  the  pattern  to  a  depth  of  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  and  filling  it  up  with  colored  paste.  The  whole  is  then  baked 
together. 

The  use  of  tiles  for  dadoes  and  wainscoting  is  becoming  prevalent 
abroad,  and  plain  glazed  tiles  are  used  in  England  to  cover  the  entire 
walls  of  water-closets,  bath-rooms,  and  kitchens,  as  they  can  be  readily 
washed,  and  retain  no  malaria  nor  odor. 

Tiles  of  clay  or  earthenware — those  above  referred  to  having  a  kaolin 
or  China-ware  basis — used  for  roofing  purposes,  were  exhibited.  Some 
of  these  were  flat  and  were  used  exactly  like  slates ;  others  had  various 
curved  shapes  for  rendering  the  joints  tight,  and  still  others  were  glazed 
to  enable  them  better  to  shed  the  rain.  Their  weight  renders  them  less 
liable  than  slate  to  removal  by  the  wind,  and  their  red  color  gives  a 
very  picturesque  effect  to  the  roofs.  They  are  also  more  durable  than 
slate,  but,  being  heavier,  they  require  heavier  timber  in  the  roof  for 
their  support.  One  eccentricity  in  this  line  were  tiles  of  glass;  these,  as 
well  as  the  earthenware,  are  better  non-conductors  than  slate. 

9.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place,  in  this  connection,  to  refer  to  the  old 
Roman  tiles,  seen  still  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  iu  a  good  state  of  pres¬ 
ervation,  especially  in  the  remains  of  aqueducts  and  in  such  structures 
as  the  great  arched  openings  in  Rome.  They  are  some  3  inches  in 
thickness,  and  often  2  feet  long  by  7  inches  in  width.  They  are  used  to 
bind  together  walls  constructed  mainly  of  rubble  or  small  stones.  Once 
every  two  feet,  or  thereabouts,  in  a  vertical  direction,  the  stone-work  is 
carefully  leveled  off  and  two  or  three  courses  of  these  tiles  are  laid  in 
bond.  The  resulting  structure  is  of  great  strength,  as  its  duration 
until  the  present  time  sufficiently  proves.  The  regular  recurrence  of 
the  brick  or  tile  work  also  gives  a  good  effect,  breaking  the  masses 
quite  pleasingly. 

10.  There  is  no  reason  why  this  form  of  masonry  should  not  be  adapted 
to  modern  wants  iu  the  construction  of  piers,  and  even  in  buildings, 
lessening,  as  it  would,  the  great  expense  to  which  our  fondness  for  cut 
stone  leads  us.  The  structure  would  be  as  fire-proof  as  any  form  of 
masonry.  I  will  advert,  in  this  connection,  to  the  custom  in  Vienna, 
made  a  necessity  by  the  very  good  building-act  there  in  force,  of  tying 
all  brick  walls,  especially  those  containing  arched  windows,  by  rods  of 
wrought  iron,  imbedded  in  the  masonry  and  passing  horizontally  above 
the  openings  from  end  to  end,  where  they  are  anchored  fast. 


8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Another  clause  of  the  Viennese  building-act  renders  it  necessary  to 
construct  the  attic-floors  of  brick  to  prevent  the  timbers  of  the  roof 
from  falling  through  into  the  lower  stories  in  case  of  fire.  This  was  the 
reason  for  vaulting  the  foreign  cathedrals  beneath  the  wooden  roofs, 
the  roofs  themselves  again  preserving  the  vaulting  from  the  disinte¬ 
grating  effects  of  rain. 

The  best  brick  bond  for  ordinary  walls  is  acknowledged  to  be  the 
Flemish  or  the  English.  Headers  and  stretchers  are  placed  alternately 
in  each  row,  the  headers  being  over  the  stretchers  alternately  in  a  ver¬ 
tical  direction. 

11.  The  objection  to  the  use  of  these  bonds  in  America  is  the  fact  that 
they  require  more  face-brick  than  our  own,  and  workmen,  when  com¬ 
pelled  by  architects  to  use  them,  have  been  known  to  putin  half-bricks, 
which  look  on  the  completion  of  the  wall  exactly  like  headers,  but  nat¬ 
urally  serve  no  good  purpose.  The  writer  has  nowhere  seen  better 
bricks  or  better  brick  layers  than  in  America.  Our  joints  are  by  far  the 
thinnest  of  any  in  the  world,  but  with  all  our  regularity  and  exactness 
there  has  been,  until  lately,  but  little  art  displayed  in  brick-work  with 
us. '  The  architrave  of  a  window  can  be  readily  formed  of  brick,  all 
molded  to  one  pattern,  and  the  same  is  true  of  continuous  string-courses 
and  cornices;  brackets  of  terra  cotta  can  be  built  in  under  the  latter, 
and  keystones  of  the  same  material  inserted  iuto  the  arches.  Many  of 
the  most  pleasing  effects  in  Italian  architecture  have  thus  been  pro¬ 
duced  at  no  great  expense.  The  method  is  as  feasible  here  as  the  con¬ 
struction  of  cast-iron  buildings,  which  are  regarded  by  critics  as  mon¬ 
strosities,  especially  where  the  attempt  is  made  to  give  them  the 
appearance  of  white  marble  or  of  other  stone. 

12.  Other  bricks  were  formed  so  as  to  dovetail  into  one  another;  and 
they  are  useful  in  the  construction  of  circular  towers  or  of  “swell  fronts*’ 
in  brick.  Their  additional  strength  renders  a  reduction  in  the  thickness 
of  the  wall  possible.  The  use  of  black  bricks  for  ornamental  purposes 
has  become  quite  common  of  late  iu  America.  The  color  is  given  them 
by  insertion  iuto  coal-tar.  In  France  black  bricks  are  also  constantly 
met  with,  but  they  are  there  colored  by  more  intense  baking.  They  are 
of  the  nature  of  clinkers,  and,  as  used  iu  France  for  headers  iu  the 
Euglish  or  Flemish  bond,  give  a  neat  appearance  to  the  wall.  The  coal- 
tar  process  is  iu  all  probability  not  productive  of  a  permanent  color. 

The  other  forms  of  brick  which  were  noticed  were  several  large  varie¬ 
ties,  measuring  IS  by  9  by  4£  inches,  used  for  building  cornices.  They 
are  manufactured  by  the  Wienerberg  works.  Wedge-shaped,  solid  bricks 
were  to  be  seen,  for  arches,  and  face-brick,  glazed  in  different  colors. 
There  were  no  machines  exhibited  for  turning  out  pressed  brick  which 
would  compare  with  American  machines  in  neatness  or  in  rapidity  of 
working. 

13.  Iu  Austria  the  use  of  furring  and  lathing  is  infrequent,  it  being 
customary  to  build  brick  walls  hollow,  to  secure  warmth  and  dryness,  and 


CEMENT  FOUNDATIONS  AND  BASINS. 


9 


hen  to  plaster  directly  upon  them.  The  use  of  inflammable  material 
s  thus  avoided  and  no  space  is  lost.  Iron  lathing  cannot  be  considered 
i  substitute  unless  the  furring  is  also  iron.  In  another  part  of  this 
paper  the  excellent  provisions  in  the  Vienna  building-act  to  secure  fire¬ 
proof  buildings  will  be  referred  to.  Before  leaving  this  subject  we  will 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  hollow  bricks,  both  square  and  skewbacks, 
are  manufactured  in  this  country  by  the  firm  of  Beckwith  &  Co.,  of  New 
York.  They  also  import  a  very  hard  German  tile,  which  leaves  some¬ 
thing  to  be  desired  in  its  design  and  color. 

14.  Cement. — There  were  a  great  many  specimens  of  this  material 
exhibited,  the  strongest  being  the  English  varieties,  though  many  of 
the  Austrian  were  excellent.  The  basis  of  cement,  as  is  well  known,  is 
a  limestone  containing  clay.  Clay  mixed  artificially  with  lime,  and 
thus  burned,  will  also  yield  a  good  cement.  The  Romans,  when  con¬ 
structing  works  in  foreign  parts,  and  when  pressed  for  time,  often 
mingled  pulverized  brick  with  common  mortar,  and  produced  in  this 
manner  a  very  good  substitute  for  cement.  In  view  of  the  favor  into 
which  red  mortar  for  brick-laving  is  growing  in  this  country,  this  is  a 
hint  which  might  be  utilized.  A  brick  wall  laid  in  cement  is  stronger 
and  much  dryer  than  one  laid  in  ordinary  mortar,  and  certainly,  if  pul¬ 
verized  brick  is  to  be  cheaply  procured,  its  addition  to  mortar  can  do 
no  harm. 

15.  A  curious  process  has  of  late  come  in  vogue  in  Englaud,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  so-called  Queen  Anne  architecture,  of  carving  brick 
masonry.  With  the  use  of  red  mortars  pleasing  effects  can  be  produced 
in  this  way,  though  porous  bricks  are  better  adapted  to  it  than  face- 
bricks,  as  the  latter  show  a  color  when  cut  different  from  that  on  the 
surface.  Inasmuch  as  many  prominent  architects  of  England  are  using 
this  form  of  decoration,  it  may  be  inferred  that  there  is  something  in  it. 

16.  It  is  common  abroad  to  lay  all  foundation-walls  in  cement;  and 
foundations  consisting  entirely  of  cement  are  coming  by  degrees  into 
general  use.  Thus  were  founded  the  piers  of  the  great  rotunda  at 
Vienna,  and  these  have  shown  no  signs  of  settling  or  of  other  weakness. 
Here  again  is  an  economy  on  the  use  of  hewn  stone,  as  we  see  it  used, 
for  instance,  in  New  York,  where  a  half-acre  has  been  covered  with 
enormous  granite  blocks  to  form  an  anchorage  for  the  cables  of  the 
great  Brooklyn  suspension-bridge. 

17.  In  a  quarter  of  Vienna,  some  two  and  a  half  miles  from  the 
Exhibition,  fifty  workmen  were  employed  during  the  progress  of  the 
latter  in  constructing  an  enormous  basin  to  receive  the  water  from  one 
of  the  highest-playing  fountains  of  the  world.  It  is,  perhaps,  200  feet 
in  diameter,  and  the  foundations  commence  15  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  soil.  Trenches  were  first  dug  and  lined  with  boards,  then  a  mixture 
of  one  part  cement  to  three  parts  clean  sharp  gravel  was  shoveled  in 
and  rammed.  On  reaching  the  surface,  a  mixture  of  one  part  cement 
and  one  part  sand  was  used  to  form  the  bed  and  the  coping,  and  the 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


whole  was  neatly  turned,  rubbed  down,  and  finally  polished.  It  pre¬ 
sents  much  the  appearance  of  marble  and  stands  very  well. 

18.  In  a  previous  part  of  this  paper  castings  iu  cement  were  referred 
to.  Many  of  these  are  made  without  adding  sand,  and  are  useful  where 
the  same  ornamental  form  is  repeated  iu  a  building,  whether  in  brackets, 
balusters,  dentils,  egg-moldings,  or  any  other  ornaments  which  would 
require  much  repetition  in  stone-cutting.  It  is  not  as  strong  as  granite, 
nor  is  glass  as  serviceable  as  a  diamond  for  many  purposes,  but  they 
both  answer  very  well  in  their  way.  The  cement  is  vastly  less  expen¬ 
sive,  and  for  these  purposes  is  sufficiently  durable. 

19.  A  building  was  erected  on  the  grounds,  by  one  of  the  Austrian 
cement-companies,  entirely  of  this  material.  The  roof  was  internally 
nearly  flat,  externally  sloping  to  the  eaves,  and  formed  of  one  mass  of 
cement,  varying  from  the  edges  to  the  center  from  a  foot  and  a  half  to 
10  inches  in  thickness.  The  building  was  about  18  feet  square  and  had 
an  external  stairway  curiously  made  of  a  block  of  cement  for  each  step, 
supported  only  at  one  end,  which  was  imbedded  10  inches  in  the  wall. 
This  led  to  the  roof,  which  was  surrounded  by  a  parapet  of  cement  and 
was  seemingly  capable  of  supporting  the  weight  of  many  people.  The 
only  improvement  that  the  writer  could  have  suggested  was  a  covering 
of  tin  or  zinc  for  the  roof,  not  to  keep  out  the  rain,  but  to  prevent  the 
wearing  effects  of  the  weather  on  the  large  mass  of  cement  exposed. 
Thus  we  have  learned  the  possibility  of  shipping  an  entire  building  to 
any  point  desired,  in  barrels,  needing  nothing  additional  on  the  ground 
but  water. 

Large  slabs  of  cement  were  also  exhibited,  to  be  used  for  paving-pur¬ 
poses,  measuring  sometimes,  superficially,  G  by  10  feet,  with  a  thickness 
of  4  to  G  inches.  The  writer  has  seen  these  built  into  a  corner  of  a  stair¬ 
way,  supported  only  by  two  adjacent  walls,  and  standing  very  well  as 
landing-places.  By  the  processes  above  referred  to  very  cheap  and  strong 
fire  proof  stairs  ;?re  constructed  in  Vienna.  Tiles  of  molded  cement  are 
also  used  for  interior  paving,  and  the  New  York  firm  mentioned  above 
imports  some  of  these  from  France,  which  are  very  pleasingly  molded 
in  cements  with  which  various  coloring  ingredients  have  been  mixed 
and  formed  into  tasteful  patterns.  These  do  not  wear  as  well  as  baked 
tiles,  as  they  are  liable  to  chip  at  the  joints;  but  they  are,  of  course, 
better  in  quality  as  the  proportion  of  sand  is  diminished.  Another  form 
of  flooring  consists  of  cement,  laid  iu  mass,  into  which  small  bits  of  col¬ 
ored  marble  are  inserted  in  regular  patterns.  The  whole,  when  once 
set,  is  rubbed  down  with  sand  and  holystone  and  polished.  It  is 
thoroughly  impervious  to  water  aud  vermin,  and  seems  quite  suitable 
for  kitchens  and  bath-rooms. 

20.  A  traveler  arriving  at  Yienua  is  much  struck  by  the  imposiug 
buildings  which  line  the  principal  streets,  their  fronts  stretching  un¬ 
broken  from  100  to  200  feet,  their  cornices  heavy  aud  projecting  from 
24  to  4  feet,  throwing  rich  shadows,  and  well  lightened  by  beautiful 


VIENNESE  BUILDINGS. 


11 


arubinations  of  ornament.  The  lower  story  is,  in  general,  massive; 
tuple  piers  support  the  masonry  above,  and  perhaps  only  half  of  the 
utire  width  is  sacrificed  to  show-windows. 

The  Viennese  rely  upon  interior  courts  for  light,  and  do  not  reduce 
he  strips  of  wall  between  the  windows  .until,  as  with  us,  the  building 
eems  to  have  hardly  a  leg  left  to  stand  upon.  These  structures  appear 
o  be  built  of  a  light,  cream-colored  stone,  in  no  case  darkened  by  smoke 
r  time.  They  are,  in  reality,  however,  constructed  by  a  combination 
>f  the  processes  above  described.  The  cream-colored  stone  is  only  a 
mating  of  cement  mixed  with  a  golden-hued  sand  and  well  keyed  into 
;he  open  joints  of  the  large  porous  bricks;  while  the. ornamentation  is 
made  up  of  terra  cotta  or  cast  cement.  The  whole  soon  attains  the 

!  consistency  of  marble  and  wears  as  well,  while  it  is  far  cheaper. 

The  study  of  one  of  these  buildings  during  erection  is  very  interesting. 
The  cornices,  string-courses,  and  pediments  of  windows  are  built  out 
roughly  in  brick;  square  holes  are  left  for  the  insertion  of  brackets. 
Arches  are  sprung  wherever  necessary,  without  affecting  the  architec¬ 
tural  appearance  of  the  structure;  and,  finally,  after  the  whole  has 
been  thoroughly  moistened,  the  cement  is  thrown  on  and  quickly  planed 
into  shape.  It  is  then  played  on  with  a  hose  at  intervals  for  several 
days.  The  front  of  a  building  is  thus  in  a  few  hours  transformed  frbm 
a  shapeless  mass  of  rough  brick- work  to  a  beautiful  architectural  com¬ 
position. 

This  must  not  be  confounded  with  our  process  of  stuccoing  and  mastic  . 
work.  The  differences  are  very  essential.  First,  wide-jointed  porous 
brick  are  used,  which  hold  the  superposed  matter  with  the  greatest  firm¬ 
ness;  then  the  basis  of  the  coating  is  cement,  and  not,  as  with  us, 
mortar. 

Buildings  thus  constructed  in  Vienna  never  peel,  though  heavy  frosts 
and  long-continued  rains  are  common. 

21.  Mastic  has  with  us  a  very  bad  name;  it  is  the  symbol  of  cheap¬ 
ness  and  tawdry  imitation ;  and  so  much  is  this  the  case  that,  often 
when,  in  talking  with  professional  men,  the  subject  of  Vienna  mastic 
has  been  introduced,  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  get  a  hearing  at 
all.  There  is  considerable  skill  and  experience  required  iu  working  it ; 
but  we  now  have  in  our  country  a  large  number  of  Italians  who  under¬ 
stand  the  matter  very  well.  A  friend  practicing  architecture  iu  New 
York  states  that  he  has  for  several  years  past  been  observing  a  build¬ 
ing  near  that  city  which  is  covered  with  a  similar  cement-mastic.  It  is 
exposed  on  all  sides  to  the  winds  and  rain,  yet  it  stands  the  weather 
remarkably  well,  and  does  not  flake  off  nor  crack. 

22.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  purposes  for  which  cement  is  employed 
abroad  is  the  construction  of  the  great  breakwaters  used  to  form  arti¬ 
ficial  harbors  at  the  mouths  of  canals  upon  the  seacoast.  These  are 
to  be  seen  at  the  Suez  Canal  in  Egypt  and  in  some  parts  of  Holland. 
Blocks  measuring  18  by  9  and  by  5  feet  are  cast  iu  concrete,  and  by 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


their  enormous  size  serve  to  resist  the  force  of  the  waves  and  tides.  An 
opportunity  offered  itself  of  inspecting  a  new  ship-canal  in  Holland  a  year 
and  a  half  ago,  and  the  writer  there  walked  out  for  nearly  a  mile  on  such 
a  breakwater.  Here,  perhaps  from  the  impurity  of  the  sand  used  or 
from  its  too  great  quantity  in  proportion  to  the  cement,  the  upper  blocks 
were  much  rounded  and  woru,  but  the  wall  was  firm.  Such  devasta¬ 
tions  are  easily  repaired  by  additional  coatings  of  concrete,  and  the 
whole  can  thus  be  rendered  as  solid  as  in  the  beginning,  a  work  which 
would  be  difficult  in  the  case  of  stone  without  rebuilding  the  wall. 

The  failure  of  cement  and  concrete  in  this  country  is  doubtless  to  a 
great  extent  due  to  the  use  of  impure  materials  and  of  too  great  a 
quantity  of  sand. 


I 


CHAPTER 


II. 


METALS  USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

Wrought  and  cast  iron;  Castings  and  forgings  ;  Galvanized  iron  ;  Corrugated 

iron. 

23.  Wrought  and  cast  iron. — Another  material  of  great  import¬ 
ance  in  its  connection  with  building  is  iron,  both  cast  and  wrought. 
The  expense  of  these  two  varieties  is  very  different,  so  much  so  that 
very  little  ornamental  wrought  iron  has  as  yet  come  iuto  use  in  our 
country. 

Girders  and  beams,  it  is  universally  acknowledged,  should  be  made  of 
wrought  iron.  Oast  iron  employed  for  these  purposes  is  liable  to  yield 
to  sudden  shocks,  and  in  case  of  fire,  when  it  has  become  heated,  the 
application  of  water  snaps  it.  Wrought  iron,  when  heated  intensely, 
bends,  and  also  gives  way;  but  from  its  greater  elasticity  it  is  the  only 
safe  material  under  ordinary  circumstances.  Columns  and  pillars  are 
better  made  of  cast  iron,  while  roof-frames  should  be  wrought. 

24.  Some  of  the  castings  made  abroad  are  of  ^reat  delicacy,  and  it  cer¬ 
tainly  is  a  pity  that  our  street-lanterns  and  much  of  our  architectural 
ornamentation  are  not  more  carefully  molded.  Sharp  outlines  add  won¬ 
derfully  to  the  effect  of  all  architectural  work,  and  these  we  rarely  see 
in  this  country  in  cast  iron. 

Some  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  art  which  the  Middle  Ages 
have  handed  down  to  us  are  of  wrought  iron.  These  include  railings? 
gates,  finials,  window-bars,  ornamental  hinges,  as  seen  on  the  old  cathe¬ 
drals,  lock-work,  fire-irons,  &c.  Many  of  the  rails  are  cunningly  bound 
together  like  coats  of  mail,  and  can  be  shaken  like  a  woven  fabric. 
The  attempts  to  reproduce  these  in  cast  iron  are  always  failures* 
What  clumsy  and  hideous  shapes  iu  this  material  meet  the  eye  in  any 
American  city  and  at  every  step. 

First.  The  process  is  unsuitable  to  the  end. 

Secondly.  It  seems  as  though  the  few  art-loving  architects  whom  we 
have  iu  America  had  renounced  in  despair  the  attempts  to  produce  good 
results  in  such  a  stubborn  material. 

25.  We,  as  a  nation,  are  still  far  from  the  point  where  we  would  be  will¬ 
ing  to  take  great  pains  without  seeing  a  return  in  money.  Where  our 
pride  is  not  directly  affected,  we  are  still  too  apt  to  prefer  the  cheap  and 
the  inferior  to  the  expensive  and  durable  and  the  excellent.  The  refin¬ 
ing  and  inspiriting  effects  of  the  presence  of  beautiful  forms  around  us 


14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


are  as  yet  unknown  to  the  masses  of  our  population.  If  some  of  us  do 
think  of  these  thiugs,  we  are  but  tempted  to  work  the  harder,  that  we  may 
some  day  go  to  Europe  and  enjoy  them  there.  And  yet  there  seems  to 
be  no  reason  why  we  should  not  have  this  opportunity  at  home.  We  have 
wealth  and  talent,  but  we  still  lack  several  very  important  preliminaries : 
First  of  all,  art-museums,  the  greatest  of  all  sti  muli,  perhaps,  to  im¬ 
provement  in  design.  Then  we  have  none  of  the  rich  antiquarian  re¬ 
mains  from  which  foreign  artists  dralv  their  inspiration.  A  good  many 
of  our  young  men  every  year  go  abroad  and  bring  back  much  that  is 
useful  as  the  result  of  their  art-studies  in  France  and  in  Italy  ;  but  art, 
and  especially  architecture,  does  not  as  yet  receive  from  us  that  thorough 
study  that  we  devote  to  the  business-affairs  of  life.  These  young  archi¬ 
tects  generally  lack  the  long  office-training  and  apprenticeship  which  go 
to  render  the  designs  of  the  French  and  the  English  so  varied  and  so 
rich. 

The  exhibition  of  the  drawings  of  the  art-students  of  Germany  alone 
fdled  large  buildings  at  Vienna  ;  and  their  beauty  and  the  care  devoted 
to  their  execution  attracted  the  admiration  of  all  nations.  Our  own  dis¬ 
play  was  meager  in  the  extreme  and  was  in  the  worst  of  taste.  May 
the  Government  foster  the  growth  of  art  among  us  and  aid. us  to  rival 
these  people. 

A  great  deal  could  be  effected  by  giving  the  erection  of  our  public 
buildings  to  the  most  competent  architects  and  sculptors  that  the  coun¬ 
try  affords.  These  would  then  serve  as  a  school  for  the  people  and  would 
keep  conspicuously  before  their  eyes  a  high  model  of  excellence. 

If  the  plans  of  our  post-offices  and  other  Government  buildings  had 
emanated  from  the  brain  of  a  Hunt  or  an  Upjohn  how  different  might 
have  been  the  result. 

The  modern  revival  in  art  in  England  can  almost  be  said  to  have  taken 
its  commencement  from  the  erection  of  the  Parliament-houses  in  Lon¬ 
don.  Hot  only  did  architects  there  find  a  model,  but  schools  of  joiners 
and  stone-carvers  were  formed,  whose  skill  is  conspicuous  in  the  great 
buildings  of  Manchester,  the  new  law-courts  of  London,  and  the  numer¬ 
ous  town-halls  arising  in  all  parts  of  i  he  country.  This  matter,  how¬ 
ever,  is  leading  us  away  from  the  immediate  discussion  of  iron,  and  we 
will  come  back  to  it  at  a  later  period  in  this  report. 

26.  Galvauized  iron  as  used  by  us  for  roofiug-purposes  is  unknown 
abroad,  and  would  be  considered  too  coarse  a  material  for  flue  buildings. 
Zinc  and  lead  are  used  for  this  purpose  there  in  modern  structures,  while 
the  traveler  in  Austria  is  struck  by  the  numerous  copper-covered  roofs 
of  the  old  churches,  which,  after  one  or  more  centuries  of  wear,  remain 
in  good  condition.  Tin  I  have  never  seen  used  for  roofiug-purposes  in 
Europe. 

27.  There  were  several  buildings  of  corrugated  iron  on  the  exhibition- 
grounds.  This  substance  is  nailed,  as  with  us,  upon  a  wooden  frame, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  daugerous  materials  for  spreading  conflagration 


IRON  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 


15 


known.  It  easily  becomes  heated  red-rot,  and  sets  off  the  wood  in  con¬ 
tact  with  it  like  tinder.  These  buildings  are  also  very  poor  non-conduc¬ 
tors  of  heat  aud  cold,  and  consequently  are  almost  uuiuhabitable  in 
summer  or  winter.  The  advantage  of  setting  up  a  wooden  frame  and  cov¬ 
ering  it  with  iron,  when  wood  can  also  be  obtained  for  the  exterior,  is 
not  easily  seen.  The  only  advantage  claimed  for  these  buildings  is  their 
portability. 


STONE  AND  WOOD. 


Carrara  marble  ;  American  and  foreign  stone  ;  Bedding-stone  ;  Stone  stair¬ 
ways  ;  Viennese  woods  ;  Parquetry;  Carpentry;  Framing;  Floor-scaffold¬ 
ing  ;  Partition-walls  ;  Wood  in  interiors. 

2S.  Stone. — In  treating  of  this  material,  the  field  is  so  extended  and 
the  different  qualities  vary  so  greatly,  even  when  taken  from  the  same 
quarry,  that  these  remarks  must  necessarily  be  very  general.  In  fact, 
the  object  in  speaking  of  building-materials  has  been,  not  to  describe 
each  sort  with  minuteness,  but  to  call  attention  to  a  few  important  facts 
which  do  not  as  yet  seem  to  be  appreciated  in  America.  Some  things  we 
know  almost  nothing  about,  and  a  report  dealing  with  particulars 
would  be  out  of  place. 

In  England,  terra  cotta  and  ornamental  wrought  iron  have  been  used 
in  various  forms  for  many  years,  and  the  manufacturers  are  naturally 
anxious  to  know  of  every  development  and  advance.  We  have  not  yet 
reached  this  point,  and  such  elaborate  compilations  as  the  English  re¬ 
ports  would  excite  but  little  interest  among  us. 

In  passing  through  the  north  of  Italy  a  day  was  devoted  to  the  inspec¬ 
tion  of  the  marble-quarries  of  Carrara.  The  sight  is  a  wonderful  one. 
As  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  in  all  directions,  the  hill  sides  and  the 
stretches  of  level  ground  are  white  with  fragments  of  marble.  Every 
instant  the  explosion  of  a  mine  is  heard  in  one  direction  or  another,  and 
a  constant  succession  of  heavy  wagous,  drawn  each  by  several  yoke  of 
oxen,  passes  along  a  deeply-rutted  road,  dragging  huge  blocks  of  marble 
to  the  workshops. 

Passing  through  the  town  itself,  one  fiuds,  in  almost  every  building, 
workmen  occupied  in  cutting  and  carviug  these  blocks. 

The  writer  visited  many  of  these  buildings,  and  entered  iuto  conversa¬ 
tion  with  the  men.  Some  were  working  upon  capitals  of  columus,  others 
upon  monumental  work  for  cemeteries.  On  inquiry,  it  appeared  that  a 
very  large  percentage  of  the  work  was  being  prepared  for  shipment  to 
America.  After  leaving  Carrara,  iu  a  railway-compartment  with  a  very 
communicative  Italian,  much  information  was  obtained  about  the  quar¬ 
ries.  He  stated  that  there  were  several  varieties  of  marble :  one  for 
building-purposes;  a  second  used  for  ordinary  sculpture ;  and,  finally, 
an  exquisitely  fine-grained  stone,  that  was  unsurpassed  for  statuary. 
“  But,’7  said  he,  “  you  are  certainly  au  American,”  and  he  at  once  re¬ 
commenced  conversation  in  Euglish,  and  stated  that  he  had  lived  some 


STONE  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 


17 


ten  years  at  Brattleborough,  Yt.,  where  he  had  worked  as  an  assistant 
in  Mr.  Meade’s  studio.  There,  by  a  strange  coincidence,  we  had  met 
years  before,  and  he  soon  recalled  the  occasion.  The  most  important 
fact  gathered  from  him  was  that  our  Vermont  marble  is  superior  to  the 
Italian  for  building-purposes. 

29.  The  point  which  we  wish  to  make  is  that  we  should  do  well  to  profit 
by  European  experience,  and  should  turn  our  attention  from  flinty 
granite  to  softer  stone.  The  finest  public  buildings  in  Italy  are  of  mar¬ 
ble.  In  Prance,  geueral  use  is  made  of  the  yellow  Caen  stone,  which  is 
also  a  limestone,  while  the  peculiarities  of  the  geological  formation 
call  for  a  more  extended  use  of  brick  in  Prussia,  Holland,  andEugland. 
Nowhere,  except  in  America,  is  cut  granite  used  in  mass  for  building- 
purposes.  Our  climate  is  such  that  marble  stands  very  well  without 
discoloration  if  one  may  judge  from  the  specimens  in  New  York. 

30.  A  point  which  we  are  too  apt  to  neglect  in  the  use  of  stone  is  the 
necessity  of  placing  it  on  its  bed-surface,  or  with  its  strata  horizontal. 
The  brown  free-stone  so  common  in  our  cities  has  a  well-defined  strati¬ 
fication,  and,  as  surely  as  the  layers  are  placed  vertically,  the  rain  and 
frost  enter  the  stone  and  split  it.  Thus  a  heavy  cornice  was  gradually 
sliced  off  and  finally  entirely  disappeared,  in  New  York,  and  careful 
inspection  of  almost  any  brown-stone  front  will  discover  indications  of 
the  neglect  of  this  precaution.  This  matter  is  so  important  for  the 
safety  of  pedestrians  that  it  would  be  well  to  notice  it  in  our  buildiug- 
acts. 

31.  Stone-stairways  are  found  in  all  Vienna  buildings,  a  stringent 
law  requiring  fire-proof  communication  between  attics  and  cellars.  The 
steps  are  made  of  single  blocks  of  stone,  built  in  generally  at  one  end 
only  in  the  masonry.  The  use  of  cement-blocks  for  this  purpose  has 
already  been  referred  to,  but  the  favorite  material  is  limestone  or  mar¬ 
ble.  These  stairways  are  furnished  with  iron  or  stone  balusters ;  stone- 
passages  communicate  with  them,  and  the  whole  is  built  in  a  masonry- 
well.  The  sky-lights  opening  into  them  are  iron-framed,  and,  in  fact, 
this  is,  as  it  should  be,  the  most  substantial  and  fire-proof  portion  of 
every  building.  In  theaters,  where  large  throngs  of  people  are  upon  a 
stairway  at  the  same  moment,  a  somewhat  different  plan  is  followed. 
An  ascending  vault  is  sprung  between  two  stout  masonry- walls  and 
the  stone-steps  are  supported  by  this.  It  is  hardly  conceivable  that  a 
fire  could  prevent  the  safe  exit  of  an  audience  when  these  precautions 
and  various  others  connected  with  the  illumination  and  stage-machinery 
are  taken.  It  would  be  desirable  to  introduce  such  stairways  into  our 
large  hotels  and  factories  as  well.  Nor  could,  in  this  case,  iron  be  sub¬ 
stituted.  If  cast  iron  were  used,  it  is  subject  to  the  disadvantages 
described  under  that  head  above,  and  wrought  iron,  while  less  substan¬ 
tial,  is  probably  fully  as  expensive  as  masonry. 

32.  Woods. — The  woods  used  in  Vienna  for  internal  finish  are  marked 
by  a  finer  grain  than  our  black  walnut  and  ash.  Some  of  the  former 

2  A 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


wood  was  exhibited  ;  but  it  was  declared  by  the  native  joiners  to  be  too 
coarse  for  neat  work.  To  an  eye  accustomed  to  the  delicate  gradations 
of  color  of  much  of  the  foreign  decorations,  the  contrast  of  black  waluut 
with  white  plastering  is  very  harsh,  nor  does  it  harmonize  with  ash  or 
oak  alone.  Paneling  of  ash  in  a  black-walnut  frame  with  cherry-wood 
moldings  forms  a  much  pleasanter  combination.  Our  butternut  is  as 
pleasing  as  any  of  the  ordinary  foreign  varieties. 

33.  Very  elaborate  exhibitions  of  parquet  inlaid  floorings  were  made 
by  Hungarian  and  Austrian  firms.  These  do  not  consist,  as  with  us,  of 
a  quarter-inch  of  veneering,  but  are  an  inch  and  a  half  of  solid  wood. 
Some  of  the  combinations  were  very  pleasing. 

For  a  traveler  wishing  to  study  what  can  be  done  iu  the  way  of  wains¬ 
coting,  paneled  ceilings,  and  inlaid  woods,  the  writer  would  recom¬ 
mend  a  visit  to  Alnwick  castle,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Northumber¬ 
land,  between  York,  England,  and  Edinburgh,  whence  Lord  Percy 
went  out  to  the  battle  of  Chevy  Chase. 

34.  The  late  duke  imported  some  thirty  Italian  wood-carvers  from 
Borne  and  Sienna,  and  employed  them  for  nine  years,  in  connection  with 
a  host  of  native  workmen,  in  refitting  the  interior  of  the  castle.  View¬ 
ing  it  externally,  one  would  not  dream  of  what  the  building  contains  ; 
but,  once  inside,  the  eye  is  enchanted.  The  work  here  done  was  the 
means  of  educating  the  entire  neighborhood  in  wood-carving  and  join¬ 
ery.  Schools  were  formed  taught  by  the  Italian  sculptors,  and  to-day 
the  people  of  Alnwick  number  among  them  many  of  the  most  skillful 
wood-carvers  of  Europe.  Our  Government,  or  some  of  our  rich  private 
citizens,  might  undertake  the  same  thing.  We  are  too  far  advanced 
to  day  to  look  upon  these  matters  provincially.  Much  has  been  effected 
in  England  by  the  liberality  of  the  rich  in  throwing  open  their  picture- 
galleries  and  private  collections  to  the  public.  The  attempt  to  improve 
them  in  their  handicrafts  would  be  a  step  further.  Iu  these  dull  times, 
anything  that  can  set  idle  hands  at  work  cannot  but  be  beneficial  to  the 
country.  It  seems  incredible  that  strong  men  willing  to  labor  should 
go  hungry  while  capital  lies  staguaut.  By  all  meaus  let  us  study  the 
result  of  foreign  experience  and  profit  by  it. 

35.  Carpentry  iu  Austria  and  iu  France  is  by  no  meaus  as  far  ad¬ 
vanced  as  with  us.  The  vast  quantity  of  wood  growing  upon  our  couti- 
uent  has  given  a  great  development  to  this  branch  of  industry  ;  and  in 
our  wooden  bridges  and  other  constructions  we  are  quite  the  equals, 
if  not  the  superiors,  of  foreign  nations. 

30.  Framed  buildings  are  uot  so  common  abroad  as  with  us  ;  they  are 
to  be  found  almost  uowhere  except  iu  Sweden  aud  Switzerland.  A 
common  form  of  construction  is  a  frame-work  filled  in  with  brick,  show¬ 
ing  the  timbers  between  the  latter.  This  is  called  iu  England  half- 
timbered  work.  There  were  several  very  tasteful  structures  of  this  sort 
ou  the  exhibition-grounds.  Amoug  them  was  one  built  by  the  Prince  of 
Schwarzenberg  to  cotitaiu  specimens  of  the  products  of  his  vast  domains. 


EUROPEAN  CARPENTRY. 


19 


The  timbers  were  in  this  case  champfered,  arranged  in  regular  truss- 
work  patterns,  and  painted  a  burned  sienna  color,  which  contrasts  very 
neatly  with  brick.  These  buildings  are  so  common  abroad  that  I  am 
surprised  not  to  have  seen  more  of  them  in  this  country.  , 

37.  Floors  are  built  with  heavier  timber  than  with  us.  In  Yienna,  the 
ordinary  depth  of  the  principal  rooms  in  dwellings  is  22  feet ;  and,  for 
this  span,  beams  of  8  inches  by  6  are  used;  these  support  joists,  upon 
which  the  flooring  is  nailed.  The  distance  apart  of  the  main  timbers  is 
2J  feet.  Very  often  boarding  is  nailed  to  their  lower  side  and  the  spaces 
between  them  then  filled  with  old  mortar,  plaster,  brick-dust,  or  some  simi¬ 
lar  incombustible  substance,  to  a  couple  of  inches  above  their  upper 
surface.  In  this  mass  the  joists  are  imbedded. 

Sometimes  a  second  series  of  timbers  3  by  4  inches  in  size  are  placed 
below  this  flooring  and  built  in  separately  from  it.  These  receive  the 
laths  and  plastering  and  the  stucco-work.  Such  ceilings  cannot  be  sub¬ 
ject  to  any  shock  given  the  floor  above,  and  the  plaster  does  not  crack 
upon  them.  They  are  also  nearly  sound-proof  and  fire-proof. 

Heavier  timbers  still  are  used  for  the  attic  flooring,  half  trees  being 
often  pinned  together  side  by  side  over  the  whole  extent,  and  above  all 
is  laid  a  brick  pavement. 

The  law  further  requires  that  the  masonry  walls  shall  extend  G  inches 
at  least  above  this  pavement  before  receiving  the  plate  for  the  roof- 
timbers. 

38.  The  scaffoldings  are  much  more  substantial  than  with  us ;  per¬ 
haps  we  might  think  unnecessarily  so.  Foreign  carpenters  depend  very 
little  upon  nails  in  any  of  their  work,  but  prefer  to  substitute  pins  of 
oak  and  heavy  iron  clamps. 

Nor  is  one  or  two  inch  stuff  at  all  common.  Theoretically,  a  joist 
measuring  12  inches  by  2  is  much  better  to  support  flooring  than  one 
measuring  9  by  3,  but  the  former  has  a  tendency  to  yield  laterally  which 
the  latter  has  to  a  less  extent,  even  where  bridging  is  used  at  frequent 
intervals.  We  reach  excessive  height  when  we  attempt  to  construct 
a  truss  50  feet  in  span  entirely  of  plank,  except  the  collar-pieces,  which 
are  of  board.  Something  of  this  sort,  of  equal  span,  having  a  rise  of 
only  2  or  3  feet  and  united  only  with  ten-penny  nails,  was  noticed  in  the 
Paine  memorial  building  in  Boston.  This  truss  is  said  to  have  so  unpleas¬ 
antly  affected  the  inspector  of  public  buildings  in  that  city  that  he 
ordered  its  removal.  This  is  certainly  a  step  in  the  right  direction. 

39.  An  important  provision  in  Yienna  against  the  spread  of  fire  is 
the  substitution  of  brick  for  wooden  partition  walls.  It  is  astonishing 
to  glance  at  the  iuterior  of  some  of  our  great  buildings — in  which  cast- 
iron  columns  and  fronts  are  used — during  their  erection.  The  inside 
seems  literally  full  of  wood ;  ceilings,  floors,  and  walls,  before  plaster¬ 
ing,  present  an  enormous  expanse  of  this  material,  here  used  in  the  worst 
possible  combination. 

In  the  great  fire  at  Boston,  the  destruction  of  such  buildings  was  the 


20 


VIENNA  INTEKNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873- 


work  of  only  a  few  instants.  The  iron  columns  became  red  hot,  bent 
and  gave  way,  and  the  roof  and  upper  stories  came  toppling  down  in  a 
blazing  mass,  endangering  the  lives  of  firemen  and  all  in  the  vicinity. 

Such  places  are  tinder-boxes  and  deserve  the  attention  of  legislators. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  history  of  Chicago  and  Boston  will  not  have 
to  be  repeated  before  we  learn  wisdom. . 

However,  several  firms  in  our  country  are  manufacturing  blocks  of 
cheap  material  well  calculated  to  serve  for  fire-proof  partition-walls; 
and  the  frequent  occurrence  of  brick-vaulted  ceilings  is  very  inspiriting. 
Still  better  would  be  the  introduction  of  thicker  walls,  capable  of  sus¬ 
taining  vaults  built  of  masonry  and  without  the  use  of  iron.  In  Vienna, 
passages  are  frequently  covered  in  this  way,  and  in  the  music-hall  of 
that  city  all  the  rooms  of  the  lower  story  are  covered  by  vaults  sprung 
from  wall  to  wall.  Some  of  these  are  cylindrical ;  others  are  segments 
of  spheres  or  domes,  and  are  made  of  hollow  brick.  Our  building  acts 
are  certainly  improving,  but  they  are  still  far  from  perfect. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ARCHITECTURAL  ARRANGEMENTS;  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS. 

Peculiar  types  ;  Railway-stations  ;  Vienna  Opera-House  ;  Defects  of  American 

practice  ;  Drainage  ;  Milanese  Arcade  ;  Exchange  at  Brussels  ;  Location  ; 

Exhibition-buildings  ;  Landscape-gardening  ;  Defects  of  American  church- 

architecture  ;  Cultivation  ;  Training. 

40.  Many  foreign  cities  present  forms  of  building  which  are  un¬ 
known  here.  Such  are  the  great  glazed  galleries  or  passages  of  Milan 
and  Brussels.  Hotels  and  public  buildings  are  also  constructed  around 
large  interior  glass-covered  courts,  reached  generally  by  a  carriage-way. 

41.  We  have  as  yet  done  little  in  the  way  of  railway-stations  that  will 
bear  any  comparison  with  those  of  any  of  the  foreign  capitals.  Proba¬ 
bly  the  finest  thing  of  this  sort  in  America,  in  comfort,  convenience,  and 
taste,  is  the  new  Providence  R.  R.  depot  in  Boston.  It  is  closely  modeled 
after  some  of  the  best  French  and  English  stations.  As  a  nation,  we  hope 
some  day  to  do  a  great  deal  that  is  original  and  good  in  the  way  of  archi¬ 
tecture,  but  at  present  our  only  hope  is  to  study  and  utilize  the  patterns 
given  us  by  European  experience.  Experience  alone  can  demonstrate 
what  is  useful,  and  generally  what  is  pleasing.  And  this  being  the 
thing  which  we  especially  lack,  the  most  rational  course  for  us  to  pursue 
is  to  study  it  where  its  effects  and  results  are  stored  up  for  us. 

42.  Many  elaborate  models  in  plaster  of  paris  of  the  most  important 
buildings  either  erecting,  projected,  or  recently  completed  in  different 
parts  of  Europe  were  conspicuous  objects  in  different  portions  of  the 
Vienna  Exhibition.  One  large  department  was  filled  with  Austrian 
plans  and  models. 

43.  Building  activity  in  Vienna,  as  well  as  iu  Pesth  and  the  capitals 
of  the  other  Austrian  provinces,  has  of  late  years  been  intense.  Carried 
to  too  great  an  excess,  it  was  the  cause  of  the  recent  money-panic  in 
Vieuna.  There  are,  at  present,  in  course  of  erection  in  that  city  an 
academy  of  the  fine  arts,  a  town-hall  of  400  feet  front,  two  large  mu¬ 
seums,  a  parliament  house,  and  a  building  of  vast  extent  to  contain  all 
the  faculties  of  the  university.  The  general  plan  of  all  of  these,  with 
one  exception,  is  similar.  One  or  more  large  central  courts  afford  light 
to  the  interior  rooms,  and  are  admirably  fitted  for'  the  location  of  court¬ 
rooms  and  for  lecture-halls,  where  quiet  is  a  desideratum.  When  these 
courts  are  of  large  size,  say  60  feet  square,  the  sunlight  finds  direct  ac¬ 
cess  to  many  portions  of  the  building  from  which  it  is  excluded  with  us. 

44.  The  styles  of  these  buildings  are  all  different.  The  renaissance, 
Gothic,  Greek,  and  Roman  architectures  are  all  to  be  represented  in  their 


22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


purity,  and  each  building  is  intrusted  to  a  master  who  has  made  one  of 
these  schools  his  specialty.  Some  S-0,000,000,  at  the  lowest  estimate, 
will  be  required  for  their  completion. 

45.  Of  the  buildings  already  erected  in  Vienna,  the  Opera-House 
above  all  others  deserves  especial  notice.  After  the  new  Paris  Opera- 
House,  this  is  the  first  structure  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The  taste 
and  magnificence  of  the  interior  are  admirable,  and  the  most  ample 
precautions  are  taken  to  guard  againt  fire.  Numerous  stone  stairways 
lead  to  all  portions  of  the  house,  and  vaulted  passages  give  access  to 
these.  The  stage  is  surrounded  by  masonry,  with  tiers  of  stone  and 
brick  galleries  from  which  numerous  streams  of  water  can  be  directed  at 
a  moment’s  notice  upon  the  scenery  and  scaffoldings.  An  ample  foyer 
offers  an  agreeable  promenade  to  the  audience  during  the  intermissions, 
while  the  comfort  and  roominess  of  the  seats  deserve  all  praise.  Here, 
something  has  been  done  to  please  the  eye  and  to  elevate  and  refine 
the  taste  of  the  public,  who  are  not  merely  treated  as  individuals  from 
whom  money  is  to  be  extracted.  The  arrangements  for  ventilation  and 
the  preservation  of  an  equable  temperature  are  also  excellent;  and  at 
the  close  of  a  performance  the  auditorium  is  not  sensibly  warmer  than 
at  the  commencement. 

For  this  purpose,  steam-engines  are  employed  pumping  in  fresh  air 
and  drawing  off  that  which  is  vitiated  as  fast  as  its  vitality  is  exhausted- 

46.  Where  the  government  undertakes  the  erection  of  these  buildings 
for  public  purposes,  the  best  results  can  be  much  more  readily  attained 
than  where,  as  with  us,  they  are  left  to  private  enterprise.  Yet  even 
in  our  couutry  restrictions  and  wise  laws  can  be  productive  of  much 
good.  Precautions  against  the  spread  of  fire,  regard  for  the  safety  of 
the  public  in  the  condemnation  of  improper  forms  of  construction,  and 
the  introduction  of  sanitary  measures  to  insure  cleanliness  and  the 
proper  access  of  sun  light  and  air  are  all  desirable. 

47.  We  are  very  careless  iu  America  about  the  location  of  water- 
closets  in  buildings.  These  are  to  be  seen  iu  many  hotels  and  theaters 
far  in  the  interior,  removed  from  all  possibility  of  ventilation.  The 
building-laws  of  Vienna  may  teach  us  a  lesson  in  this  respect.  All 
rooms  devoted  to  this  purpose  must  have  a  sufficient  number  of  win¬ 
dows  opeuiug,  uot  iuto  other  apartments,  but  directly  into  the  outer  air. 

48.  We  have  also  much  to  learn  iu  the  matter  of  drainage.  Our  cess¬ 
pools,  loosely  built  without  mortar,  allow  all  liquids  to  filter  directly 
iuto  the  surrounding  soil,  where,  after  this  excellent  disinfectant  has 
become  saturated,  they  distribute  their  emauations  and  pollute  all 
springs  and  wells  for  many  yards  around,  causing  typhoid  fever  and 
epidemics.  The  proper  substitute  for  this  is  a  closely-cemeuted  recep¬ 
tacle  which  should  be  frequently  emptied. 

As  yet  we  have  found  this  latter  expedient  too  expensive  aud  trouble¬ 
some,  and  it  looks  as  if  a  plague  might  be  necessary  to  bring  us  to  our 


senses. 


ARCHITECTURAL  MODELS. 


23 


The  waste  of  useful  fertilizing  matter  it  is  li  a  felly  within  my  province 
to  treat;  but  a  great  (leal  in  this  respect  cau  be  learned  of  the  Chinese, 
whose  older  civilization  has  taught  them  economy  in  this  important 
matter.  English  firms  are  already  bidding  for  the  sewage  of  St. 
Petersburg,  and  other  cities,  which  they  will  deodorize  and  probably 
find  as  profitable  as  guano. 

49.  But  returning  to  the  architectural  models:  First  was  noticeable 
in  the  rotunda  the  glass-covered  passage  of  Milan.  This  is  the  largest 
and  finest  in  the  world,  and  cau  be  easily  described  as  a  broad,  hand¬ 
some  street  of  fine  buildings,  of  equal  height,  from  whose  cornices  iron 
girders,  stretching  across  the  way,  carry  a  glass  roof.  The  lower  stories 
are  shops  and  coffee-houses,  and  the  whole  forms  an  agreeable  retreat 
in  rainy  weather  for  proruenaders  and  for  ladies  intent  on  shopping. 
It  is  not  accessible  to  carriages,  and  the  great  expanse  of  its  tessellated 
pavement  affords  room  for  a  large  number  of  pedestriaus.  It  abounds 
in  pleasing  architectural  decoration,  a  rich  play  of  color,  sculpture,  and 
painting. 

50.  Another  model  in  the  rotunda  was  of  the  new  Exchauge  at  Brus¬ 
sels,  one  of  the  finest  modern  buildings  of  Europe,  and  the  first  of  its 
class  in  existence.  The  building  itself  was  visited  at  a  later  period,  and 
the  writer  can  attest  the  magnificence  of  its  inner  fittings  and  its  com¬ 
modiousness  and  accessibility  by  various  entrauces,  standing,  as  it  does, 
disengaged  in  the  center  of  a  square. 

51.  This  position  is  certainly  the  proper  one  for  all  important  build¬ 
ings.  Much  of  the  imposing  appearance  of  Paris  is  owing  to  the  skillful 
location  of  its  finest  structures,  at  the  junction  of  several  streets.  A 
view  is  thus  gained  of  their  proportions  from  various  points,  and  they 
are  easily-discoverable  and  conspicuous  landmarks.  The  custom  of 
laying  out  our  American  cities  like  the  squares  of  a  checker  board,  as  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia,  renders  this  impossible,  at  present,  with 
us.  To  view  our  churches  and  finest  structures  it  is  necessary  to  cross 
the  street  and  raise  the  head  painfully,  while  in  the  narrower  streets  their 
architectural  effect  is  entirely  lost.  How  imposing  is  the  approach  to 
the  Madeleine,  to  the  Gare  du  Nord,  or  to  the  new  Opera-House  in  Paris  ; 
and  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  arrests  the  eye  on  entering  any  one  of  the 
numerous  avenues  which  radiate,  star-like,  from  it  as  a  center. 

52.  The  Viennese  models  included  the  buildings  before  referred  to,  and 
must  have  been  prepared  at  great  expense.  The  new  Town-Hall  by  the 
German  leader  of  gothic  architecture,  Mr.  Schmidt,  is  in  mauy  respects 
an  originally-conceived  structure,  and  is  familiar  to  the  readers  of  the 
London  Architect  and  Building  News.  It  is  supposed  that  ten  years 
will  be  occupied  in  building  it.  One  of  the  most  pleasing  effects  of  the 
architecture  of  Vienna  arises  from  the  uniformity  in  height  of  the  build¬ 
ings  on  the  principal  streets,  and  their  wide  fronts,  presenting,  some¬ 
times  for  200  feet,  the  same  unbroken  lines  of  cornices  and  windows. 
Adjoining  buildings  vary  sufficiently  in  architectural  detail  to  avoid 


24 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


monotony,  but  an  attempt  is  generally  made  to  carry  certain  important 
liues  across  an  entire  block.  There  are  thus  a  majesty  and  repose  in  her 
great  thoroughfares  that  are  entirely  lacking  in  such  districts  as,  for  in¬ 
stance,  the  rebuilt  portion  of  burned  Boston.  There  a  thousand  varie¬ 
ties  of  taste  have  been  allowed  to  run  riot,  and  in  general  our  tendency 
is  to  attract  attention  by  giving  to  our  particular  building  a  greater 
height  than  its  surroundings  or  by  varying  its  architecture  and  its  ma¬ 
terial  as  much  as  possible  from  the  ordinary  style.  Thus  have  arisen 
those  strange  productions  of  wild  fancy,  the  Tribune  and  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  building,  New  York. 

53.  A  little  farther  down,  on  the  east  side  of  Broadway,  the  Equitable 
Insurance  Company,  formerly  possessing  one  of  the  most  dignified  and 
imposing  fronts  of  New  York,  is  now  emulating  these  rivals  by  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  an  abnormal  roof,  containing  a  ninth  and  a  tenth  story,  while  the 
harmony  of  the  design  is  impaired  by  a  change  of  the  architect  in  the  midst 
of  the  work.  This  latter  building,  however,  is  a  fine  instance  of  what 
American  enterprise  can  achieve  when  it  is  for  its  interest  to  put  forth 
its  powers.  Six  elevators  mount  to  the  height  of  150  feet,  making  the 
upper  stories  as  accessible  as  the  ground-floor,  while  the  fine  ranges  of 
otlices,  though  commanding  very  large  rents,  are  all  occupied,  and  pay  a 
handsome  return  on -the  capital  expended.  No  business-building  in  Eu¬ 
rope  can  compare  with  this  in  convenience  and  comfort,  nor  so  admira¬ 
bly  fulfils  its  design.  It  is  also  satisfactory  to  know  that  it  is  as  nearly 
fire-proof  as  it  can  be,  having  an  iron  roof,  stone  stairways,  and  masonry 
elevator-wells  built  on  the  exterior,  as  the  law  requires. 

54.  The  buildings  upon  the  Exhibition-grounds  will  be  so  fully  de¬ 
scribed  in  special  reports  that  nothing  need  be  said  of  them  here, 
except  that  the  plan  was  not  as  well  adapted  as  that  iu  Paris,  in  1867, 
for  viewing  the  products  of  the  different  countries  in  groups.  Some  of 
the  entrances  were  very  imposing;  but,  from  the  great  height  to  which 
they  were  carried,  they  completely  overtowered  the  buildings  them¬ 
selves,  and  did  not  seem  to  be  organic  parts  of  them.  The  rotunda,  de¬ 
signed  by  J.  Scott  Russell,  of  Loudou,  was  a  grand  achievement  of  en¬ 
gineering,  and  will  doubtless  be  fully  described  iu  the  proper  place. 

55.  One  of  the  most  pleasing  features  of  the  whole  exhibition  was  the 
landscape-gardening  and  general  laying  out  of  the  grounds.  Avenues 
lined  with  shade-trees  led  to  the  main  entrances,  and  frequent  fountains 
cooled  the  air  and  pleased  the  eye.  Great  stretches  of  lawn  and  flower¬ 
beds  added  to  the  park-like  effect  of  the  whole. 

56.  The  writer  has  probably  shown,  thus  far  in  this  report,  that  we 
have  a  great  deal  to  learn  from  the  other  side  of  the  water.  We  doubt¬ 
less  teach  the  world  much  that  is  valuable  by  rnauy  of  our  productions. 
Our  suspension-bridges  and  many  of  our  engineering  achievements  are 
warmly  praised  abroad,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  iu  artistic  effect  we 
are  yet  far  iu  the  rear.  Before  closing  this  paper  the  writer  wishes  to 
refer  to  a  few  other  points  iu  buildiug-mattersiu  this  country,  and  to  com- 


CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE. 


25 


pare  our  efforts  with  similar  foreign  ones.  The  point  to  be  made  is  that 
neither  the  public  nor  our  professional  men  are  as  yet  sufficiently 
trained  to  creditably  meet  the  problems  before  us. 

Of  late  years  a  large  number  of  churches  have  been  erected  in  our 
rapidly-growing  cities.  The  new  region  upon  the  Back  Bay  district  in 
Boston  contains  many  of  these  structures,  and  in  New  York  the  upper 
parts  of  Fifth  and  Madison  avenues  have  offered  locations  for  a  corre¬ 
sponding  number.  It  is  extraordinary  how  few  of  these  will  bear  criti¬ 
cism.  In  some  the  architects  have  been  so  engrossed  in  their  studies  of 
frescoing  aud  colored  glass  that  they  have  forgotten  utility.  The  cler¬ 
gyman’s  voice  is  often  inaudible  even  in  the  front  pews,  and  either 
almost  total  darkness  or  a  dazzling  flood  of  light  interferes  with  the 
comfort  of  the  congregation. 

The  matter  of  acoustics  is  one  that  of  late  years  has  made  but  little 
advance,  but  certainly  such  great  defects  in  hearing-properties  as  are 
present  in  some  of  our  new  edifices  could  have  been  avoided.  M.  Gar- 
nier,  the  architect  of  the  new  Opera  House  in  Paris,  has  written  a  very 
interesting  pamphlet  on  the  subject  of  theaters.  He  maintains  that  it 
is  always  possible  to  predict  before  the  erection  of  a  building  whether 
it  will  be  acoustically  good  or  bad.  As  regards  the  architectural  appear¬ 
ance  of  these  churches,  a  tendency  is  noticeable,  as  in  the  secular  struc¬ 
tures  I  have  spoken  of  above,  to  strive  after  novelty  of  form  aud  effect. 
Now  all  critics  agree  that  what  is  new  has  always  been  of  slow  growth, 
and  that  whenever  an  attempt  is  made  to  strike  out  abruptly  into  a  new 
path  the  result  is  a  failure. 

57.  A  great  deal  that  is  old  in  Europe  is  new  to  us ;  and  if  novelty  is 
our  object,  we  should  do  better  to  study  this  than  to  attempt  to  create. 
In  design  there  is  no  doubt  that  whatever  is  produced  owes  its  origin, 
in  great  part,  to  the  remembrance  of  something  seen  before.  Let  us 
then  look  at  what  is  good  in  training  our  hand  and  eye,  rather  than  at¬ 
tempt  to  rake  up  from  the  store  houses  of  our  memory  what  we  have 
imbibed  we  know  not  how  or  where. 

58.  Again,  we  are  much  inclined,  as  a  people,  to  set  at  work  with  all 
energy,  before  the  matter  in  hand  has  received  the  proper  considera¬ 
tion.  Then,  wheu  all  is  completed,  we  often  wish  that  we  had  gone  to 
work  in  an  entirely  different  manner.  Thus,  the  Back  Bay  district  of 
Boston  has  been  rapidly  covered  with  palatial  residences,  at  the  expense 
of  many  millions  of  dollars,  until,  to-day,  no  similar  tract  can  be  found 
in  the  entire  world  which  can  exhibit  an  equal  number  of  people  living 
in  luxury,  with  all  their  surroundings  rich  and  in  keeping.  But  sud¬ 
denly — only  fifteen  years  since  the  whole  was  a  tract  of  water — the 
owners  of  these  residences  regret  that  the  bay  was  not  filled  in  to  a 
height  of  several  additional  feet.  Drainage  will  probably  have  to  be 
assisted  by  steam-pumps ;  while  some  predict  that,  from  the  unhealthy 
condition  of  the  district,  the  whole  must  be  raised  or  ultimately  aban¬ 
doned  as  a  dwelling-place. 


26 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Again,  after  the  fire  in  the  same  city,  many  of  the  streets  were 
widened,  but  only  to  a  slight  extent.  Washington  street,  the  principal 
thoroughfare,  was  increased  in  width  at  certain  poiuts  by  3  or  I  inches. 
The  day  will  soon  come  when  we  shall  wish  that  it 'had  been  widened 
by  a  great  many  more  feet. 

In  all  these  matters  some  more  efficient  supervision  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  is  called  for.  We  have  inspectors  of  buildings;  but  their  number 
appears  insufficient  or  they  are  not  properly  trained  for  their  positions. 

A  case  illustrating  in  a  marked  manner  this  truth  is  that  of  Dr.  Hall’s 
church,  on  Fifth  avenue,  New  York.  This  building  had  nearly  reached 
completion  when  the  parish  was  informed  that  the  main  front  projected 
beyond  the  sidewalk-line  by  a  short  distance  and  that  the  whole  must 
be  pulled  down.  This  could  only  have  occurred  through  the  negligence 
of  the  surveyor,  of  the  inspector,  or  of  the  architect.  The  inspector  was, 
in  any  case,  evidently  to  blame.  In  a  similar  case  in  Vienna,  where  a 
company  engaged  in  building  a  new  theater  had  transgressed  in  the 
same  way,  the  matter  was  settled  for  a  small  fine,  the  government 
tacitly  acknowledging  that  it  was  itself  to  blame  for  not  arresting  the 
work  at  an  earlier 'Stage. 

59.  We  have  before  referred  to  the  part  played  by  the  rich,  in  England 
and  elsewhere,  in  improving  the  taste  of  the  people.  Foreign  govern¬ 
ments  have  considered  it  as  necessary  to  establish  academies  of  the  tine 
arts  and  art-museums  as  military  and  naval  schools.  In  the  former 
institutions  the  young  are  taught  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  and 
engraving;  and  from  the  study  of  the  museums  they  receive  the  inspira¬ 
tion  necessary  for  the  production  of  works  of  merit.  Libraries  contain¬ 
ing  standard  works  on  art,  and  the  numerous  art-periodicals  published 
in  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Stuttgardt,  are  connected  with 
them.  Here,  also,  photographs  of  buildings,  paintings,  and  engravings 
are  to  be  found,  and  are  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  student  and  of 
the  public.  Lectures  are  delivered  at  frequent  intervals,  and  prizes  are  * 
offered  to  the  students,  many  of  them  being  in  the  form  of  scholarships, 
enabling  them  to  travel  for  several  years  in  Italy  and  Greece.  The 
most  prominent  graduates  of  these  institutions  are  intrusted  with  gov¬ 
ernmental  works,  and  no  worker,  whatever  be  his  position,  is  expected 
to  undertake  any  labor  without  having  previously  received  the  proper 
training.  Still  more,  in  the  advancement  of  art,  England  and  Germany 
have  sent  workmen  to  Italy  to  model  in  plaster  the  entire  fronts  of  the 
most  famous  buildings  of  antiquity,  in  order  to  still  further  enrich  their 
museums.  In  the  South  Iveusingtou  Museum,  at  London,  the  results  of 
such  work  upon  the  front  of  the  famous  Certosa,  near  Pavia,  are  to  be 
seen  reproduced  in  terra  cotta.  We  have  no  antique  remains  in  America; 
but  we  can  certainly  supply  their  place  in  this  manner.  Thus  artists 
are  educated  abroad  and  are  qualified  to  produce  monuments  which 
will  command  the  admiration  of  posterity. 

How  iuterestiug  is  a  visit  to  Bouen  or  Chartres,  in  France,  or  to  any 


EUROPEAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


27 


of  the  old  capitals  of  Italy.  The  eye  is  enchanted  by  beauty  and  rich¬ 
ness  of  form  aiid  color  on  every  side;  but  who  is  charmed  or  inspired 
by  a  stay  in  our  Washington,  after  the  novelty  of  the  impression  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  great  size  and  cost  of  our  Government  structures  has 
passed  away  ?  It  is  hard  for  those  of  us  who  have  passed  all  our  lives 
in  America  to  picture  what  might  be  done  in  these  matters ;  and  yet 
few  of  us  fail  to  be  delighted  on  viewing  the  great  works  of  the  Old 
World.  There  the  whole  atmosphere  changes.  Money-getting  is  low¬ 
ered  to  a  less  prominent  position  in  every-day  life.  The  intense  hurry 
which  wears  us  out  and  leads  us  constantly  to  overstep  our  mark  is  no 
longer  to  be  noticed.  Mature  deliberation  precedes  every  important 
movement.  In  art,  the  attempt  is  made  to  have  a  reason  and  an  object 
for  every  step  taken.  Meaningless  ornamentation  is  avoided  and  every¬ 
thing  fulfills  some  end.  Our  school  lies  open  to  us.  Let  us  first  take 
in  all  that  our  masters  can  teach  us;  and  then,  and  not  till  then,  let  us 
attempt  to  improve  upon  them. 


INDEX 


Article.  Page. 

American  church  architecture,  defects  of .  56  24 

and  European  designs  compared .  53  24 

and  foreign  stone .  29  17 

practice,  defects  of .  47  22 

Arcade,  Milanese .  49  23 

Architecture  of  American  churches,  defects  of .  56  24 

direction  of  improvement .  57-59  25 

Austrian  brick-manufacture .  7  6 

terracotta;  quality .  2  5 

Basins,  construction  of . 17  9 

Bedding-stone .  30  17 

Bonding  walls .  10  7 

Breakwaters,  cement .  22  11 

Brick,  peculiar  kinds  of . 12  8 

Viennese  molded .  6  6 

manufacture,  Austrian .  7  6 

Brick- work,  carved,  red  cement  for .  15  9 

in  the  United  States .  11  8 

Brussels  Exchange .  50  23 

Buildings,  Exhibition . • .  54  24 

framed .  36  18 

in  progress .  43  21 

public,  locating .  51  23 

Viennese . 20  10 

Carpentry . 35  18 

Carrara  marble .  28  16 

Carved  brick- work,  red  cement  for .  15  9 

Cast  and.  wrought  iron . 23  13 

Castings  in  cement . .  18  10 

and  forgings . 24  13 

Cement .  14  9 

breakwaters .  22  11 

castings .  18  10 

foundations  laid  in .  16  9 

red,  for  carved  brick- work .  15  9 

structures . .* .  19  10 

Church  architecture,  American,  defects  of . .  56  24 

Construction,  metals  used  in .  23  13 

Corrugated  iron . 27  14 

Designs,  American  and  European,  compared .  53  24 

defects  in,  remedy .  5  6 

variety  and  uniformity  in .  52  23 

Drawings .  48  22 

Duke  of  Northumberland,  work  of . 34  18 


30 


INDEX. 


Article.  Page. 

Euglish  tiles .  8  7 

European  aud  American  designs  compared .  53  24 

economy  in  tlie  use  of  stone .  4  5 

Exchange  at  Brussels . .  50  23 

Exhibition  buildings .  54  24 

Floors .  37  19 

Foreign  aud  American  stone .  29  17 

Forgings  and  castings .  24  13 

Foundations  laid  in  cement .  16  9 

Framed  buildings .  36  18 

Furring  and  lathing .  13  8 

Galvanized  iron  and  roofing-metal .  26  14 

Gardening,  landscape . . .  55  24 

Governmental  work . 46  22 

Granite,  its  extravagant  use  in  the  United  States .  3  5 

Interiors,  wood  in  ;  partition-walls .  39  19 

Iron,  corrugated . 27  14 

galvanized,  and  roofing-metal .  26  14 

wrought  and  cast .  23  13 

Landscape  gardening .  55  24 

Lathing  and  furring . . .  13  8 

Locating  public  buildings .  51  23 

Marble,  Carrara .  28  16 

Mastic .  21  11 

Metals,  roofing,  and  galvanized  iron .  26  14 

used  in  construction .  23  13 

Milan,  arcade  at .  49  23 

Models  and  plans  exhibited .  42  21 

Molded  brick,  Viennese .  6  6 

Northumberland,  Duke  of,  work  of .  34  18 

Opera-House  at  Vienna .  45  22 

Parquetry . 33  18 

Partition-walls;  wood  in  interiors .  39  19 

Plans  perfected,  to  precede  work .  58  25 

and  models  exhibited .  42  21 

Public  buildings,  locating .  51  23 

Railway-stations .  41  21 

Red  cement  for  carved  brick-work . 15  9 

Roman  tiles;  their  use .  9  7 

Roofing-metal  and  galvanized  iron . 26  14 

Scaffolding .  38  19 

Stairways .  31  17 

Stone,  American  and  foreign .  29  17 

bedding .  30  1/ 

Carrara  marble .  28  16 

European  economy  iu  the  use  of..., .  4  5 

Styles  adopted .  44  21 

Taste,  cultivation  of;  training .  59  26 

Terra  cotta .  1  5 

Austrian ;  quality .  2  5 

Tiles,  English .  8  7 

Roman;  their  use .  9  7 

Training;  cultivation  of  taste .  59  26 

Types,  peculiar .  10  7 

United  States,  brick-work  in .  11 


INDEX. 


31 


Article.  Page. 


United  States,  extravagant  use  of  granite  in .  3  5 

training  needed  in .  25  13 

Vienna,  Opera-House  in .  45  22 

woods  used  iu .  32  17 

Viennese  building .  20  10 

molded  brick . , .  6  6 

Walls,  bonding .  10  7 

partitions  ;  wood  in  interiors .  30  19 

Wood  in  interiors  ;  partition-walls .  39  19 

used  in  Vienna . .  32  17 

Wrought  and  cast  iron .  23  13 


o 


c. 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


N.  M.  LOWE. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


REPORT 


ON 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES 


N.  M.  LOWE, 

MEMBER  OF  THE  ARTISAN  COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1875. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

*  AMERICAN  EXHIBITS  AND  METHODS. 

Art.  Page. 

1.  The  American  exhibit  ;  Awards . , .  5 

2.  American  carriage- wheels  . .  6 

3.  Furniture;  Wood-working  machinery;  Carriages;  Mosaic .  6 

4.  Effects  of  hygroscopic  changes . . .  7 

5.  Necessity  of  double  windows  in  cold  climates .  8 

6.  Advantages  of  a  knowledge- of  iiygrometry .  8 

7.  Philosophy  of  shrinkage  and  drying .  9 

8.  Method  of  seasoning  adopted  by  Mr.  George  Woods .  10 

9.  Method  of  (jetting  out  stock .  10 

CHAPTER  II. 

DETAILED  REPORT  ON  EXHIBITS. 

10.  Classification .  11 

11.  Building .  11 

12.  Veneers .  13 

13.  Parquetry  and  marquetry . 13 

14.  Cooperage .  14 

15.  Wood-carving .  15 

1G.  Furniture .  16 

17.  Fancy  goods . . .  23 

18.  Machine-made  articles .  24 

19.  Willow- ware .  24 

20.  Wood  for  musical  instruments .  25 

21.  Conclusion .  25 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

AMERICAN  EXHIBITS  AND  METHODS. 

The  American  exhibit;  Awards;  Carriage-wheels;  Furniture;  Wood-work¬ 
ing  MACHINERY ;  CARRIAGES ;  MOSAICS ;  EFFECTS  OF  HYGROSCOPIC  CHANGES 
Double  windows  in  cold  climates;  Seasoning. 

1.  The  American  exhibit  in  Group  VIII  was  extremely  deficient.  Onr 
people  work  wood  with  as  great,  if  not  greater,  facility  than  those  of  any 
other  country,  if  we  leave  out  of  consideration  the  finer  artistic  carving, 
inlaying,  and  mosaics.  It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  we  had 
several  large  and  excellent  exhibits  of  wood-work  that  were  ruled  out 
of  this  group,  under  the  regulation  that  no  article  could  be  entered  for 
a  premium  in  two  groups.  There  was  the  school-house  with  its  furni¬ 
ture,  and  school-furniture,  in  considerable  variety,  in  the  educational 
department.  They  were  excellent  of  their  kind.  In  the  exhibits  of 
other  countries,  these  were  classed  in  Group  VIII.  Then,  there  were 
musical  instruments,  consisting  of  two  very  large  exhibits  of  cabinet- 
organs,  the  cabinet-work  of  one  of  which,  at  least — that  of  Messrs.  Mason 
&  Hamlin,  of  Boston — would  have  taken  an  award  for  its  good  work¬ 
manship  and  fine  designs,  as  well  as  its  solidity  of  construction— which 
latter  was  abundantly  shown  by  the  manner  in  which  it  had  withstood 
changes  of  climate — if  it  were  not  for  the  other  reasons  given.  Both 
houses  having  exhibits  in  this  line  benefited  by  the  exhibition  in  the 
receipt  of  orders.  Some  good  work  was  shown  in  the  piano-forte  cases 
from  New  York,  contributed  by  Steck,  which  fully  sustained  the  repu¬ 
tation  of  fine  American  wood-work. 

Premiums  were  awarded  to  the  following  American  exhibitors :  George 
W.  Howe,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  vent  and  bung,  diploma ;  Pope  Brothers  & 
Krugman,of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  lacquered  gilt  and  black- walnut  moldings, 
medal  of  progress;  John  G.  Davis,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  carriage-wheels 
and  stock,  medal  for  good  taste ;  Wheeler  and  Wilson  Cabinet  Com¬ 
pany,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  veneers,  medal  of  progress  ;  Charles  Weeks 
&  Co.,  of  New  York  City,  wheels,  medal  of  progress ;  United  States  gun- 
stocks,  Springfield  Armory,  medal  of  progress ;  Woodburn  Savern  Wheel 
Company,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  wheels,  medal  of  progress  ;  A.  S.  Parks, 
of  Winchendon,  Mass.,  pails,  medal  of  progress ;  B.  F.  Sturtevant,  of 
Boston,  Mass.,  machine  peg-wood,  medal  for  good  taste. 

It  will  be  seen,  on  examination,  that  America  received  more  medals 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

iii  this  group  than  were  awarded  to  England ;  the  latter  being  only 
ahead  in  having  one  diploma  of  honor. 

2.  The  large  preponderance  in  exhibits  of  wheels  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  wheels  were  shipped  largely  from  the  United  States  to  all 
parts  of  Europe,  even  to  Vienna.  We  do  not  know  to  what  extent  the 
trade  in  American  wheels  was  increased  by  the  exhibition ;  but  they 
were  greatly  admired  by  the  jury,  and  our  beautiful  hickory  wheels’’ 
were  frequently  alluded  to  by  them.  The  American  carriage- wheel  is  a 
production  which  we  can  justly  pride  ourselves  upon.  It  is  so  con¬ 
structed  as  to  combine  a  maximum  of  strength  with  a  minimum  of 
weight.  This  result  is  obtained,  in  a  measure,  by  the  wood  employed, 
and  by  the  manner  of  using  it,  the  bent  rim,  and  the  setting  of  the 
spokes  in  the  hub  in  such  a  way  as  to  present  a  plane  disk  instead  of  a 
concave  wheel,  as  in  the  case  of  all  European  wheels.  Our  spokes  are 
either  set  so  as  to  present  a  large  base  of  support  at  the  hub,  or  they 
are  supported  by  irou  flanges  upon  their  sides.  To  illustrate  the  superi¬ 
ority  of  the  American  over  the  European  wheel,  it  may  be  shown  that, 
while  the  American  wheel  can  be  fixed  upon  an  axle  which  will  allow  it 
to  run  free  in  a  vertical  position,  the  dishing  European  wheel  must  be 
set  under,  or  “  struck,"1  in  order  to  bring  its  rim  in  contact  with  the 
earth  vertically  under  the  center  of  the  hub,  in  which  position  it  can 
never  run  so  free  as  if  made  to  run  on  a  perfectly  horizontal  axis.  This 
may  be  a  small  matter  in  light  wheels  with  narrow  rims  ;  but  with  wide 
rims,  like  those  exhibited  in  the  English  Agricultural  Hall,  where  wide- 
rimmed  wheels  were  shown  that  were  made  quite  conical,  the  result 
would  be,  in  draught,  a  tendency  in  each  wheel  to  roll  off  outward  iu  a 
circle,  and  considerable  power  would  have  to  be  constantly  exerted  to 
keep  them  in  a  straight  line.  A  remarkable  instance  was  shown  in  an 
English  steam-roller  and  road-engine,  where  the  forward  roller  consisted 
of  two  conical  sectiousjplaced  upou  an  axle,  the  large  euds  abutting,  so 
as  to  make  a  straight  line  at  the  bottom  aud  open  at  the  top  iu  the 
center,  to  receive  the  transom-bolt  or  vertical  shaft  used  to  steer  by.  It 
can  readily  be  conceived  that  it  would  take  a  considerable  force  to  make 
these  two  conical  cylinders,  each  feet  long,  roll  iu  a  straight  line. 
Just  imagine  the  success  of  any  effort  to  make  one  of  these  conic  sec¬ 
tions  roll  otherwise  than  in  a  circle,  without  a  dragging  force  arising 
somewhere. 

3.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  some  of  our  best  furniture-makers  were 
not  represented.  Some,  it  is  true,  made  entries,  but  their  goods  were 
uever  shipped,  it  seeming  to  require  but  little  to  discourage  them  when 
there  was  no  hope  of  gaining  trade. 

The  wood-working  machinery  and  tools  iu  the  United  States  section 
were  excellent,  if  not  numerous.  Mr.  Park,  of  Wincheudou,  Mass., 
exhibited  a  full  set  of  pail-making  machinery  (made  by  B.  D.  Whitney, 
of  the  same  place)  iu  full  operation  at  first;  but  from  some  misunder¬ 
standing  their  operation  was  afterward  suspended,  much  to  our  regret. 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


7 


The  articles  here  produced  were  eagerly  sought  after  for  the  museums 
in  different  parts  of  Europe.  The  water-pail  of  the  continent  is  flat  and 
high,  and  is  carried  upon  the  back  with  shoulder-straps,  and  has  a  cover 
to  keep  it  from  slopping  over.  Bailey’s  planes  and  other  tools  were  also 
eagerly  sought  after  for  the  technological  schools.  Two  English  firms, 
as  agents  for  American  manufacturers,  exhibited  in  the  department  of 
the  United  States  a  large  collection  of  American  axes,  scythes,  and 
other  tools,  showing  that  the  direction  of  trade  in  this  line  has  been 
reversed.  Mr.  Whitney,  of  Winchendon,  Mass.,  made  the  principal  dis¬ 
play  of  wood- working  machinery  ;  it  was  declared  by  a  large  Austrian 
manufacturer  u  fit  to  kiss,”  so  great  was  his  admiration  of  it.  Many 
requests  were  made  to  be  allowed  to  make  drawings  of  the  different 
machines,  which  were  all  met  in  a  commendable  spirit  by  Mr.  Whitney, 
who  gave  all  perfect  liberty  to  make  such  drawings  as  they  pleased ; 
feeling,  no  doubt,  that  in  any  event  he  could  compete  with  their  best 
skill  in  manufacturing. 

A  light  open  buggy,  from  California,  was  shown,  which  was  beauti- 
tifully  finished  in  the  natural  wood,  and  ornamented  with  inlay,  in  lines 
of  mosaic,  on  the  black-walnut  body.  Two  other  attempts  were  made 
at  inlaid  work :  one  was  in  cabinet-organs,  with  only  moderate  success, 
and  at  a  cost  entirely  disproportionate  to  the  results  obtained ;  the  other 
was  a  lady’s  dressing  and  sewing  case  in  fine  marquetry,  with  fair  suc¬ 
cess,  but  in  such  bad  taste  as  to  gain  no  award.  The  designs  on  the 
latter  were  of  a  patriotic  character,  mingled  with  the  emblems  of  war, 
which  would  have  been  more  appropriate  for  a  shooting-case.  We  may 
expect  to  make  little  progress  in  the  production  of  articles  of  taste  and 
fancy  in  wood  until  we  learn  to  produce  the  real  French  polish ;  for  in 
no  other  way  can  such  articles  be  finished  with  sufficient  neatness  to 
compete  with  the’ European  makers.  We  are  aware  that  the  opinion 
prevails  that  this  polish  will  not  stand  our  climate;  but  the  same  opinion 
once  prevailed  in  England.  This  prejudice  must  have  been  removed  in 
that  country,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  samples  of  French  polish  exhibited 
in  Vienna  by  English  makers.  These  were  really  better  than  those  pro¬ 
duced  in  France. 

4.  We  will  state  here  some  of  the  conclusions  derived  from  experience 
and  observation  in  the  manufacture  of  woods.  The  hygroscopic  char¬ 
acter  of  wood  is  such  that  any  change  in  the  relative  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere  must  act  upon  the  manufactured  article  to  shrink  or  to 
swell  it.  This  is  a  law  as  fixed  as  that  of  gravitation.  The  question, 
then,  is,  Under  what  condition,  as  to  relative  humidity,  should  such 
articles  be  made?  In  Europe,  the  necessity  of  economy  of  heat  is  such 
that  the  people  use  the  least  possible  amount  of  fuel,  as  may  be  seen  by 
examining  their  porcelain  stoves ;  and  they  accustom  themselves  to  live 
in  a  temperature  that  is  much  lower  than  the  people  of  our  country  like 
in  their  houses;  the  air  is  therefore  much  drier.  From  Bussia,  south¬ 
ward,  until  we  reach  a  line  where  little  or  no  artificial  heat  is  needed  for 


8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


comfort,  every  appliance  is  used  to  reduce  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed 
to  a  minimum  quantity ;  thick,  heavy  walls  are  made  for  houses ;  double 
windows  are  adopted,  aud  apartments  are  close.  The  temperature  of 
European  houses  and  workshops  being-  much  lower  than  ours,  the  air  is 
consequently  more  heavily  charged  with  moisture.  When,  therefore, 
we  import  the  furniture  of  Europe  and  place  it  in  our  American 
furnace-heated  houses,  where  the  air  is  exceedingly  dry,  there  must  of 
necessity  be  a  change  in  its  condition — a  shrinkage  must  occur.  From 
personal  observation,  we  should  say  that  Boston  houses  in  the  winter- 
season  average  as  low  as  25  per  cent,  of  saturation,  and  in  the  coldest 
weather  it  is  often  as  low  as  15  per  cent.  We  have  seeu  a  parlor  in 
Boston  at  a  temperature  of  85°,  with  but  15  per  cent,  moisture  in  its 
air,  and  young  and  healthy  persons  therein  complaining  of  the  cold  and 
calling  for  more  heat. 

5.  This  brings  up  a  very  important  subject,  which  we  very  much 
regret  we  cannot  here  make  more  than  a  passing  allusion  to,  and  that 
is  the  necessity  in  our  northern  country  of  adopting  a  system  of  double 
windows  for  our  dwelling-houses.  We  should  be  astonished  if  our 
inquiries  in  this  direction  led  us  to  the  discovery  that  75  per  cent,  of 
the  heat  of  our  rooms,  which  is  lost  by  our  single  windows  in  the  winter- 
season,  could  be  saved  if  these  windows  were  provided  with  double 
sashes.  During  the  cold  weather,  there  will  always  be  found,  no  matter 
how  tightly  or  closely  the  sashes  are  fitted  aud  protected  with  weather¬ 
strips,  a  draught  of  cold  air  falling  downward.  This  arises  from  the 
contact  of  the  heated  air  with  the  cold  glass,  which  renders  the  air 
cooler  and  heavier,  and  causes  it  to  fall.  The  air,  at  the  same  time, 
parts  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  its  moisture  by  condensation 
upon  the  glass.  The  cold  air  thus  formed  falls  to  the  floor,  forming  a 
layer  of  cold  air,  which  surrounds  the  feet  and  legs,  while  the  upper  • 
part  of  the  body  is  enveloped  in  overheated  air.  The  layers  of  cold 
aud  warm  air  in  an  apartment  will  riot  mix.  The  warm  air  will  not 
descend,  and  the  cold  air  cannot  go  upward,  except  the  oue'is  deprived 
of  its  heat  by  radiation,  aud  the  other  receives  its  heat  by  actual  con¬ 
tact  with  a  heated  surface.  This  radical  difference  iu  the  upper  and 
lower  strata  of  atmosphere  of  the  rooms,  in  which  our  people  live  during 
the  cold  season,  is  the  prolific  cause  of  most  of  the  throat  and  lung  dis¬ 
eases  with  which  they  are  afflicted.  Double  windows  to  our  houses, 
therefore,  would  uot  only  be  a  great  economy  as  to  fuel,  but  highly  con¬ 
ducive  to  huinau  longevity. 

0.  We  have  seen  the  cabinet-maker  in  Vienna  working  iu  a  damp 
cellar  making  articles  of  furniture.  We  have  seeu,  in  Florence,  men 
making  fine  carvings  aud  the  finest  of  wood-work  in  damp,  vaulted 
rooms,  under  au  old  cathedral.  Xow,  the  question  naturally  occurs, 
why  should  not  both  the  makers  aud  consumers  of  wood-work  know  a 
little  more  of  the  laws  of  nature,  aud  of  the  relative  conditions  of  the 
air  they  work  in  aud  that  iu  which  their  customers  live,  so  that  such 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


9 


stupid  mistakes  as  have  been  made  shall  not  be  again  made  in  the 
future  ?  And,  again,  should  not  our  common  schools  teach  a  little  more 
of  hygrometry,  and,  if  necessary,  a  little  less  of  sidereal  astronomy  ? 

The  principle  here  noted  could  be  seen  illustrated  in  the  Palace  of 
Industry  at  Vienna,  where  the  products  of  all  countries  were  collected 
and  where  were  plainly  visible  the  effects  of  difference  in  the  condition 
of  the  air  from  that  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  places  in  which  they  were 
made.  An  elegant  inlaid  table  was  shown,  the  foundation  of  which  had 
become  warped,  showing  through  the  veneering  that  the  boards  of  which 
it  was  made  were  sawed  from  small  trees  without  reference  to  the  grain. 
As  a  consequence,  the  outline  of  every  board  employed  was  visible 
through  the  flue  marquetry. 

7.  There  is  still  much  to  be  learned  in  the  treatment  of  timber,  and 
its  conversion  into  shapes  for  use  iu  the  finer  and  more  costly  work  of 
cabinet-making.  The  old-fashioned  way  of  sawing  for  such  purposes  has 
been  proved  to  be  entirely  wrong.  Trees  are  made  up  of  a  number  of 
alternate  layers  of  growth,  forming  rings  around  the  center;  each  ring 
representing  a  year’s  growth.  Besides  these  rings,  there  are  radial 
lines  running  from  the  center  outward,  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  which 
are  known  as  medullary  rays.  Boards  sawed  from  a  green  log  contain 
a  large  amount  of  moisture,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  they  readily 
part  with,  losing  bulk  by  shrinking.  While  this  fact  is  well  known,  the 
direction  of  the  line  of  such  shrinkage  is  not  quite  so  familiar.  It  may 
be  thus  explained  :  Wood  being  a  fibrous  substance,  with  bundles  of 
such  fibers  placed  lengthwise,  in  shrinking  these  fold  and  crowd  iu  upon 
each  other,  and  the  whole  board  visibly  contracts.  The  important  point 
to  be  noted  here  is  that  the  direction  of  shrinkage  is  invariably  at  right 
angles  with  the  radial  medullary  rays.  The  best  way,  therefore,  to  saw 
a  log  for  lumber  for  furniture,  or  other  nice  work,  is  from  the  circumfer¬ 
ence  to  the  center,  in  the  way,  to  use  a  familar  illustration,  that  clap  - 
boards  are  now  sawed  out.  Boards  sawed  in  this  way  cannot  warp. 
The  shrinkage  is  from  the  surface  inward,  and  evenly  along  the  surface. 
A  knowledge  of  this  fact  may  enable  wood-workers  generally  to  make 
articles  that  will  staud  any  climate  different  from  their  own,  and  no 
other  method  will  serve  in  its  stead. 

Iu  our  own  country,  there  is  still  a  great  deal  of  ignorance  in  regard 
to  the  proper  means  of  drying  lumber  by  artificial  heat.  It  is  so  com¬ 
mon  as  to  have  become  a  usage  to  put  in  wet  lumber  at  one  end  of  the 
dry-house  and  take  out  seasoned  lumber  at  the  other  end,  that  we  can¬ 
not  wonder  at  the  general  want  of  confidence  in  this  system,  or  rather 
want  of  system,  in  drying  lumber.  There  are  those  who,  in  addition  to 
the  absurd  practice  mentioned,  utterly  ignore  the  necessity  of  ventilation 
in  their  dry-houses,  while  others  have  their  ventilators  in  the  rooff 
This  is  all  wrong.  The  dry-house,  in  the  first  place,  should  be  divided 
into  compartments  and  ventilated  at  the  bottom,  so  as  to  utilize  the 
heat  and  equalize  the  process  of  drying.  The  progress  of  this  work  of 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873 


drying  could  be  easily  measured  by  a  hygrometer,  and  the  process  con¬ 
cluded  -when  the  degree  reached  was  equal  to  its  probable  exposure, 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  iu  a  furnace-heated  house  may  be  equal  to  20 
per  cent,  of  saturation. 

8.  In  connection  with  this,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  new  method  of 
seasoning  has  been  perfected,  which  is  so  simple  and  effective  that  it 
must  become  universal  where  the  requisite  conditions  can  be  obtained. 
This  new  method  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  George  Woods,  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  may  be  thus  described:  The  room  to  be  used  is  made  tight, 
and  is  heated  best  by  steam,  though  it  can  be  otherwise  heated.  One 
side  of  the  room  is  made  into  a  condenser  by  coils  of  pipes  through  which 
a  stream  of  cold  water  circulates  continuously,  cooling  their  surface,  and 
keeping  it  so  much  below  the  temperature  of  the  room  that  the  moist¬ 
ure,  which  is  rapidly  drawn  from  the  wet  lumber  by  heat,  is  as  quickly 
condensed.  Underneath  is  a  gutter,  into  which  the  vapor  thus  con¬ 
densed  falls  and  is  carried  off  in  the  shape  of  water.  If  the  tempera¬ 
ture  of  these  condensing  pipes  can  be  kept  at  say  40°  Fahrenheit,  and 
that'of  the  atmosphere  be  raised  to  90°,  it  will  not  require  a  long  time 
to  reach  a  degree  of  20  per  cent,  of  saturation,  when  the  work  of  drying 
is  thoroughly  completed.  As  the  process  described  is  the  very  best  yet 
known,  and  as  it  leaves  literally  no  room  for  improvement  in  the  process 
of  lumber-drying,  it  has  only  to  become  known  to  be  generally  adopted. 

!).  Messrs.  Jackson  &  Graham,  of  London,  Euglaud,  show  the  best 
attention  to  matters  pertaining  to  the  proper  treatment  of  wood.  Their 
works  are  very  extensive,  and  will  be  referred  to  again.  For  the  foun¬ 
dation  of  such  work  as  is  veneered,  they  use  only  San  Domingo  mahog¬ 
any,  and  only  such  as  will  work  with  the  surface  in  the  direction  of  the 
medullary  rays.  At  the  exhibition,  they  showed  several  pieces  of  oak- 
work,  in  every  part  of  which  this  rule  was  adhered  to.  They  make  dado- 
work,  selecting  their  stock  with  the  same  care  that  a  cooper  would  ex¬ 
hibit  in  selection  for  a  specimen  of  his  art. 

An  American  merchant,  with  more  enterprise  than  knowledge  of  the 
rules  to  be  observed  in  cutting  lumber,  had  sent  to  a  Vienna  maker  a 
quantity  of  piano-sounding-boards  stuff,  which  the  latter  declined  to  use, 
or  pay  for,  or  to  tell  why.  The  writer  was  called  in  as  an  expert,  and  saw 
at  ouce  that  the  stock  was  badly  manufactured,  especially  iu  regard  to 
the  direction  of  the  grain.  European  sounding-boards  are  gotten  out 
with  great  care  ;  they  are  always  split  so  as  to  insure  straight  graiD,  and 
surfaces  exactly  correct  as  to  the  direction  of  the  medullary  ray.  The 
mortification  of  the  American  piano-maker  at  Vienna  would  have  been 
saved  by  adhering  to  this  rule.  We  need  to  be  educated  to  the  fact 
that  this  is  the  most  beautiful  grain  of  wood,  because  most  durable. 
There  were  many  interesting  examples  of  this  iu  the  wood-work  of  the 
exhibition.  Proper  attention  to  this  matter  would  aid  very  much  in 
making  parquetry  that  would  be  satisfactory  in  our  climate. 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


11 


CHAPTEE  II. 

DETAILED  REPORT  ON  EXHIBITS. 


Classification;  Building;  Vf.neers;  Parquetry  and  marquetry ;  Cooperage  ; 
Wood-carving;  Furniture  ;  Fancy  goods;  Machine-made  articles ;  Willow- 
ware  ;  Wood  for  musical  instruments  ;  Conclusion. 


10.  Having  disposed  of  preliminary  and  general  matters  wliicli  it  has 
been  deemed  necessary  to  treat  of  in  this  report,  we  will  now  proceed  to 
give  a  detailed  account  of  the  wood-industries  of  the  various  countries  as 
exhibited  in  Group  VIII,  together  with  such  statistics  of  their  extent 
and  general  character,  and  matters  of  interest  as  were  observed  or 
learned  with  reference  to  them,  and  which  were  of  sufficient  interest  to 
be  noted.  The  group  in  question  was  classified  as  follows  : 


1.  For  building  purposes. 

2.  Veneers. 

3.  Parquetry  and  marquetry. 

4.  Cooperage. 

5.  "VVood-carving. 


6.  Furniture. 

7.  Fancy  goods. 

8.  Machine-cut  articles. 

9.  Willow-ware. 

10.  Woods  for  musical  instruments. 


It  would  extend  this  report  to  voluminous  dimensions  were  we  to 
attempt  to  enumerate  all  the  firms  in  this  group  and  their  exhibits.  We 
will  therefore  only  mention  some  of  those  to  whom  diplomas  of  honor  and 
medals  of  progress  were  awarded,  and  some  of  those  whose  position  on 
the  jury  debarred  them  from  competition.  We  will  take  up  each  of  the 
ten  classes  in  its  order. 


Class  1.— For  building  purposes. 

11.  The  objects  belonging  to  this  class  were  to  be  seen  in  and  around 
the  many  buildings,  pavilions,  and  huts  which  surrounded  the  larger 
exhibition-buildings. 

Bark  &  Warburg,  of  Goteborg,  Sweden,  exhibited  a  hunting-pa¬ 
vilion  of  peculiar  construction,  for  which  they  held  letters  patent  in 
their  own  country.  They  were  reputed  to  be  doing  an  extensive 
domestic  and  export  business  in  sashes,  doors,  blinds,  and  shingles. 
Their  capacity  for  making  doors  was  stated  to  be  1,000  per  week.  Their 
foreign  markets  are  in  North  Germany,  Belgium,  France,  and  England. 

The  pavilion  used  as  a  Swedish  restaurant  was  constructed  by  A.  O. 
Haneborg,  of  Christiania,  Norway.  This  was  a  very  pretty  frame-build¬ 
ing,  with  elaborate  machine-carving  in  its  interior. 

The  Parquet  and  Chalet  Factory  of  Interlaken,  Switzerland,  con¬ 
tributed  a  Swiss  frame-cottage  of  their  own  make,  which  was  used  as  a 
school-house  and  as  the  commissioners’  quarters.  This  was  one  of  the 
best  Swiss  buildings  exhibited. 

Of  shingles,  there  was  no  great  variety  shown ;  but  most  of  the  coun- 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

tries  of  Europe  exhibited  them,  showing  that,  though  seldom  met  with 
iu  the  large  cities,  they  are  still  in  use  in  the  country  districts.  In  size, 
they  are  75  centimeters  (30  inches)  long,  1  thick,  (-A-  inch,)  and  10  (1 
inches)  wide,  and  cost  about  35  cents  per  hundred.  The  average  price 
in  Austria  ranges  from  5  to  7  florins  per  thousand.  European  shiugles 
are  usually  grooved  on  one  side  and  tongued  on  the  other  to  fit  closely. 
They  are  also  split  so  that  their  surface  is  in  the  direction  of  the  me¬ 
dullary  ray.  The  Austrians  have  a  method  of  preserving  shingle-roofs, 
which  should  be  known  in  this  counti'y,  where  so  many  roofs  of  this 
kind  are  in  use,  rotting  away  from  year  to  year  for  the  want  of  some 
cheap  and  effective  method  of  preserving  them.  In  Austria,  after  the 
shingles  aro  laid,  a  composition  of  coal-tar,  powdered  quicklime,  and 
line  sand  is  spread  evenly  over  them  like  paint,  and  forms  an  excellent 
protection  against  decay.  Where  tar  has  been  applied  iu  this  country, 
it  has  been  found  that  the  pyroligneous  acid  which  it  contains  injures 
the  wood  ;  but  the  Austrian  plan  remedies  this,  the  quicklime  mixed 
with  the  tar  neutralizing  the  acid  by  its  alkaline  properties. 

Tlje  Schwarzenberg  domains  in  Austria  produce  1150,000  shiugles  a 
year,  and  Hungary  750,000.  These  totals,  however,  will  seem  small 
beside  the  products  of  some  of  our  American  sliingle-makers.  Iu  Aus¬ 
tria,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  ltussia,  Gangloff's  shingle-machine  is  in 
extensive  use.  It  is  used  to  a  very  limited  exteut  in  other  countries. 

In  Norway,  there  were  said  to  be  045  saw-mills,  employing  about 
10,000  men,  and  usually  driven  by  water-power.  Germany  produces 
very  little  wood  for  building  purposes.  The  oak-forests  of  that  country 
are  very  largely  drawn  upon  for  railway-ties  ;  it  is  estimated  that  about 
one  and  a  half  millions  of  oak-trees  were  used  in  the  construction  of 
their  railways,  which  require  for  repairs  the  additional  sacrifice  of  some 
150,000  of  these  trees  annually.  This  drain  has  so  euchauccd  the  value 
of  oak-wood  as  to  force  the  authorities  to  look  for  substitutes  for  it  iu 
the  softer  woods ;  these  are  prepared  to  resist  decay  by  impregnation 
with  bichloride  of  mercury,  and  are  said  to  answer  quite  well. 

In  the  finer  descriptions  of  house-work,  the  French  no  doubt  excel. 
This  fact  was  well  exhibited  iu  a  door  contributed  by  Bertrand,  of  Paris, 
which  was  placed  iu  the  pavilion  occupied  by  the  French  commissioners. 
This  door  was  elaborately  carved  and  ornamented  with  wrought-iron 
angles  and  fastenings  in  the  style  of  Louis  XIII. 

Spain  and  Italy,  it  would  appear,  rely  mostly  ou  other  countries  for 
their  styles  and  matters  connected  with  the  wood-work  of  houses. 

The  flat-boats  ou  the  river  Danube  are  made  tight  iu  their  joints  with¬ 
out  the  use  of  tar,  pitch,  or  oakum.  The  joints  of  the  planking  are  bev¬ 
eled  so  as  to  receive  between  them  a  kind  of  reed,  which  is  pressed  into 
the  seam,  and  held  there  by  clasp-like,  double-pronged  nails,  which  not 
ouly  press  the  caulking-material  into  the  seams,  but  keep  the  planks 
together,  making  them  almost  as  strong  at  the  joints  as  they  are  else¬ 
where.  Such  a  system  of  securing  joints  iu  planking  would  reduce  the 
necessity  of  excessive  strength  in  frames  of  river-boats. 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


13 


Class  2.— Veneers. 

12.  Nearly  all  countries  were  represented  in  this  department  of  wood¬ 
work,  but  only  one  firm  was  fortunate  enough  to  secure  a  medal  of  prog¬ 
ress — G.  C.  Bartels  &  Sons,  of  Hamburg.  It  may  be  proper  here  to 
remark  that,  while  veneers  are  manufactured  in  all  the  great  centers  of 
wood-furniture  industry  in  Germany,  they  yet  lack  our  system  of  quick¬ 
working  planing-machines,  which  give  to  the  work  so  fine  an  appear¬ 
ance. 

In  behalf  of  Austria,  the  Pi’inces  Scliwarzenberg  exhibited  a  fine  as¬ 
sortment  of  veneers,  cut  to  one-third  inch  in  thickness,  from  all  classes 
of  Austrian  forest-wood.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Austrian  department 
exhibited  a  large  number  of  veneers.  In  Vienna,  there  are  some  six  or 
seven  veneer-factories,  of  which  that  of  C.  Dosz  is  the  most  notable. 
There  is  also  a  large  manufactory  of  veneers  in  Pesth,  Hungary. 

Switzerland  must  be  credited  with  the  contribution  of  some  very  fine 
specimens ;  the  firm  of  J.  Pays  &  Son,  of  Luzern,  sent  superior  exhibits 
of  walnut  veneers. 

Sweden  exhibited  only  oak  and  beech  veneers,  which  were  cut  in  the 
technical  factory  of  Kulla. 

Russia  produces  veneers,  but  exhibited  none. 

Spain  and  Portugal  exhibited  nothing  in  this  class.  These  countries 
look  to  foreign  markets  altogether  for  their  veneers. 

Sweden  was  credited  with  importing  yearly  from  Germany  about 
150,000  pounds  of  veneers  of  the  finer  woods,  such  as  mahogany  and 
rosewood,  and  80,000  pounds  of  oak  and  elm.  There  is  a  factory  in 
Stockholm,  (Ekmann’s,)  which  is  said  to  produce  annually  some  60,000 
pounds  of  veneers  in  different  kinds  of  wood. 

Class  3.—Parquetry  and  marquetry. 

13.  To  commence  with  parquetry.  If  the  proper  wood  is  selected  and 
laid  with  due  regard  to  the  running  of  the  grain,  that  is,  in  the  direction 
of  the  medullary  ray  of  the  wood,  it  may  overcome  the  difficulties  ex¬ 
perienced  in  our  climate  with  this  and  other  kinds  of  fine  wood-work. 

Tasson  &  Washer,  of  Brussels,  Belgium,  are  undoubtedly  the  manu¬ 
facturers  of  the  best  parquetry,  and  next  in  rank  stood  the  Parquet  and 
Chalet  Factory  of  Interlaken,  Switzerland. 

In  Austria  and  Hungary,  there  are  large  numbers  of  these  factories, 
and  there  is  hardly  a  house  of  recent  construction  that  has  not  parquet- 
floors.  These  floors,  with  few  exceptions,  are  pretty  nearly  all  alike  in 
design  and  construction.  This  work  is  very  expensive  if  executed  in 
rich  patterns  with  rare  woods,  but  oak  parquetry,  which  is  most  common, 
costs  from  10  to  14  florins,  or  $5  to  $7,  per  square  of  8  square  feet. 

Germany,  as  yet,  produces  very  little  parquetry,  except  in  the  southern 
portion  of  the  empire.  In  the  north,  it  is  as  yet  considered  an  article  of 
luxury.  In  France,  Italy,  and  Belgium  the  same  is  as  true  as  of  North 


14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Germany;  only  the  wealthier  classes  availing  themselves  of  it.  The 
article  in  these  countries  is  still  very  costly. 

Marquetry  is  occasionally  introduced  in  parquetry. 

In  the  Royal  Palace  of  Pesth,  the  floor,  which  had  been  laid  many 
years  before  in  parquetry  of  the  Moorish  style,  in  bent  wood,  by  the 
Thonet  Brothers,  had  to  be  repaired,  owing-  to  enlargement  of  some  of 
the  apartments  ;  but  the  pattern  was  of  so  difficult  a  nature  that  no  one 
would  undertake  the  work  except  the  Thonets,  (who  had  discontinued 
this  branch  of  their  busine'ss,)  who  soon  successfully  completed  it  under 
great  difficulties,  having  to  draw  upon  the  resources  of  all  their  factories 
for  fragments  of  bent  wood  required. 

In  Austria,  an  industry  exists  which  is  entirely  new  to  Americans. 
Two  firms  in  Vienna  manufacture  inlaid-wood  mosaic  veneers,  to  be  used 
for  inlaying  furniture  of  all  descriptions,  more  especially  for  use  on  small 
tables  with  round  or  square  tops.  Ladies’  fans  are  also  made  out  of  this 
material. 

In  England,  the  firm  of  John  R.  Clarke  has  factories  in  London  and 
Tunbridge  Wells,  making  elegant  mosaic  fancy  articles.  England, 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal  use  a  great  deal  of  marquetry  in 
their  furniture. 

Class  4. — Cooperage. 

14.  In  Switzerland,  we  find  an  industry  entirely  peculiar  to  that  coun¬ 
try.  The  firm  of  Berger  Brothers,  in  Thai,  Bern,  exhibited  pails,  milk- 
vessels,  churns,  and  apparatus  for  cheese-making,  which  were  really 
meritorious. 

Austria  produces  a  peculiar  vessel,  a  kind  of  pail,  to  carry  water  in, 
which  is  also  used  very  considerably  by  women  of  the  laboring  class  for 
carrying  coal,  fruit,  and  liueu.  It  is  intended  to  be  carried  on  the  back 
by  shoulder-straps. 

There  were  three  immense  butts,  or  vats,  on  exhibition,  one  of  which 
held  3,000  eirner,  equal  to  30,000  gallons,  another  25,000  gallons,  and  the 
third  20,000  gallons.  They  had  all  been  sold  to  proprietors  of  large 
vineyards.  They  were  perfect  masterpieces  of  cooperage,  and  showed 
that  their  makers  must  have  had  extensive  works.  Some  very  fine 
specimens  of  wine  and  beer  barrels  were  also  shown.  One  exhibitor 
showed  wine-barrels  of  a  novel  shape,  being  in  some  respects  the  reverse 
in  shape  of  those  in  ordinary  use,  that  is,  concave  in  the  center  and 
widening  toward  the  ends,  somewhat  like  an  hour-glass.  The  inveutor 
claimed  that  by  this  shape  he  could  save  space  in  stowage.  Karl  Drex- 
ler,  of  Vienna,  exhibited  some  very  well  finished  and  well  constructed 
oval  and  octagon  shaped  barrels.  There  was  also  shown  a  barrel,  of 
excellent  workmanship,  in  which  to  keep  wine  cool.  It  was  an  expen¬ 
sive  affair.  There  were  also  to  be  seen,  quite  a  novelty  in  their  way, 
Hungarian  drinking-flasks  and  cauteeus,  made  of  wood  and  bound  with 
hoops. 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


15 


The  Germans  manufacture  their  own  beer  and  smaller  wine  barrels, 
in  some  cases,  by  machinery.  They  make  in  this  way,  however,  large 
numbers  of  barrels  for  packing  purposes — the  machines  used  being 
American.  Much  of  this  class  of  work,  however,  is  still  done  by  hand. 

Wooden  clogs,  or  shoes,  except  in  Italy  and  Holland,  have  mostly 
gone  out  of  fashion,  as  has  also  wooden  kitchen-ware — such  as  dishes, 
salt-boxes,  and  ladles — which  latter  are  now  altogether  replaced  by  tin¬ 
ware. 

There  is  an  article  of  wooden  ware  in  general  use  throughout  Austria 
and  Southern  Germany,  which  may  be  properly  mentioned  here — 
wooden  boxes,  made  of  thin  strips  of  machine-cut  and  planed  wood, 
about  one-third  of  an  iuch  in  thickness,  bent  in  circular  or  oblong  form, 
with  rounded  edges,  and  with  bottoms  and  covers  of  the  same  material, 
well  adapted  for  collar-boxes.  Moritz  Saxl,  of  Boskawitz,  Austria,  was 
the  maker  of  those  exhibited.  The  strips  of  wood  from  which  these 
boxes  were  made  are  sold  in  the  forest-mills  of  Austria  and  Bohemia  at 
very  low  prices.  The  strips  are  often  used  for  hoops  of  sieves  and  for 
drums. 

Sweden  exported,  in  the  year  1871,  two  million  pieces  of  oak,  and 
seventeen  million  beech  and  other  staves,  of  which  latter  class  England 
took  thirteen  million,  and  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Russia  the  remainder. 

Italy,  France,  and  Belgium  showed  no  articles  of  cooperage. 

Class  5. — Wood-carving. 

15.  Italy  excelled  in  this,  as  in  many  other  departments  of  art.  Luigi 
Frullini,  of  Florence,  and  Cav.  Gio.  Bat.  Gatti,  of  Rome,  received  the 
highest  award  for  their  exhibited  works.  The  exhibits  of  these  manu¬ 
facturers  were  the  most"  beautiful  of  their  kind;  the  scenes  and  figures 
represented  were  of  the  highest  style  of  art.  Au  Italian  pear- wood 
tablet,  representing  “  Spring,”  was  bought  for  the  Museum  of  Edinburgh, 
Scotland,  for  5,000  francs. 

Switzerland  and  Austria  ranked  next  in  art-carving  on  wood.  In 
Switzerland,  however,  wood-carving  is  more  of  a  trade  than  an  art. 
Small  carved  Swiss  cottages,  and  articles  carved  in  pear-wood,  were  the 
most  notable. 

The  Austrian  (Tyrol)  productions  were  better  and  more  pretentious  • 
they  were  representations  of  festive  scenes,  Tyrolese  pictures,  and  cop¬ 
ies  in  wood  of  historical  and  other  paintings. 

China  and  Japan  excel  in  carving,  in  their  peculiar  style,  iu  ivory 
and  bamboo.  The  art  of  carving  is  also  largely  practiced  in  France, 
Belgium,  and  Germany. 

The  house  of  Heinr.  Ad.  Meyer,  of  Hamburg,  is  the  most  extensive 
dealer  in  ivory  and  its  substitutes  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Theirs 
is  also  the  most  extensive  manufactory  of  piano-keys,  billiard-balls,  and 
knife-handles  in  the  world. 


16 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Class  G. — Furniture. 

10.  The  exhibit  of  articles  in  this  class  was  probably  more  extensive 
than  in  any  other  in  the  exhibition;  it  was  almost  boundless  in  quan¬ 
tity  and  variety.  The  manufacture  of  furniture  is  very  extensively 
pursued,  both  in  Germany  and  Austria,  and  has  beeu  brought  to  great 
perfection  in  design  as  well  as  workmanship.  The  work  in  these  coun¬ 
tries  is  usually  done  by  machinery,  and  they  can,  not  only  compete  with 
other  nations  at  home,  but  are  enabled  to  export  very  largely. 

One  of  the  most  notable,  and  to  the  American  most  interesting,  kinds- 
of  furniture  is  that  which  is  called  bent-wood  ware.  It  is  to  be  met 
with  all  over  Germany  and  Austria,  principally  in  the  form  of  chairs, 
lounges,  and  lighter  furniture.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  neatness,  clean 
finish,  light  lines,  great  strength,  and  its  very  few  joints.  This  reduc¬ 
tion  in  number  of  joints  is  accomplished  mainly  by  bending  the  wood 
used,  so  as  to  require  as  few  pieces  as  possible.  An  ordinary  chair 
contains  only  six  pieces  besides  the  cane  seat,  and  is  an  article  which 
has  no  superior  in  its  way.  The  construction  of  this  furniture  became 
an  object  of  great  interest  to  the  writer,  and  he  was,  therefore,  glad  to 
accept  an  invitation  to  join  an  expedition,  provided  by  the  liberality  of 
the  vice-president  of  the  grand  jury,  Mr.  Joseph  Thonet,  to  some  of  the 
factories  of  his  firm — situated  in  Koritschau,  JBistritz,  Hallenkau,  (all 
in  Moravia,)  and  Great  Ugroez,  (in  Hungary) — which,  together  with 
their  twenty  auxiliary  establishments,  employ  5,200  work-people,  male 
and  female,  and  require  motive  power  to  the  extent  of  440  horse-power. 
Our  visit  extended  to  Great  Ugroez  and  Bistritz.  At  the  former  place, 
there  are  thirty  thousand  acres  of  mountain  beech-forest.  Beech  is  the 
only  kind  of  wood  used  in  the  furniture  iu  question,  for  which  use  it 
seemed  to  be  excellently  adapted.  The  trees  being  felled,  the  tops  are 
removed  and  made  into  charcoal  for  use  iu  the  glass-works  of  Bohemia, 
The  trunks  are  hauled  to  the  mills,  and  sawed  into  planks  of  suitable 
thickness  by  gang-saws.  The  planks  are  iu  turn  ripped  up,  with  circu¬ 
lar  saws,  into  square  pieces  for  turniug.  If  iuteuded  for  the  back  and 
hind  legs  of  a  common  chair,  which  are  composed  of  only  one  piece,  the 
square  piece  of  proper  length  is  put  into  a  kind  of  gauge-lathe,  which 
does  its  work  very  rapidly,  and  varies  the  size  where  needed.  The 
ordinary  dowel-lathe  is  used  for  pieces  of  uniform  size,  such  as  the 
hoops,  which  are  placed  inside  of  the  legs  to  stay  them,  instead  of 
straight  pieces  or  rungs.  These  hoops  iu  the  bent-wood  chairs  are 
so  placed  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  put  the  feet  on  them  at  any 
time.  After  being  rouuded  as  required,  the  wood  is  steamed  in  the 
green  state  for  twenty-four  hours  in  boilers  adapted  to  the  purpose. 
It  is  theu  takeu  out  and  bent  to  the  shape  desired,  on  a  cast-iron 
frame,  by  baud.  If  intended  for  the  seat,  the  piece  is  first  strapped 
with  iron  ou  its  outside,  so  that  the  bending  shall  be  a  process  of 
compression  lengthwise  rather  thau  an  expansion.  It  is  then  attached 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


17 


by  one  end  to  a  pattern  fastened  to  a  turn-table,  the  other  end  being- 
held  by  a  chain  wound  upon  a  drum,  to  which  is  applied  a  brake  so 
as  to  regulate  the  tension  with  which  the  piece  is  delivered  to  the  pat¬ 
tern.  The  turn-table  is  then  set  in  motion,  and  winds  the  wood  upon 
its  own  form.  If  designed  for  a  scroll,  the  pattern  may  be  complicated 
and  in  several  pieces,  which  are  put  in  place  at  the  proper  time  in  the 
progress  of  the  rotation.  If  for  a  double  scroll,  two  of  the  tension- 
bands  are  employed.  Much  ingenuity  is  shown  in  devising  these  pat¬ 
terns  and  the  mode  of  working  them.  The  pattern  is  of  cast  iron,  and 
the  article  bent  to  its  shape  is  fastened  to  it,  and  so  remains  until  the 
drying  process  has  so  far  progressed  that  the  wood  will  remain  fixed  in 
the  shape  thus  given  it.  Steam-heat  is  used  for  drying.  “When  thor¬ 
oughly  dry,  the  parts  are  forwarded  to  the  filing  or  rasping  shop,  where 
they  are  clamped  to  a  bench  and  filed  all  over  with  great  care,  and  sand, 
papered.  This  work  is  largely  done  by  females.  The  work  is  now 
ready  to  be  stained  and  French-polished,  each  piece  being  done  sepa¬ 
rately.  This  process,  in  my  opinion,  is  the  most  important  one  in  the 
Austrian  bent-wood  art,  and  no  imitation  will  be  a  success  without  it. 
This  work  of  staining  and  polishing  is  also  done  by  females  for  the  most 
part.  The  pieces  are  clamped  to  a  bench,  and  each  person  has  as  many 
pieces  in  progress  at  a  time  as  will  dry,  as  she  rapidly  passes  over  them, 
in  time  for  the  next  round.  The  process  of  polishing  is  one  in  which 
the  sense  of  touch  is  an  important  element  in  the  skill  employed;  and 
this  can  only  be  acquired  by  considerable  experience. 

The  next  thing  is  the  setting  up.  This  is  done  by  having  a  frame  whicli 
will  hold  the  several  parts  in  their  proper  places  at  the  points  of  con¬ 
tact,  and  where  a  firm  connection  is  to  be  made  a  saw  of  the  proper 
thickness  is  passed  between  the  pieces,  making  even  surfaces  for  a  joint. 
At  such  joints,  glue  is  applied,  and  the  parts  are  secured  firmly  with  ordi¬ 
nary  wood-screws  or  small  bolts.  The  common  chair  is  made  to  be  taken 
apart  for  packing — the  front  legs  and  seat  in  one  piece,  the  back  in 
another,  the  hoops  for  legs,  &c.,  the  third.  Three  dozen  of  these  chairs 
are  packed  in  a  medium-sized  box;  they  are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

The  operations  described  are  those  used  in  producing  only  the  sim¬ 
plest  aud  commonest  chair  of  this  class  of  manufacture,  and  are  given 
only  to  show  the  process  of  making,  which  can  be  extended  to  the  most 
elaborately  ornamented  and  complicated  work  of  this  kind. 

To  show  how  wonderfully  this  system  of  bending  wood  into  shape  can 
be  utilized,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Thonets  exhibited  at  Vienna  a 
chair  made  from  a  single  piece  of  wood  36  feet  long,  including  seat  as 
well  as  frame ;  the  bending  and  combination  into  the  shape  required 
was  a  work  of  extreme  ingenuity,  and  it  was  calculated  most  admirably 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  ductility  of  wood  when  properly  treated.  About 
fifty  varieties  of  chairs  are  made  by  the  firm  in  question,  ranging  in 
price  from  3  to  25  florins,  (a  florin  is  equal  to  50  cents  of  American 
2  w  i 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


money;)  thirteen  kinds  of  sofas,  from  14  to  38  florins ;  eight  styles  of 
tables,  from  2G  to  48  florins;  piano-stools,  foot-stools,  &c.,  were  also 
shown  in  great  variety.  They  also  exhibited  quite  a  variety  of  fancy 
work,  twisted  pillars,  and  cornices,  indicating  the  great  range  of  appli¬ 
cation  of  this  industrial  process. 

The  common  furniture  of  Austria  is  extremely  monotonous  in  appear¬ 
ance;  and,  although  neat  and  well  made,  the  diagonally-veneered  mar¬ 
gins  of  the  panels  arc  uniformly  surrounded  with  a  kind  of  flute  or  thumb- 
molding,  which  makes  it  appear  that  the  general  style  is  subordinated 
to  the  tiuish.  French  polish  is  universally  used  for  finishing,  and  it 
makes  even  the  commonest  work  look  very  neat.  In  the  better  grades 
of  furniture,  however,  much  variety  and  invention  is  shown. 

What  seemed  very  commendable  in  the  exhibition  was  that  the 
upholsterer  and  furniture-manufacturer  had  been  allowed  to  exhibit 
together.  By  this  arrangement,  room  after  room  was  shown  completely 
furnished,  the  articles  being  all  in  harmony  one  with  the  other,  and  the 
general  effect  heightened  by  the  arrangement  of  a  thin  screen  of  cotton 
spread  over  the  top  of  the  inclosure  fitted  as  a  room,  to  tone  the  light 
without  dimming  it  materially. 

Some  of  tliese  inclosures,  or  rooms,  were  quite  unique  in  their  arrange¬ 
ment.  In  one  of  them,  a  smoking-room,  the  carpet,  wall  paper,  and 
curtains  had  the  tobacco-leaf  worked  into  the  design.  The  renaissance 
style  was  prominent  in  the  best  work,  showing  how  intimate  are  its 
relations  to  modern  art. 

It  may  here  be  remarked  that  the  question  of  good  taste  in  style  and 
make-up  was  held  paramount  in  deciding  awards  of  premiums  in  this 
group.  It  was  extremely  difficult  at  first  to  decide  in  what  good  taste 
really  consisted,  after  having  so  long  heard  the  French  styles  and  makes 
extolled  as  models  of  good  taste.  Xow,  however,  we  are  inclined  to 
think  that  this  standard  is  not  the  correct  oue;  it  is  too  elaborate  and 
ornate  to  satisfy  American  taste.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
French  exhaust  art  in  their  efforts  after  the  new,  the  strange,  the  gro¬ 
tesque,  and  the  beautiful.  Some  pieces  of  salon  furniture  exhibited  by 
M.  Chistofle,  the  great  Parisian  manufacturer  of  fine  bronzes,  were  so 
heavily  aud  elaborately  covered  with  silver,  gold,  ivory,  and  bronze 
ornamentation  as  to  afford  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  excesses 
referred  to.  The  French  fashions  of  furniture  have  long  been  regarded 
by  the  nations  of  Europe,  excepting  perhaps  Great  Britain,  as  the 
perfection  of  art.  AVith  Americans,  the  tendency  is  very  much  in  the 
same  direction,  and  good  taste  is  sacrificed  to  circumstances  connected 
with  a  certain  branch  of  our  industry.  In  other  words,  it  would  appear, 
that  our  styles  of  ornamentation  in  furniture  are  now  adopted  more 
with  reference  to  the  capacity  and  peculiarities  of  our  universal  wood- 
molding  machines,  than  to  real  beauty  and  to  the  other  attributes  of 
good  taste. 

Before  concluding  this  digression,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  furniture  of 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


19 


all  countries  exhibited  was  generally  made  for  actual  use,  and,  with  the- 
exception  of  some  Italian,  French,  and  German  work,  could  be  seen  in 
counterpart  everywhere  on  the  continent,  at  the  houses  of  well-to-do 
citizens. 

Yo.  Fratelli  Panciera-Besarel,  of  Venice,  exhibited  a  French  walnut 
mantelpiece,  with  a  beautifully-carved  representation,  in  relief,  of  a 
mythological  subject.  The  Prince  of  Wales  had  ordered  from  this 
manufacturer  some  ornaments  in  wood-carving  for  his  palace;  these 
were  exhibited,  attracting  much  attention.  They  consisted  of  a  pair  of 
pedestals  for  candelabra  or  vases,  each  composed  of  five  Cupids  climbing 
one  upon  the  other ;  the  lower  ones  showed  by  their  facial  expression 
how  heavy  was  the  burden  which  they  bore ;  the  upper  ones  expressed 
similarly  their  satisfaction  at  being  uppermost. 

Cav.  Gio.  Bat.  Gatti,  of  Borne,  showed  a  splendid  jewel-case  of  ebony, 
inlaid  with  ivory  and  different  light-colored  woods,  with  a  little  bronze 
statuette.  It  was  of  the  old  Byzantine  style,  and  was  reputed  to  have 
been  sold  in  London  for  £1,200. 

Gueret  Brothers,  of  Paris,  showed  tasteful  wood-carving,  on  a  side¬ 
board  cabinet.  Henri  Fourdinir,  of  Paris,  exhibited  a  splendid  set  of 
drawing-room  furniture  in  marquetry  and  wood-carving ;  also  a  fine  set 
of  ebony  and  ivory-inlaid  tea-poys.  This  firm  claims  to  hold  a  patent 
on  a  specialty  of  carved  marquetry,  but  the  fact  that  the  Japanese 
have  long  practiced  this  art  invalidates  this  claim.  A  cabinet  of  this 
style  was  sent  in  1807  to  London,  and  realized  75,000  francs.  At  the 
exhibition,  they  had  two  album-covers,  maguificently  carved  and  finished, 
one  of  which  was  sold  to  the  Museum  of  Pesth  for  1,500  francs. 

Jackson  &  Graham,  of  London,  exhibited  the  most  elegant  and  best 
executed  work  in  furniture  in  the  entire  exhibition.  The  furniture  thus 
contributed  consisted  of  cabinets,  tables,  jewel-cases,  library  and  glass 
cases,  and  numerous  other  articles,  all  of  which  were  worked  in  rose¬ 
wood,  inlaid  and  marqueted  with  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  finest  known 
woods.  One  of  the  articles  shown  was  an  ebony  cabinet,  7  feet  1  inch 
wide  by  7  feet  7£  inches  high,  which  was  inlaid  with  box,  purple,  orange, 
and  gray  maple,  and  holly  woods;  it  was  Italian  in  design,  with  Greek 
ornamentation.  This  article  was  worth  £2,500.  Another  ebony  cabinet, 
inlaid  with  ivory,  and  engraved  and  relieved  with  precious  stones — 
lapis  lazuli  and  jasjier — and  of  Italian  design,  was  sold  for  £5,000. 

We  may  here  state  that  while  in  London  we  visited  the  factory  of 
Jackson  &  Graham,  where  we  were  courteously  received  and  afforded 
every  facility  for  studying  the  various  processes  of  inlaying.  The  art  of 
inlajing  has  been  practiced  for  many  years  among  the  Italians,  but  it 
is  only  recently  that  it  has  been  brought  to  comparative  perfection. 
The  inferiority  of  the  old  style  of  Italian  work  was  due  to  the  circum¬ 
stance  that  the  artisans  of  that  country  were  in  the  habit  of  cutting 
the  ornament  and  the  ground  wood  together,  thus  leaving  the  work 
open, and  thus  they  were  never  able  to  cut  a  sharp  pattern  on  the  leaves  . 


20  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

this  marred  the  grace  of  the  design.  The  work  of  inlaying  is  now  done 
as  follows :  a  drawing  of  the  design  is  first  made  for  the  workman  to 
copy  after.  This  is  either  made  on  metal  and  printed,  or  lithographed 
in  fine,  clear,  black  lines — the  fiuer  the  better.  The  veneers  of  the 
colors  needed  are  then  selected,  and  the  various  portions  of  the  design 
are  fixed  on  them,  cut  out,  and  fitted  together.  When  the  ornament  is 
formed,  the  drawing  of  the  work  is  taken,  and  a  piece  of  thiu  tissue- 
paper  spread  over  it  and  well  secured  at  the  corners  to  prevent  slipping. 
Through  this  tissue-paper,  the  lines  of  the  drawing  are  visible;  the  cut 
ornament  is  then  taken  piece  by  piece  and  fixed  with  gum  on  the  tissue- 
paper,  according  to  the  colored  drawing  furnished  with  the  outlines- 
Care  is  taken  that  the  gum  does  not  get  on  the  edges  of  the  pieces,  as 
it  would  prevent  perfect  tracery  when  completed.  A  piece  of  paper  is 
next  covered  on  one  side  with  lampblack  mixed  with  turpentine,  and 
left  to  dry.  This  blackened  paper  and  a  sheet  of  white  are  then  placed 
between  the  drawing  and  the  tissue-paper.  A  thin  pointed  instrument 
is  used  to  mark  around  the  ornament,  the  blackened  paper  yielding  to 
the  white  a  black  line  at  th  e  point  of  pressure,  thus  producing  a  correct 
copy  of  the  ornament  made.  This  impression  is  then  fixed  on  the 
ground-veneer  by  compression;  great  care  being  taken  not  to  stretch 
the  paper  or  tear  it.  T  lie  ground-wood  is  then  cut  with  great  care  to 
receive  the  ornament.  By  this  means,  the  work  can  be  done  with  great 
precision,  and  the  workman  is  enabled  to  use  woods  in  his  design  as 
light  as  those  in  the  ground  ,  without  fear  that  the  joint  will  be  seen. 
The  cutting  is  done  with  a  very  fine  buhl-saw,  the  upper  part  of  the 
frame  of  which  is  guided  on  a  horizontal  rod,  the  frame  being  operated 
in  a  horizontal  position  with  the  blade  of  the  saw  placed  at  right  angles 
to  it.  The  veneer  is  held  in  a  vise  operated  by  the  foot,  and  made  to 
move  the  wood  to  the  angle  o  r  line  cut  instead  of  moving  the  saw  to 
the  line  ;  the  work  requires  a  steady  hand  and  much  practice. 

Jos.  Ilassa  &  Son,  of  Vienna,  exhibited  a  remarkable  black-walnut 
carved  bedstead  with  canopy,  in  the  style  of  Louis  XIV.  It  was  so 
completely  covered  with  carvings,  representing  Cupids,  flowers,  fruits, 
and  arabesques,  that  scarcely  a  piece  of  plain  wood  was  visible,  and 
yet,  in  spite  of  this,  the  general  effect  was  very  pleasing. 

Bernhard  Ludwig,  of  Vienna,  exhibited  dining-room  furniture,  with 
marquetry  in  rose,  ebony,  and  maple.  The  chairs  were  upholstered  with 
green  embossed  leather.  He  also  exhibited  bedroom  furniture,  with 
somewhat  more  elaborate  ornamentation.  Even  in  these  elegant  dis¬ 
plays,  the  old  Austrian  fashion  of  diagonal  margins  for  panels  was  seen 
to  prevail. 

Ileinr.  Diibell  &  Son,  of  Vienna,  had  a  notable  sideboard  renaissance, 
in  French  walnut,  with  carved  inlaid  ebony  marquetry. 

Xames,  which  have  been  mentioned  in  these  cases,  are  those  of  exhib¬ 
itors  who  gained  the  highest  prizes. 

A  wardrobe  of  real  ebony,  from  Danzig,  was  a  masterpiece  of  joiners’ 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


21 


work.  A  pier-style  cabinet  from  Copenhagen,  paneled  with  foiled  tor¬ 
toise,  giving  it  a  dark-green  and  dark-red  veined  tortoise  effect,  was 
also  a  very  fine  piece  of  workmanship,  and  in  good  taste.  From  Ger¬ 
many,  a  jewel  cabinet,  and  a  set  of  dining-room  furniture  in  renaissance, 
were  very  beautiful.  Dresden  contributed  showy  cabinets  in  renais¬ 
sance  style,  and  a  section  of  dining-room  wall  with  sideboard,  panels, 
and  doors,  all  in  harmony,  of  the  same  style,  and  carved  in  French 
walnut. 

Nicholas  Strange,  of  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  showed  a  set  of  dining¬ 
room  furniture  of  Russian  style,  carved  in  oak,  which  was  really  very  line. 
It  was  sold  to  the  Archduke  Charles  Louis  of  Austria  for  6,000  rubles, 
($5,000.)  The  pavilion  of  the  Emperor  of  Russia  was  furnished  by  this 
artist.  That  portion  of  it  in  the  Emperor’s  sleeping-apartment  was 
valued  at  $8,500. 

Yenice  showed  very  good  examples  of  Italian  furniture,  among  them 
a  round  table,  with  inlaid  and  mosaic  work  representing  five  scenes  in  the 
life  of  Christopher  Columbus.  Rome  and  Milan  exhibited  jewel-cases, 
Pescia  cabinets  in  free  relief,  and  fine  drawing-room  furniture,  but  these 
were  deficient  in  style  and  taste. 

Paris  contributed  spring-beds  in  a  French  house,  finely-carved  dining¬ 
room  furniture  in  antique  styles,  furniture  of  various  styles,  including 
an  ebony  carved  chair,  which  was  particularly  worthy  of  notice,  and  a 
novel  kind  of  folding-chair. 

Johann  Podstata,  of  Vienna,  exhibited  a  great  variety  of  childrens’ 
beds  and  cribs.  These  Austrian  cribs  are  peculiar,  and  have  some  points 
of  merit.  Their  sides  are  quite  high,  and  made  of  a  network  of  stout 
cording,  depending  from  a  top  railing  running  around  and  secured  below. 
On  one  side,  however,  the  railing  is  composed  of  an  iron  rod  looped  at 
each  end  into  upright  iron  rods  terminating  at  the  top  in  a  kind  of  sharp 
bend,  over  which  the  looped  rod  is  carried  when  the  side  is  to  be  closed* 
When  it  is  desired  to  open  the  crib  to  put  in  or  to  take  out  the  child,  the 
rail,  or  looped  rod,  is  lifted  up  and  then  pulled  down  ;  the  network  folding 
upon  itself  like  a  piece  of  cloth. 

Among  the  noteworthy  Vienna  furniture  were  wardrobes  by  J.  Mann- 
stein,  one  of  which,  upon  being  unfolded,  made  a  bedroom  8  by  10  feet, 
with  8  feet  ceiling,  and  containing  a  bed,  table,  wash-stand,  looking- 
glass,  and  seats. 

The  Tyrol  showed  some  fine  furniture  finished  in  marquetry. 

Pesth  had  some  good  furniture  on  exhibition,  including  sideboards, 
extension-tables,  library-desk,  table,  and  other  things. 

Judging  from  specimens  exhibited,  it  would  seem  that  Japanese 
lacquered  ware  of  the  better  grade  is  very  superior.  It  was  distin¬ 
guished  from  the  other  articles  of  its  class  by  raised  figures  in  gold 
upon  a  black  surface.  It  is  distinct  from  the  Chinese  makes  in  this  and 
•other  respects,  the  latter  never  producing  such  good  work. 

While  on  the  subject  of  Japan  wares,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the 


22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


lacquer  of  the  Japanese  is  so  much  superior  to  our  best  methods  of  pol¬ 
ishing,  that  it  seemed  a  duty  to  take  special  pains  to  learn  as  much  as 
possible  about  it.  Through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  G.  Wagener,  an  attache 
of  the  Japanese  commission,  the  attempt  was  partially  successful.  The 
Japanese  exhibition  was  quite  well  represented  in  this  lacquered  ware, 
and  it  attracted  much  attention.  It  is  well  known  that  their  wooden 
ware  finished  with  this  lacquer  is  not  injured  by  hot  water.  Their  cups 
in  which  tea  is  steeped  are  of  wood,  covered  with  lacquer.  We  are 
using  gum  copal  to  finish  the  best  work  on  our  pianos,  which,  when  fin¬ 
ished,  are  quite  satisfactory  in  appearance,  but  are  easily  ruined  by 
atmospheric  and  other  influences.  One  firm  in  Boston  has  lost  $8,000  a 
year  by  the  failure  of  the  very  fragile  surface  given  by  this  gum.  The 
following  is  the  process  as  given  by  Dr.  Wagener: 

“NOTE  UPON  THAT  KIND  OF  JAPANESE  LACQUER  CALLED  ‘  SHIUNKEI.’- 

“  If  the  wood  to  be  varnished  be  very  porous,  and  the  pores  large 
enough  to  be  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  they  are  filled  with  a  mixture  of 
stofie-powder  and  the  lacquer  called  ‘  seshime,’  which  is  merely  the  sap 
of  the  branches  of  the  varnisli-tree,  without  any  mixture.  This  paste 
of  stone-powder  and  lacquer  is  put  on  with  a  wooden  spatula,  the  work¬ 
man  taking  good  care  to  press  hard  on  the  spatula,  so  as  to  fill  up  all 
the  pores,  and  tomb  the  varnish  off  the  surface  of  the  wood,  which  is  to 
be  kept  as  clean  as  possible.  After  the  varnish  is  well  hardened,  the  whole 
surface  is  polished  with  a  soft  stone — a  kind  of  wedge-stone — so  that  the 
veins  of  the  wood  come  out  again.  This  filling  process  can  be  repeated, 
if  necessary.  ISText,  in  order  to  give  it  a  color,  the  wood  is  painted  over 
with  a  thin  water-color,  or  it  is  stained.  When  thus  prepared,  the  ob¬ 
ject  is  then  varnished  with  the  lacquer  shiunkei,  of  which  a  thin  coat¬ 
ing  is  put  on  with  a  brush  ;  otherwise  it  would  look  too  dark.  On  ac¬ 
count  of  this  lacquer  taking  its  gloss  in  hardening,  it  requires  a  skillful 
person  with  a  light  hand  to  obtain  a  good  result.  Only  one  coating  is 
given. 

“  In  case  the  wood  is  close-grained  and  of  even  surface,  the  prelimi¬ 
nary  work  will  be  unnecessary.  The  sheshiue  lacquer  is  aloue  used. 
It  is  rubbed  into  the  wood  with  a  ball  of  cotton,  which  is  saturated  with 
it.  After  it  has  been  rubbed  iu,  that  which  remains  on  the  surface  is 
taken  off'  by  rubbing  with  Japanese  soft  paper,  so  that  in  fact  only  a 
very  thin  layer  remains. 

“It  sometimes  happens  that  a  Japauese  lacquer  is  too  thick,  and  will 
not  spread  evenly  with  a  spatula,  as  occasionally  happens  when  it  is 
mixed  with  stone-powder.  When  this  occurs,  the  Japauese  workmen 
add  to  the  varnish  they  are  about  to  use  powdered  camphor.  By  this 
means  it  becomes  more  liquified  and  flows  much  better. 

“  There  is  another  thing  about  the  Japanese  method  of  using  this 
varnish  that  is  worth  knowing.  The  atmosphere  iu  which  it  is  to  harden, 
after  it  has  been  applied,  should  be  moist,  and  the  room  darkened.  The 


WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 


23 


Japanese  lacquerers  have  in  their  work-rooms  large  boxes  fixed  against 
the  walls.  These  are  furnished  with  sliding-doors.  The  inside  of  these 
boxes  are  wetted  with  towels  dipped  in  water  ;  the  lacquered  ware  is 
introduced,  and  the  doors  are  closed.  It  generally  requires  forty-eight 
hours  to  harden  the  lacquer.” 

Keturning  to  the  description  of  the  goods  exhibited.  Persian  mosaics 
were  represented  by  a  small  table,  which  was  covered  with  beautiful 
designs  in  eight  or  nine  different  colored  woods. 

The  billiard-tables  of  Austria  and  Germany — the  only  countries 
exhibiting — were  neat,  and  might  answer  well  enough  for  amateurs  ;  but 
skilled  players  would  condemn  them,  and  they  would  suffer  by  compar¬ 
ison  with  American  and  French  tables.  The  principal  manufacture  of 
these  tables  has  its  seat  in  Vienna.  Two  firms,  of  Mayence,  repre¬ 
sented  Germany. 

The  Austrian  style  of  furniture  held  a  third  rank — not,  however,  be¬ 
cause  it  was  inferior  to  other  makes,  but  from  its  monotonous  uniformity 
iu  style;  it  all  presented  the  same  general  features  and  similar  patterns, 
and  exhibited  a  persistent  adherence  to  diagonals  and  margins  of  pauel- 
work. 

France,  on  the  other  hand,  showed  a  talent  for  design  and  ornamenta¬ 
tion  in  furniture  which  was  marvelous  and  oppressive.  But  the  French 
are  continually  overdoing  the  work  which  they  can  do  so  well.  They 
hide  the  real  merits  of  their  designs  beneath  effects  which  are  too  rich 
and  gorgeous. 

The  English  show  a  kindred  taste  to  ours  in  their  furniture.  It 
is  generally  well  conceived  in  design  and  tasteful  in  ornamentation. 
Here,  perhaps,  may  be  most  properly  mentioned  the  exhibit  of  the 
firm  of  Battany,  Heywood  &  Hancock,  whose  pavilion  in  the  rotunda 
contained  ebony  and  scarlet  silk-upholstered  drawing-room  furniture, 
having  a  most  novel  and  unique  effect ;  they  claimed  it  as  original  and  of 
their  own  invention.  It  probably  was  ;  but  it  was  too  new  and  strange 
and  odd  for  the  jury  to  criticise,  and  it  received  no  award.  Whether 
its  design  was  really  meritorious  or  not  would,  we  are  convinced,  be  as 
difficult  to  decide  as  an  abstruse  question  in  metaphysics. 

Class  7.— Fancy  goods. 

17.  This  class  embraces  all  kinds  of  small  notions — boxes,  cigar-cases, 
watch-stands,  and  toys  of  wood  and  of  other  materials. 

Switzerland  has  a  regular  and  large  trade  in  this  line  with  all  parts 
of  the  world,  notwithstanding  that  they  are  produced  principally  by 
hand. 

But  Germany,  more  than  any  other  nation,  excels  in  this  line  of  in¬ 
dustry,  having  whole  towns,  cities,  and  communities  almost  entirely 
devoted  to  this  business.  The  Black  Forest  toys  are  known  all  over 
the  world  ;  and  from  Baden,  in  that  district,  and  from  Nuremberg,  in 
Bavaria,  the  entire  continents  of  Europe  and  America  are  supplied 


26 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


with  their  wares  and  products  to  make  the  exhibition  a  success.  TLie 
exhibition  itself  was  a  mammoth  one,  and  more  truly  a  “  world’s  fair  ’’ 
than  probably  any  other  ever  held  in  Europe.  But  its  very  magnitude 
showed  that  the  amount  of  patient  labor  and  attention  to  detail  in 
getting  it  up  must  have  been  something  quite  enormous.  But  the  com¬ 
mittees,  heartily  seconded  by  the  people,  were  untiring  in  their  efforts* 
and  there  was  probably  no  considerable  manufacturer  in  Europe  that 
did  not  have  a  special  invitation  to  exhibit.  The  exhibition,  too,  was 
carried  out  in  the  face  of  an  opposition,  which  endeavored  to  frighten 
people  away  from  Vienna  by  rumors  of  high  charges  and  of  the  prev¬ 
alence  of  contagious  diseases.  Though  not  a  financial  success,  it  was 
a  success  in  every  other  respect. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  our  people  will  accept  a  lesson  in  this  respect 
from  Austria,  and,  sinking  all  sectional  littleness  of  feeling,  unite  in 
the  work  of  hearty  co-operation  to  make  our  Industrial  Exhibition  on 
the  occasion  of  our  first  Centennial  Celebration  in  ISTfi  an  affair  worthy 
of  a  people,  enterprising,  ingenious,  and  successful  in  the  mechanic 
and  all  other  arts. 


INDEX 


Art.  Page. 

American  carriage-wheels . 2  6 

exhibit .  1  5 

Awards .  1  5 

Buildings .  11  11 

Carriages  . .  3  6 

Classification  of  exhibits .  10  11 

Conclusions .  21  25 

Cooperage .  14  14 

Exhibits  of  the  United  States .  1  5 

Fancy  goods . . .  17  23 

Furniture,  American .  .3  6 

exhibited .  16  16 

Hygroscopic  changes,  effects  of .  4  7 

Hygrometry,  value  of  knowledge  of .  6  8 

Machine-made  articles .  18  24 

Machinery,  wood-working .  3  6 

Marquetry .  13  13 

Method  of  getting  out  stock . 9  10 

seasoning,  by  George  Woods .  8  10 

Mosaic .  3  6 

Musical  instruments .  20  25 

Parquetry .  13'  13 

Philosophy  of  shrinkage .  7  9 

Seasoning,  Woods’s  method .  8  10 

Stock,  method  of  getting  out  . .  9  10 

Willow-ware . .  19  24 

Windows  in  cold  climates,  necessity  of .  5  8 

Wood-carving .  15  15 

for  musical  instruments .  20  25 

Wood-working  machinery .  3  6 


o 


I). 


WORKING  OF  STONE. 


L.  J.  HINTON. 


* 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


REPORT 


ON  THE 


WORKING  OF  STONE; 

AND  ON 

ARTIFICIAL  STONES. 


LOUIS  J.  HINTON, 

MEMBER  OF  THE  ARTISAN  COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1876. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

STONE-CUTTING  MACHINES. 

Page. 

1.  Tilghman’s  sand-blast ;  Tyndall’s  description .  5 

2.  The  inventor’s  claims ;  the  process .  6 

3.  Holmes  &  Payton’s  stone-dressing  machine .  7 

4.  Description  of  the  machine .  8 

5.  Feed-motion .  9 

6.  Operation  of  the  machine .  9 

7.  Annani’s  stone-dresser ;  description .  10 

8.  Stone  molded  for  cornices . 10 

9.  Machine  stone  dressing  works .  10 

10.  History  of  stone-dressing  in  Great  Britain .  11 

11.  Description  of  machinery  at  the  stone-dressing  works .  14 

12.  Portland  stone .  15 

13.  Adaptability  of  British  machinery  to  use  in  the  United  States .  16 

14.  Young’s  diamond  saw ;  description .  16 

15.  The  saw  quarrying-machine .  17 

16.  Concluding  remarks  on  stone-working  machinery .  18 

CHAPTER  II. 

CUT  AND  CARVED  STONE-WORK. 

17.  Extent  and  character  of  exhibits . . .  19 

18.  Wasserburger’s  mausoleum .  19 

19.  Method  of  business  in  Europe .  20 

20.  Other  exhibits . . .  20 

21.  Working  stone  in  America . . .  21 

22.  Methods  of  working  in  Vienna . . .  21 

23.  Condition  of  Viennese  workmen . .  22 

24.  Education  of  workmen . . .  22 

25.  Methods  of  doing  fine  work .  22 

26.  Application  of  stone  and  stucco . 23 

27.  Construction  of  stair- ways .  23 

CHAPTER  III. 

PAVING  SIDEWALKS  AND  HALLS. 

28.  Encaustic  tiles . - . . . - . - .  24 

29.  Mosaic  floors . . . .  25 

30.  Advantages  of  mosaic . ..  25 

31.  Wages;  methods  of  work . .  25 

32.  Yorkshire  flagging . . . . .  26 

33.  London  sidewalks . . .  26 

34.  Asphalt  pavements . . .  27 

35.  Asphalt  mosaics . 28 

36.  Asphalt  in  colors . 29 

37.  Cement-flooring .  30 

38.  Other  flooring-materials . 31 


4 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CEMENT,  STUCCO,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

Page. 

39.  Stucco,  its  applicability;  use  in  Vienna .  32 

40.  Use  of  stucco  in  London,  . . 33 

41.  Use  of  Portland  cement .  34' 

42.  Austrian  cements .  36 

43.  Saullick  cement .  36 

44.  Style  of  Viennese  buildings .  38 

45.  Use  of  stucco  in  Vienna .  39 

46.  Terra-cotta ;  history  ;  value . 39 

47.  Improvements  in  manufacture .  39 

48.  Result  of  the  work  of  the  art-schools . 39 

CHAPTER  V. 

ARTIFICIAL  STONE. 

49.  Ransome’s  stone ;  extent  of  manufacture .  41 

50.  History  of  the  invention .  41 

51.  Process  of  manufacture .  42 

52.  "the  later  process;  history .  43 

53.  Chemistry  of  the  process .  43 

54.  Durability  of  the  product .  44 

55.  Belgian  artificial  stone .  45 

56.  Increase  of  the  business .  46 


CHAPTER  I. 


STONE-CUTTING  MACHINES. 

Tilghman’s  sand-blast  ;  Holmes  &  Payton’s  stone-dkessing  machine  ;  An- 
nani’s  stone-dresser;  Machine  stone-dressing  works;  History  of  machine 
STONE-DRESSING  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN ;  YOUNG’S  DIAMOND  SAW  J  YOUNG’S  SAW  QUAR- 
R YIN G-MACHINE  ;  CONCLUSION. 

1.  Tilghman’s  sand-blast — In  the  American  section  of  the  Ma¬ 
chinery  Hall,  there  was  but  one  piece  of  machinery  that  could  be  applied 
to  stone-work — Tilghman’s  sand-blast.  This,  however,  was  so  excellent 
a  device,  and  so  simple,  that  it  attracted  a  large  share  of  attention  both 
from  the  general  public  and  the  practical  men  of  all  countries. 

In  a  paper  read  at  one  of  the  meetings  of  the  British  Boyal  Institu¬ 
tion,  Professor  Tyndall  gives  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  sand¬ 
blast.  Speaking  of  that  large  statue,  the  Sphynx  of  Egypt,  he  says: 

“It  is  nearly  covered  up  by  the  sand  of  the  desert.  The  neck  of  the 
Sphynx  is  partly  cut  across,  not,  as  I  am  assured  by  Mr.  Huxley,  by 
ordinary  weathering,  but  by  the  eroding  action  of  the  fine  sand  blown 
against  it.  In  these  cases  nature  furnishes  us  with  hints  which  may  be 
taken  advantage  of  in  art;  and  this  action  of  sand  has  been  recently 
turned  to  extraordinary  account  in  the  Uqited  States. 

“  When  in  Boston,  I  was  taken  by  Mr.  Josiah  Quincy  to  see  the  ac¬ 
tion  of  the  sand-blast.  A  kind  of  hopper,  containing  fine  silicious  sand, 
was  connected  with  a  reservoir  of  compressed  air,  the  pressure  being 
variable  at  pleasure.  The  hopper  ended  in  a  long  slit,  from  which  the 
sand  was  blown.  A  plate  of  glass  was  placed  beneath  the  slit,  and 
caused  to  pass  slowly  under  it;  it  came  out  perfectly  depolished,  with 
a  bright  opalescent  glimmer,  such  as  could  only  be  produced  by  the 
most  careful  grinding.  Every  little  particle  of  sand  urged  against  the 
glass,  having  all  its  energy  concentrated  on  the  point  of  impact,  formed 
there  a  little  pit,  the  depolished  surface  consisting  of  innumerable  hol¬ 
lows  of  this  description.  But  this  was  not  all.  By  protecting  certain 
portions  of  the  surface,  and  exposing  others,  figures  and  tracery  of  any 
required  form  could  be  etched  upon  the  glass. 

“  The  figures  of  any  open  iron-work  could  thus  be  copied,  while  wire- 
gauze  placed  over  the  glass  produced  a  reticulated  pattern.  But  it  re¬ 
quired  no  such  resisting  substance  as  iron  to  shelter  the  glass.  The 
patterns  of  the  finest  lace  could  be  thus  reproduced,  the  delicate  fila¬ 
ments  of  the  lace  itself  offering  a  sufficient  protection.  All  these  effects 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  187a 


have  been  obtained  with  a  simple  model  of  the  sand-blast,  devised  for 
me  by  my  assistant.  A  fraction  of  a  minute  suffices  to  etch  upon  glass 
a  rich  and  beautiful  lace-pattern.  Any  yielding  substance  may  be  em¬ 
ployed  to  protect  the  glass.  By  immediately  diffusing  the  shock  of  the 
particle,  such  substances  practically  destroy  the  local  erosive  power. 
The  hand  can  bear  without  inconvenience  a  sand-shower  which  would 
pulverize  glass.  Etchings  executed  on  glass  with  suitable  kinds  of  iuk 
are  accurately  worked  out  by  the  sand-blast.  In  fact,  within  certain 
limits,  the  harder  the  surface  the  greater  is  the  concentration  of  the 
shock,  and  the  more  effectual  is  the  erosion.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  sand  should  be  the  harder  substance  of  the  two  ;  corundum,  for  ex¬ 
ample,  is  much  harder  than  quartz;  still,  quartz-sand  can  not  only  de¬ 
polish,  but  actually  blow  a  hole  through  a  plate  of  corundum.  Nay, 
glass  may  be  depolished  by  the  impact  of  hue  shot,  the  grains  in  this 
case  bruising  the  glass  before  they  have  time  to  flatten  and  turn  their 
energy  into  heat.  ****** 

“But  we  can  go  far  beyond  the  mere  depolishiug  of  glass;  indeed,  I 
have  already  said  that  quartz-sand  can  wear  a  hole  through  corundum. 
This  leads  me  to  express  my  acknowledgments  to  General  Tilghman, 
who  is  the  inventor  of  the  sand-blast.  To  his  spontaneous  kindness  I 
am  indebted  for  some  beautiful  illustrations  of  his  process.  In  one 
thick  plate  of  glass  a  figure  has  been  worked  out  to  a  depth  of  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch.  A  second  plate,  seven-eighths  of  au  inch  thick,  is 
entirely  perforated.  Through  a  circular  plate  of  marble  nearly  half  au 
inch  thick,  open-work  of  the  most  intricate  aud  elaborate  description 
has  been  executed.  It  would  probably  take  many  days  to  perform  this 
work  by  any  ordinary  process  ;  with  the  sand-blast  it  was  accomplished 
in  an  hour.  So  much  for  the  strength  of  the  blast.  Its  delicacy  is  illus¬ 
trated  by  a  beautiful  example  of  line-eugraviug.  etched  ou  by  means  of 
the  blast.” 

The  reputation  of  Professor  Tyndall  gives  weight  to  this  testimony. 
No  higher  indorsement  of  the  value  of  Tilghman’s  invention  could  be 
obtained  iu  Europe,  even  should  it  be  desired. 

2.  The  iuventor  says  of  his  sand-blast  that  it  can  be  applied  to  glass, 
stone,  wood,  or  metal.  The  efficacy  of  the  blast  depends  upon  its  force. 
The  sand  may  be  either  propelled  by  steam,  water,  or  air ;  but  steam  is 
generally  to  be  preferred  where  high  velocities  are  required. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  material  is  to  be  removed,  as  in  the  orna¬ 
menting  of  stone,  a  steam-jet  of  from  60  to  80  pounds  pressure  is  used. 
In  this  case,  the  stencil  is  made  of  iron  or  rubber ;  but  when  a  small 
quantity  of  material  is  to  be  worn  away,  or  the  surface  is  merely  to  be 
depolished,  as  in  ornamenting  glass,  a  jet  of  air,  from  one-tenth  of  a  pound 
to  one  pound  pressure  is  preferred.  With  a  low  pressure,  soft  aud  deli¬ 
cate  substances,  such  as  paper-designs,  lace,  aud  leaves,  cemented  on 
glass,  may  be  used.  With  a  steam-jet,  using  steam  sufficient  for  two 
horse-power,  at  70  pounds  pressure,  and  one  pint  of  sand,  2  cubic  inches 


tilghman’s  sand-blast. 


of  granite,  4  cubic  inches  of  marble,  or  10  cubic  inches  of  sandstone 
may  be  cut  away  per  miuute.  It  will  be  obvious  that  flat  or  curved 
surfaces  may  be  alike  acted  on  by  this  process,  the  blast  being  in  all 
cases  directed  at  right  angles  to  the  exposed  surface.  Besides  executing 
ornaments  in  relief  or  intaglio,  the  process  can  be  used  for  cutting 
grooves  in  quarries  and  in  tunnels,  for  stone-dressing,  or  for  cutting 
stone  in  lathes. 

Mr.  Tilghmau,  among  other  specimens  of  work  executed  by  his  sand¬ 
blast,  showed  at  the  exhibition  a  thin  slab  of  Vermont  marble  perfo¬ 
rated  in  the  most  beautiful  way.  It  probably  could  not  be  executed  ah 
all  by  hand.  Some  letters  were  shown,  cut  into  a  lithographic  stone' 
in  ten  minutes.  The  shortest  time  in  which  an  expert  stone  cutter  could 
execute  the  same  work  would  be  at  least  ten  hours. 

General  Tilghman’s  invention  stood  without  a  rival,  and  it  will  proba¬ 
bly  soon  be  imitated  and  used  in  Europe,  where  its  value  is  already 
acknowledged  by  all  who  have  seen  it. 

3.  Holmes  and  Payton’s  stone -dressing  machine. — This  machine 
was  exhibited  in  the  British  section,  as  constructed  by  the  Patent 
Machine  Stone-Dressing  Company,  21  Great  George  street,  London. 
Although  appearing  in  the  British  section,  its  inventor  is  an  American. 

It  consists  of  a  massive  cast-iron  frame,  with  two  vertical  standards, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  bed-plates.  Upon  the  cast-iron  bed-block  is 
placed  a  strong,  sliding  bed-plate,  upon  which  the  stones  to  be  dressed 
are  secured.  The  upper  surface 
of  this  bed-plate  is  divided  into 
a  number  of  grooves,  parallel  to 
each  other,  but  formed  with  re¬ 
cesses  at-  short  intervals,  as 

'  ft 

shown  in  the  accompanying  sketch,  Fig.  1. 

These  broader  portions  are  necessary , in  order  to  lift  out  the  dogs  by  which 
the  brackets  fastening  the  stone  upon  the  Fig-  2. 

bed-plates  are  secured.  In  section  the  '///////V////.// / ////V/ZZ/Z 
grooves  of  the  bed-plates  are  as  shown  in  xZ/ZZ/~\  y////7\ 
the  next  sketch,  Fig.  2,  and  the  dogs  are 

of  a  form  to  correspond,  so  that  they  are  held  down  by  the  recesses  under 
the  T -shaped  projection.  The  length  of  the  dogs  is  rather  less  than 
that  of  each  of  the  broader  portions  of  the  grooves,  so  that  by  slipping 
the  former  back  they  are  easily  lifted  out  of  place.  ^ 

4.  The  tops  of  the  two  vertical  side-frames  are  connected  by  a  cross - 
head  or  tie-beam,  and  vertical  openings  are  left  in  them  for  the  whole 
length,  to  form  the  guide  in  which  the  blocks  carrying  the  cutting-mech¬ 
anism  slide.  In  the  upper  part  of  these  blocks  is  jnounted  a  shaft, 
passing  over  the  bed-plate  of  the  machine,  and  about  6  feet  above  it 
when  the  blocks  are  in  their  highest  position.  The  shaft  has  keyed 
upon  it  outside  the  frame  a  large  pulley,  driven  from  the  motor  by  a 
horizontal  strap.  On  the  other  end,  also  outside  the  frame,  is  a  short 


Fig.  1. 

~ I 


8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


crank  and  connecting-rod,  the  normal  angle  of  which  is  about  45°.  Be¬ 
low  this  crank-shaft  is  another,  also  running  in  the  same  sliding-block, 
and  carrying  the  cutters.  One  end  of  this  shaft  projects  beyond  the 
outside  of  the  frame,  on  the  same  side  as  the  connecting-rod  upon  the 
upper  shaft,  and  has  placed  loosely  upon  it  a  large  disk,  about  2  feet 
3  inches  in  diameter.  Near  the  periphery  of  the  disk  are  drilled  four¬ 
teen  holes  equidistant  from  each  other,  and  some  2  inches  in  diameter. 
Projecting  from  one  side  of  the  periphery  of  the  disk  is  a  quadrant  cast 
upon  it,  and  with  an  outside  attachment  for  the  eud  of  the  connecting- 
rod  attached  to  the  upper  shaft.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  when  the 
upper  shaft  is  caused  to  revolve,  the  conuectitig-rod  imparts  a  recipro¬ 
cating  motion  to  the  loose  disk,  but,  of  course,  without  affecting  the 
cutter-shaft.  Ou  each  side  of  the  loose  disk,  however,  and  in  rubbing- 
coutact  with  it,  are  two  similar  disks,  which  are  keyed  upon  the  cutter- 
shaft.  In  the  outer  of  these  disks  are  drilled  fifteen  holes  near  the 
periphery,  and  exactly  corresponding  to  those  in  the  loose  disk,  except¬ 
ing  that  they  exceed  the  latter  in  number  by  one.  When  the  fast 
disk§  are  turned  in  such  a  position  that  one  of  the  holes  in  the  sur¬ 
face  corresponds  with  one  of  those  in  the  loose  disk,  a  pin  is  used 
to  couple  both  together,  and  then  the  motion  of  the  connecting-rod  at 
once  imparts  a  reciprocating  action  to  the  cutter-shaft.  Handles  are 
fastened  to  the  outer  or  fast  disk,  for  convenience  in  turniug  it  and 
and  the  cutter-shaft,  to  bring  one  or  other  of  the  cuttiug-faces  upon 
the  stone.  It  will  be  seen  that  by  the  simple  expedient  of  having 
one  less  hole  in  the  loose  than  in  the  fast  disk,  a  very  fine  gradatiou 
of  angle  for  the  cutter  can  be  obtained ;  in  fact,  the  utmost  range 
that  is  necessary  is  that  within  the  limits  of  the  quadrant  cast  on  the 
loose  disk,  and  to  which  two  studs  are  attached,  which,  however,  are 
free  to  slide  in  a  curved  slot  cut  upon  the  quadrant.  The  object  of  these 
studs  will  be  seen  presently.  The  cutter-block  mounted  on  the  lower 
shaft  consists  of  a  heavy  piece  of  cast  iron,  with  suitable  recesses  for 
holding  the  cutter.  These  are  of  two  kinds:  one  pair  ou  one  side  of  the 
block,  and  extending  for  its  whole  length  are  steel  teeth,  with  spaces 
3  between  them,  and  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  3.  The  width 
of  the  space  is  equal  to  that  of  the  teeth.  A  row  of  these 
cutters  is  placed  in  the  recess  in  the  cutter-block,  and  keyed 
iu  at  the  eud.  The  corresponding  row  iu  the  other  recess  are 

-  arranged  so  that  a  tooth  occurs  in  one  row  opposite  a  space 

in  the  other.  The  rows  are  placed  each  at  an  angle  converging  toward 
each  other.  Ou  the  opposite  side  of  the  cutter-block  are  placed,  in  suit¬ 
able  recesses,  plain  steel  blades,  with  sharpened  edges,  merely  kept  iu 
place  by  paper  packing.  These  blades  also  converge  toward  one 
another.  It  will  now  be  seen  that  when  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  stone 
with  the  teeth,  if  the  steel  blades  are  iu  contact  with  the  stone,  a  half¬ 
turn  must  be  given  to  the  cutter-block,  which  is  doue  by  means  of  the 
handles  on  the  fast  disk,  and,  as  the  normal  position  of  one  of  the  two 


holmes  &  payton’s  stone-dressing  machine.  9 

handles  always  lies  between  the  studs  on  the  quadrant,  it  follows  that 
when  the  cutter-block  is  thrown  over,  the  opposite  handle  then  falls  be¬ 
tween  the  studs.  Again,  if  one  set  of  cutters,  either  teeth  or  blades,  is 
in  contact  with  the  stone,  the  handle  comes  home  upon  the  lower  stud, 
whereas,  when  the  other  row  of  cutters  is  brought  into  contact,  the 
handle  is  thrown  against  the  upper  stud.  Between  these  two  extremes, 
any  desired  inclination  is  imparted  to  the  cutting-tool  by  means  of  the 
holes  in  the  disk. 

5.  We  now  come  to  the  feed-motion  of  the  machine.  This  is  of  three 
kinds:  first,  the  rising  and  falling  motion,  given  to  the  sliding-blocks  in 
the  frame,  as  the  cutter  follows  up  the  stone  in  dressing  it ;  second,  th« 
backward  and  forward  motion  of  the  bed;  and,  third,  a  hand-motion,  for 
producing  a  fine  cut,  or  relieving  the  pressure  of  the  tool  upon  the  stone. 

To  produce  the  first  of  these  motions  a  vertical  screw  passes  through 
each  sliding  block,  and,  by  turning  them  in  either  direction,  a  rising 
and  falling  motion  is  obtained.  They  extend  for  the  whole  length  of 
the  guides  in  the  frames,  and  pass  below  the  bed-plate  of  the  machine, 
where  each  terminates  in  a  strong  worm,  gearing  into  a  worm-wheel. 
This  wheel  is  driven  either  to  the  right  or  left  by  bevel-gearing,  a  lever 
being  under  the  hand  of  the  operator  to  reverse  the  action  at  will. 

Similarly  the  strong  pinion,  driving  the  broad  rack  upon  the  under  side 
of  the  bed-plate,  is  driven  by  bevel-gearing  from  the  motor-shaft,  and  is 
also  reversed  at  will  by  a  clutch  and  lever.  The  hand-motion  is  merely 
a  wheel  gearing  into  the  worms  of  the  vertical  screw-shaft.  It  is  only 
needed  to  relieve  the  machine  when  taking  a  finer  cut. 

6.  The  action  of  the  machine  is  as  follows  :  When  the  cutter-block  is  set 
in  motion  by  the  oscillation  of  the  disk,  the  stones  gradually  feed  along 
on  the  bed-plates,  and  one  row  of  teeth  takes  a  biting  cut,  leaving  a  se¬ 
ries  of  ridges,  corresponding  to  the  space  between  the  teeth.  The  mo¬ 
tion  is  then  reversed,  and  the  cutter  turned  over  far  enough  to  bring 
the  other  series  of  teeth  to  act  upon  the  stone.  These  of  course  attack 
the  ridges,  and  reduce  the  surface  of  the  block  to  a  level. 

The  cutter-block  may  then  be  thrown  half  over,  so  as  to  bring  the 
knife-blades  in  contact  with  the  stone.  The  action  of  these,  which  take 
a  much  more  delicate  cut,  leaves  a  smooth,  true  surface,  with  scarcely 
perceptible  ridges.  The  teeth  leave  longitudinal  dressing-marks  upon 
the  stone,  and  the  blades  transverse  marks.  The  angle  given  to  the  tool 
varies  with  the  uature  of  the  work,  being  greater  for  hard  and  less  for 
soft  stone. 

The  machine  in  the  Vienna  Exhibition  would  take  a  block  2  feet  4 
inches  high,  and  7  feet  long,  and  surfaced  granite  at  the  rate  of  about 
2  feet  a  minute.  The  power  required  to  drive  it  on  such  work  was  said 
to  be  two-horse  power. 

The  writer  is  not  able  to  state  from  his  own  knowledge  whether  simi¬ 
lar  machines  are  in  use  with,  us,  but  he  has  seen  marks  on  machine- 
manufactured  stone-work,  wrought  by  the  Bigelow  Bluestone  Company, 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


near  Bondout,  X.  Y.,  and  at  Chicago,  such  as  are  left  by  the  Holmes  & 
Payton  machine. 

7.  Signor  Guiseppi  Annani’s  stone-dresser. — The  only  other 
stone-dressing  machine  which  we  could  discover  among  all  the  machines 
on  exhibition  in  the  vast  machinery-hall  adjacent  to  the  exposition  build¬ 
ing, was  that  of  Guiseppi  Annaui,  of  Yeroua,  Italy.  Little  can  be  said 
of  it,  and  that  scarcely  favorable.  It  was  a  clumsy,  ill-made  wooden 
frame,  with  a  bed  for  the  stone  high  above  the  ground.  The  feed  was  au  - 
tomatic,  or  would  be  if  it  could  work,  and' consisted  of  a  rack  and  pinion, 
driven  through  a  ratchet  and  gear  from  a  pulley  belted  from  the  motor. 
The  so-called  stone-dressing  arrangement  was  formed  of  a  set  of  six 
hammers,  hung  from  a  shaft;  beneath  them  was  a  second  shaft  with 
six  cams  mounted  upon  it.  The  cams  revolve,  lifting  the  hammers 
consecutively,  and  then  dropping  them  suddenly,  each  upon  one  of  a 
row  of  chisels  fixed  in  an  inclined  frame,  and  working  loose  in  guides, 
with  their  cutting-edges  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  stone.  Spring- 
stops  are  placed  above  the  hammers  to  prevent  their  rising  too  high 
when  lifted  by  the  cams.  This  idea  is  very  old,  and  even  if  the  pres¬ 
ent  machine  were  perfectly  made,  it  could  never  work  with  the  slightest 
regularity  or  economy.  Each  chisel,  operating  on  its  own  account, 
would  penetrate  more  or  less,  according  to  the  varying  deusity  of  the 
stone;  and  this  irregularity  once  having  commenced,  it  would  never  be 
corrected.  The  machine  of  Signor  Annaui  may  be  regarded  as  some¬ 
what  of  a  curiosity. 

S.  Powis,  James  &  Co.’s  stone-dressing  machinery. — Bear 
Holmes  &  Payton’s  machine,  Messrs.  Powis,  James  &  Co.,  of  London, 
exhibited  a  large  stock  of  wood  cutting  and  molding  machines.  Atten¬ 
tion  was  attracted  to  their  exhibit  by  two  large  pieces  of  stone  molded 
into  cornice  lengths.  Upon  making  inquiries,  it  was  ascertained  that 
this  firm  manufacture  stone-cutting  machinery,  in  addition  to  their 
other  work.  They  did  not  exhibit  it,  but  merely  showed  the  two  pieces 
of  dressed  stone  just  mentioned,  to  attract  attention  to  the  scope  of  the 
work  done  by  their  firm. 

The  address  of  a  company  in  London  was  given,  with  the  assurance 
that  visitors  to  their  works  would  “  see  some  of  the  best  stone-dressing 
machinery  ever  invented.”  Accordingly,  on  the  way  home,  a  point  was 
made  of  finding  them. 

9.  The  machine  stone-dressing  works. — These  works  are  located 
at  York  Road  Station,  Battersea  Park,  London.  The  firm  is  a  “limited 
liability”  company,  which  has  purchased  the  patented  invention  of  Mr* 
G.  Hunter  and  Sir  William  Fothergill-Cooke. 

The  writer  found  a  friend  employed  at  the  company’s  works,  as  fore¬ 
man  of  the  forty  or  fifty  stone-cutters  employed  there,  who  kiudly  intro¬ 
duced  him  to  Mr.  G.  Hunter,  the  principal  inventor.  This  geutleman 
could  spare  very  little  time  to  give  the  details  of  construction  of  his 
machines,  but  gave  references  to  different  journals  that  had  printed,  at 


BRITISH  STONE-DRESSING  MACHINERY. 


11 


various  times,  more  or  less  full  accouuts  of  his  and  his  copatentee’s  in¬ 
vention.  In  a  letter  from  him,  written  at  the  request  of  the  writer,  a 
brief  history  is  given  of  the  introduction  of  stone-dressing  machinery  in 
Great  Britain,  so  far  as  his  knowledge  extends. 

10.  This  account  is  as  follows  : 

History  of  stone-dressing  by  machinery  in  Great  Britain. — 
“I  may  say  that  1832  was  the  year  the  first  machine  was  made,  but 
the  Forfarshire  machines  were  patented  in  1834.  To  the  best  of 
my  knowledge,  these  machines  are  chiefly  used  for  dressing  flags. 
Six  of  these  were  erected  at  Legsmill  quarries,  Forfarshire,  Scotland. 
They  were  only  partially  successful,  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the 
journeyman  stone-cutters.  I  may  say  that  these  six  machines  dressed 
all  the  planed  flags  shipped  from  Arbroath,  up  to  the  year  1846,  wheu 
the  proprietors  erected  two  at  the  quarries  belonging  to  Lord  Panmure, 
b#t  they  only  ‘  saked  7  the  stone  per  superficial  foot,  which  at  this  time 
was  equal  to  £3  6s.  8 d.  per  thousand  superficial  feet.  The  contract 
was  generally  let  for  £2  2s.  Od.  This  upheld  coals  and  steel,  and  exe¬ 
cuted  the  work,  taking  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  off.  In  1852, 
three  more  machines  were  erected  for  different  parties.  Since  then,  the 
gradual  development  of  these  machines  took  place,  and  now,  I  believe, 
there  are  nearly  one  hundred  in  Forfarshire  ;  and  while  the  export  of 
machine-dressed  flagging  from  1836  to  1840  remained  about  200,000  feet 
per  annum,  it  is  now  about  2,000,000. 

“In  the  year  1837,  the  railway  block  boring  and  facing  machine  was 
brought  out  and  patented,  by  the  same  inventor,  James  Hunter,  (my 
father,)  of  Legsmill,  Forfarshire ;  but  owing  to  the  sudden  disuse  of 
stone  blocks,  this  machine,  although  a  success,  became  of  comparatively 
little  use. 

“  In  the  year  1852,  I  went  to  the  Forest  of  Dean,  to  erect  the  Forfar¬ 
shire  machinery  there,  and  having  heavy,  rough  stuff  to  deal  with,  I 
went  back  to  Forfarshire,  and  brought  out  a  saw  with  tubular  trumpet- 
mouth  tools.  This  was  of  cast  iron,  and  was  11  feet  diameter.  Another 
was  made  of  6  feet  diameter.  These  machines  were  put  to  work  in 
1855,  and  are  still  at  work.  They  cut  the  sandstone  at  5  inches  for¬ 
ward  per  minute,’7  [the  stone  from  the  Forest  of  Dean  quarries  is  stiff 
and  hard,  but  of  a  fine  grit,]  “  and  the  man  attending  used  to  have  one 
penny  per  foot,  superficial,  for  his  labor,  and  sharpening  tools. 

“In  the  year  1862,  I  brought  out  the  saws  for  cutting  hard  Welsh 
slate.  These  mounted  several  saws  on  a  spindle  above  the  table,  and 
cross-cut  a  large  slab  into  several  pieces,  the  speed  of  cross-cutting  be¬ 
ing  4  inches  per  minute,  through  a  depth  of  12  inches.  The  tool  in  this 
case  was  of  the  solid  trumpet-shape  mentioned. 

“  I  have  also  erected  these  saws  12  feet  diameter,  for  squaring  mag¬ 
nesian  limestone  blocks,  for  the  Lyne  pier  commissioners.  A  fast¬ 
cutting  machine  was  also  brought  out  for  cutting  out  slate-work  from 
the  bed.  This  machine  cut  into  the  rock  two-thirds  of  its  diameter,  and 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


would  cut  2  feet  at  a  speed  of  from  4  to  5  feet  per  hour.  A  tuuneling- 
machiue  was  next  patented.  It  cut  a  chase  or  groove  around  the  rock, 
2  inches  wide  and  about  3  feet  deep,  doing  the  work,  as  a  rule,  in  about 
three  hours.  We  walled  many  yards  with  this  machine.  The  price,  as 
shown  by  the  time-keeper’s  book,  came  to  about  £2  2s.  per  yard,  for  a  7 
feet  4  inches  tunnel.  The  rate,  through  solid  slate,  was  from  9  to  10 
yards,  uight  and  day.  The  solid  core  was  removed  at  times,  without 


Fig.  i>. — Hunter  and  l’othergill’s  stone-sawing  machine — end  view. 


0  "* ' 

- 

HR 

breaking  it.  The  tunneling-machine  weighs  about  ten  tons.  It  has  a 
revolving  ring  in  front,  in  whicli  pieces  of  steel  securing  the  tools  are 
fixed.  It  revolves  at  a  speed  of  about  20  feet  per  minute  for  slate.  It 
moves  forward  when  at  full  speed  at  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  per 
revolution,  and  when  working  iu  pure  slate  makes  several  cuts  without 
derangiug  the  tools ;  but  as  spar  very  often  occurs  iu  slate,  we,  as  a  rule, 
had  to  change  tools  generally  two  or  three  times,  for  a  cut  of  2  feet  9 
inches. 

“  The  power  required  to  drive  the  machine  was  double-cylinder,  high 
pressure,  four  and  a  half  cylinder,  at  about  35  pounds  per  square  inch 
steam.  This  machiue  was  invented  for  the  purpose  of  proving  slate- 
veins,  and  as  it  relieves  a  block,  full  diameter  of  the  tunnel,  slates  or 
slabs  can  be  made  from  it,  to  prove  the  general  outturn  of  the  rock. 

“The  next  machine  brought  out  by  me  was  the  molding  machine,  as 
worked  at  York  Road,  Battersea,  the  chief  feature  of  which  is  the  em- 


Fig.  6. — Hunter  &  Fothergill’s  stone-molding  machine — front  view. 


STONE-MOLDING  MACHINERY. 


Fig.  7. — Hunter  &  Fothergill’s  stone-molding  machine — end  view. 


14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ploymeut  of  plates  of  different  lengths,  all  lettered,  so  as  to  be  easily 
picked  out  and  set,  like  types,  to  mold.  These  being  built  on  a  shaft, 
revolve,  aud  take  out  the  rough  or  waste,  comparatively  near  the  mold, 
when  a  tool  to  profile  passes  several  times  over  and  finishes  the  work. 
The  stone  is  laid  on  a  cant-table  to  cant  to  the  proper  angle. 

“  I  also  invented  what  is  known  in  Scotland  as  Hunter’s  patent  ridge 
stone-cutting  machine,  which  cuts  ridge  rocks,  one  out  of  the  other,  at 
about  100  to  140  feet  per  day,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  stone,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  S.  These  ridges  can  Fig.  8. 

be  cut  out  even  as  thin  as  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch.  However,  as 
there  is  such  a  great  difference  in 
stone,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
know  how  to  construct  a  machine  that  shall  be  applicable  to  all.” 

11.  We  were  not  able  to  see  and  examine  the  machinery  at  rest,  but 
were  permitted  to  see  it  in  full  operation.  The  following  description* 
wras  carefully  compared  with  the  machine  while  inspecting  the  com¬ 
pany’s  works,  and  was  found  accurate: 

“Of  the  process  of  working,  both  in  sawing  blocks  aud  rough-hew- 


7 

FIC  12 


FIC  9  FIC  11 


ing  moldings,  it  may  be  said  in  limine  that  one  form  of  cutter  is  used, 
a  steel  face  of  five-eighths  inch  diameter,  the  metal  tapering  away  from 
the  face  to  give  it  a  cutting-edge.  For  the  saws,  the  teeth  or  cutters 
are  cylindrical,  tapering  bolts,  with  flat  heads,  which  do  the  cutting. 
The  most  powerful  machine  ou  the  premises  is  an  arrangement  of  a 
pair  of  saws,  each  5  feet  4  inches  in  diameter,  that  work  horizontally 


London  Engineer 


STONE-SAWING  MACHINERY. 


15 


upon  upright  shafts,  and  in  work  meet  each  other  within  about  an  inch. 
The  sawn  slab  separates  readily  and  uniformly  at  the  middle  of  the 
piece  left  uncut.  Each  of  these  saws  has  forty-four  cutting-tools  round 
its  periphery.  These  are  carried  by  holders  that  are  wedged  into  the 
outer  edge  of  the  saw-plates,  and  have  holes  forged  in  them  for  the 
reception  of  the  tools,  as  in  Figs.  9, 10,  aud  11.  Fig.  12  shows  the  form 
of  the  edge  by  which  the  tool-holder  is  kept  flush  with  the  blade  of  the 
saw.  A  block  of  Portland  stone,  5  feet  9  inches  by  4  feet  wide,  had  a 
slab  of  2£  inches  thick  taken  off  by  the  machine  in  rather  less  than 
twenty-five  minutes  in  our  presence. 

“The  rippiug-machine  has  tools  of  the  same  character  as  the  slabber. 
The  saws  that  work  vertically  are  2  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  and  have 
each  eighteen  cutters.  It  is  equal  to  taking  three  saws  and  cuts  of 
about  8J  inches  deep. 

“Of  the  remaining  machines,  one  operates  by  cutters  arranged  upon 
a  vertical  shaft;  the  others  are  fixed  on  horizontal  shafts,  that  are 
raised  and  lowered,  according  to  their  work,  with  the  greatest  facility 
and  nicety.  The  tools  in  these  machines  are  of  the  same  diameter  as 
the  saw-teeth — five-eighths  inch — but  are  of  punched  disks  of  steel, 
about  one-eighth  inch  thick.  The  form  of  their  cutting-edge  aud  the 
mode  of  fastening  will  be  understood  from  the  subjoined  sketch,  Fig.  13. 

“The  tools  in  the  planing  and  molding  ma¬ 
chines  are  fastened  to  holders  (Fig.  5)  that  are 
bolted  to  the  shafts.  There  is  a  pair  of  tools 
at  each  end  of  the  holder.  Although  the  hold¬ 
ers,  when  fixed  upon  the  shafts,  act  obliquely,  as 
appears  upon  the  stone  passingunder  the  cutters, 
and  in  such  manner  as  seems  incompatible  with 
the  production  of  any  definite  form,  they  are 
nevertheless  so  arranged,  and  so  act,  as  to  turn 
out  moldings  of  a  large  size,  with  many  members? 
rough-cut  with  great  accuracy.  The  work  is 
finished  by  being  passed  two  or  three  times  under 
cutting  or  scraping  tools  of  the  precise  form  of 
the  molding  to  be  produced.  For  a  molding 
of  many  members,  some  of  them  deeply  cut, 
more  than  one  of  these  finishing-tools  is  sometimes  employed.  The 
moldings,  as  completed,  are  equal  to  the  best  hand-work  ever  produced. 
Mitred  work  is  also  executed  by  the  machines  with  perfect  accuracy, 
as  we  saw  from  the  return-moldings  on  the  ends  of  the  stair-steps  in 
process  of  being  dressed.” 

12.  The  stone  mentioned  in  the  above  quotation,  i.  e.,  Portland,  is 
that  quarried  from  the  island  of  Portland.  It  is  a  limestone.  In  former 
years  a  much  harder  and  more  durable  material  was  obtained  than  is 
quarried  at  present.  The  specimens  which  the  machines  were  operat¬ 
ing  upon  on  the  occasion  of  our  visit  were  very  soft  and  white,  little 


16* 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


likely  to  stand  the  wearing  effect  ot'  the  weather.  The  great  majority 
of  the  public  buildings  of  London  are  built  of  this  stone.  The  machinery 
of  this  company  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  its  manipulation,  and  for  work¬ 
ing  of  the  many  oolites  found  in  England.  We  would  also  venture  to 
use  it  on  sandstone,  not  harder  than  Ohio  sandstone.  We  have  a  large 
number  of  soft  sandstones  in  our  Western  States,  and  in  some  of  our 
Southern  States,  that  this  molding-machine  would  work  well. 

13.  The  sawing-machines  are  uot,  apparently,  so  well  adapted  to  our 
needs  as  those  already  patented  by  some  of  our  own  citizens. 

As  a  general  rule,  European  manufacturers  build  more  solidly  than 
is  customary  with  us.  When  we  use  sandstoue  or  marble,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  its  great  cost  as  a  raw  material,  and  the  expense  of  working, 
we  usually  veneer  our  fronts  with  thin  slabs,  backing  them  up  with 
bricks,  and  anchoring  the  stone  to  the  walls.  We  make  our  material 
go  further  than  any  other  people  in  the  world.  This  veneering  process 
is,  of  course,  not  always  followed,  as,  for  example,  in  the  beautiful  and 
solid  buildings  now  erected  or  being  erected  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  Architect  of  the  Treasury,  Mr.  A.  B.  Mullett.  Buildings  erected 
in  our  cities  of  granite  or  limestone  are  generally  quite  solidly  built. 

The  point  to  be  observed  is  this :  the  English  sawing-machine,  in  mak¬ 
ing  a  cut,  does  not  make  a  clean  one  or  a  narrow  cleft.  Indeed,  by  the 
time  the  faces  have  been  on  the  rubbing-bed  to  be  smoothed  down,  an 
inch  of  material  has  beeu  wasted  away.  This  would  never  answer 
with  us  where  the  kind  of  stone  which  this  saw  operates  upon  is  so  ex¬ 
pensive. 

14.  Youngs’  diamond  saw. — Messrs.  Young,  of  New  York,  have  in¬ 
vented  and  patented  a  vastly  superior  saw.  It  is  called  “Youngs’  re¬ 
ciprocating  saw-machine  for  sawing  stone.”  When  exhibited  at  the 
fair  of  the  American  Institute  last  autumn,  it  attracted  a  great  deal  of 
attention,  besides  gaining  the  great  Medal  of  Honor,  which  is  ouly  given 
to  such  inventions  as  are  deemed  of  such  importance  as  to  be  likely  to 
work  a  revolution  in  industries  to  which  they  are  applied. 

The  main  feature  of  Young’s  patent  is  that  of  cutting  the  stoue  by 
means  of  diamonds,  securely  fastened  into  the  saw-blades.  They  are 
held  in  steel  cutter- blocks,  and  are  fastened  in  by  calking  the  steel, 
any  little  interstices  that  remain  being  filled  with  small  pieces  of  iron 
and  spelter  solder.  The  art  of  setting  them  is  so  simple  that  any  one 
can  do  it  with  ease,  after  once  having  seen  it  done.  There  is  no  neces¬ 
sity  to  describe  it  in  greater  detail.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  this  machine 
seems  superior  to  anything  hitherto  designed  to  perform  the  same  work. 
On  the  score  of  ecouomy  it  surpasses  the  machine  at  Loudon,  as  it 
makes  but  a  very  narrow  cleft,  and  leaves  the  face  of  the  stone  so  smooth 
that  little  or  no  polishing  is  needed  after  it  comes  from  the  saw-bed. 
The  diamonds  are  very  seldom  lost,  and  do  not  wear  out.  They  are  ot 
au  inexpensive  kind,  adapted  to  such  work.  Steel  saws  require  a  great 
deal  of  sharpening  and  replacing.  Diamond  saws  will  do  more  than 


DIAMOND-SAW  MACHINERY. 


17 


three  times  as  much  work  with  the  same  power  as  the  old  sand  and  iron 
saws,  and  the  work  is  done  from  ten  to  thirty  times  as  rapidly. 

15.  The  diamond  saw  quarrying-machine. — Willard,  Whittier  & 


Fig.  14. — Cornice  for  new  London  post-office,  (one-eighth  full  size.) 


Co.,  of  Boston,  are  the  proprietors  of  a  diamond-saw  quarrying-ma¬ 
chine,  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  rock-channeling  and  dressing,  which  sur¬ 
passes  the  Hunter  &  Fothergill-Cooke  machine,  extensively  used  in 


Fig.  15. — String  course,  new  St.  Thomas  Hospital,  (one-half  full  size.) 

Great  Britain,  and  already  described.  The  Willard  &  Co.  machine 
consists  of  a  straight  saw,  armed  with  black-diamond  cutting-points, 
2  ST 


18  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

which  vibrates  between  and  works  in  combination  with  revolving 
diamond  pointed  drills  for  the  purpose  of  freeing  the  ends  of  the  saw- 
kerf  when  operated  in  a  quarry. 

The  whole  is  carried  on  a  frame  with  a  six  horse-power  engine  and 
boiler,  mounted  upon  trucks  and  placed  upon  a  track  to  facilitate 
change  of  its  position.  It  cuts  a  channel  11  feet  in  length,  one-half  inch 
in  width,  and  4  feet  10  inches  in  depth  ;  it  can  be  handled  and  worked 
by  two  men,  is  simple  in  its  construction,  and  is  easily  kept  in  order. 
It  is  said  to  effect  a  saving  of  50  per  cent,  over  the  cost  of  hand-labor. 

16.  Although  not  so  successful  with  their  saws,  the  English  molding- 
machines  are  very  clever  inventions,  doing  their  work  better  than  any¬ 
thing  the  writer  has  ever  seen  or  heard  of,  and  they  would  doubtless 
prove  of  value  if  introduced  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  They  are  not 
likely  to  reduce  the  demand  for  stone-cutter’s  labor  auy  more  than  the 
introduction  of  wood-molding  machines  diminished  the  demand  for 
the  labor  of  carpeuters  and  joiners;  still  some  opposition  ina\T  be  ex¬ 
pected  from  the  least  intelligent  workmen.  A  continuous  stretch  for  a 
considerable  length  of  one  kind  of  molding  would  pay  well,  as,  for  in¬ 
stance,  in  the  example  shown  in  Figs.  14  and  15. 

In  concluding  this  portion  of  this  report,  it  is  well  to  call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  only  here  and  in  England  that  any  strong  efforts  have 
been  made  to  master  the  art  of  manipulating  stone  by  machinery,  as 
we  work  wood  and  those  materials  which  are  even  harder  than  almost 
any  kind  of  stone — steel  and  iron. 


CHAPTER  II. 


CUT  AND  CARVED  STONE- WORK. 

Extent  and  character  of  exhibits;  Wasserburger’s  mausoleum;  Methods  of 

business;  Working  stone  in  America;  Working  stone  in  Vienna;  Condition 

of  Viennese  workmen;  Education;  Methods  of  doing  fine  work;  Use  of 

STONE  AND  STUCCO;  S'TAIR-WAYS. 

17.  There  were  not  many  specimens  of  this  industry  shown  at  the  ex¬ 
position,  either  within  the  building  or  on  the  grounds ;  certainly  not  nearly 
as  many  as  were  shown  at  former  European  world’s  fairs. 

There  was,  however,  an  immense  number  of  specimens  of  different 
kinds  of  stone  and  marble  on  exhibition.  In  some  sections  small  blocks 
about  6  inches  square  were  shown.  Italy  made  a  splendid  display. 
Over  a  thousand  different  kinds  were  counted,  all  grouped  with  taste 
and  harmonizing  in  color.  Each  kind  is  used  by  the  Italians  in  some 
one  or  other  of  their  many  industries. 

The  exhibit  in  the  United  States  section  was  but  a  small  collection  of 
4  pieces  of  about  the  right  size.  It  was  unfortunate  that,  after  deciding  to 
send  the  products  of  our  quarries,  the  collection  was  not  made  more 
complete.  A  full  exhibit  of  the  immense  variety  of  the  fine  marbles,  gran¬ 
ites,  and  other  building-stones  of  the  United  States  would  not  only  as¬ 
tonish  the  people  of  Europe,  but  many  of  our  own  architects,  who  scarcely 
dream  of  the  immense  variety  from  which  they  might  choose,  if  trans¬ 
portation  were  cheaper  than  it  now  is. 

Some  exhibitors  made  the  mistake  of  sending  huge  blocks  of  rough- 
hewed  marble,  stone,  and  granite,  which  were  brought  hundreds  of 
miles,  to  be  dumped  off  the  cars,  and  left  where  they  fell,  behind  the 
exhibition  building,  no  word  of  explanation  being  given.  Small  blocks 
would  have  done  quite  as  well  for  exhibition,  while  the  fact  that  large 
blocks  could  be  quarried  to  order  might  have  been  stated  in  a  printed 
form,  if  it  was  of  sufficient  importance  to  do  so.  The  members  of  the 
jury,  when  viewing  these  solid  blocks,  walked  around  them,  felt  them, 
tapped  them  with  their  pencils,  inquired  where  this  or  that  specimen 
came  from,  and  passed  on  to  something  that  had  work  in  it.  As  already 
remarked,  there  was  not  a  very  great  amount  of  the  latter  kind  of  work 
exhibited,  except,  of  course,  marble  statuary,  of  which  there  was  a 
splendid  show;  Italy  alone  sending  so  much,  and  that  of  such  a  quality, 
as  to  make  its  remembrance  pleasant  to  all  lovers  of  the  fine  arts. 

18.  With  the  exception  of  one  or  two  pedestals  of  granite,  not  worth 
noticing,  the  only  good  piece  of  stone-work  to  be  seen  on  the  grounds 
was  a  mausoleum,  erected  near  the  jury  pavilion,  and  exhibited  by  Paul 


20 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Wasserburger,  “surveyor  of  buildings,  architect  to  the  community,  aud 
stone-cutter  to  the  court.”  The  style  of  the  mausoleum  was  Gothic;  the 
design  was  by  Frederick  Schmidt,  the  detail  drawings  being  furnished 
by  his  pupil,  Charles  Schoden.  The  sculptured  figures  at  each  corner, 
representing  the  cardinal  virtues,  came  from  the  studio  of  the  sculptor 
Louis  Le  Grain  ;  the  carving  was  executed  by  another  academician,  J. 
Pokorny.  The  following  kinds  of  stone  aud  granite  were  used  in  its 
construction:  for  the  steps,  grayish-blue  granite;  the  columns,  red 
Saxon  granite;  the  body  of  the  edifice  was  of  a  light-yellow  freestone 
quarried  on  the  estates  of  Count  Auersperg  and  Baron  v.  Gagern,  Mok- 
ritz,  in  Lower  Caruiola. 

The  design  was  very  neat  and  chaste,  but  it  contained  nothing  orig¬ 
inal.  It  was  simply  a  reproduction  of  the  ideas  of  the  old  Gothic 
architects,  with  some  variation  of  the  details.  The  manipulation  was 
perfect.  In  this  particular  modern  workers  in  stone  can  equal,  if  not 
surpass,  the  workmen  of  earlier  times;  and  when  this  is  written,  all  is 
written. 

If).  It  may  be  well  to  note  the  fact  that  in  Europe  this  business  of 
stone-cutting  seems  to  be  in  the  hands  of  wealthy  men,  like  Paul  Was- 
serburger,  whose  business  was  founded  by  an  ancestor  in  1734,  and 
handed  down  from  father  to  son  until  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
present  possessor.  Small  employers  seem  to  be  almost  unknown  in  the 
large- cities.  Not  so  with  us;  we  have  many  such,  struggling  to  rise.  - 
Foremanships  are  the  greatest  prizes  offered  the  best  journeymen  in 
Europe. 

20.  Within  the  palace,  under  the  dome,  was  another  specimen  of  the 
same  class  of  work  designed  by  the  same  architect — a  stone  pulpit  and 
stair  case.  The  decorative  part  was  executed  by  the  royal  sculptor, 
Franz  Schontholer.  The  stone  used  was  also  from  the  quarries  of  Count 
Auersperg  and  Baron  v.  Gagern.  It  was  very  fine,  but  there  was 
nothing  in  it  that  the  decorative  stone-cutters  in  any  of  our  large  cities 
would  not  duplicate,  if  called  upon  to  do  so,  without  having  “royal” 
or  “sculptor  to  the  court”  attached  to  their  names. 

Frauce  displayed  several  marble  mantels,  aud  a  fountain,  all  exhibi¬ 
ted  by  Parisian  firms.  The  fountain  was  nicely  gotten  up;  dark-red 
.  marble  built  into  the  wall;  above  the  water-bowl  was  a  sculptured 
panel  in  white  marble,  which  was  executed  in  Italy,  and  represented  an 
eagle  swooping  down  upon  a  duck,  surrounded  with  reeds  aud  water- 
plants. 

Fountains  abound  in  the  streets  of  Europe,  a  feature  worthy  of  our 
consideration.  Many  are  very  beautiful,  some  are  quaint,  and  all  are 
useful  aud  ornamental.  Nothing  is  a  more  common  sight  to  the  traveler, 
nor  does  anything  that  he  sees  live  so  long  in  his  memory  as  the  public 
fountains  in  open  plazas  and  market-places;  time — evening,  when  the 
day-sky  is  changing  into  that  of  the  night,  the  crimson  flush  in  the 
west  dying  away  into  blue,  aud  the  stars  just  beginning  to  appear. 


EUROPEAN  STONE-CARVING. 


21 


The  cool  splash  of  the  fountain  sounds  pleasantly  on  the  ear.  Around 
it  stand,  picturesquely  grouped,  the  girls  and  women  who  have  come  to 
fill  their  water-jars  and  to  gossip  with  their  neighbors.  The  gabled  and 
many-storied  houses  around  cast  their  shadows  over  them,  making  the 
background  of  a  scene  which,  once  seen,  is  rarely  forgotten. 

In  London,  there  is  a  u  drinking-fountain  association  ’’—everything 
is  done  in  England  by  an  association  of  some  kind — which  has  procured 
the  erection  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  drinking-fountains,  besides  many 
troughs  for  horses,  cattle,  and  dogs.  These  fountains  are  nearly  all  of 
finely  cut  and  polished  marble  or  granite,  or  of  elaborately  carved  and 
cut  sandstone.  Upon  each  is  engraved  the  name  of  the  donor,  gen¬ 
erally  some  wealthy  citizen. 

This  association  has  performed  an  excellent  temperance  work.  Before 
those  fountains  were  erected  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  get  a  drink  of 
water  outside  one’s  own  home,  while  beer  and  gin  shops  were  open  on 
every  side.  With  a  few  exceptions,  this  is  the  case  in  our  own  cities. 
Some  of  our  many  rich  philanthropists,  by  erecting  fountains  like  that 
at  Cincinnati,  works  beautiful  as  well  as  useful,  may  be  sure  of  winning 
the  grateful  thanks  of  thousands  who  would  be  thus  benefited. 

21.  This  kind  of  work  in  stone  would  be  well  adapted  to  exercise  the 
skill  and  ability  of  the  school  of  fine-art  workmen  which  the  last  decade 
has  raised  within  our  midst.  Some  of  the  artisans,  who  are  now  Amer¬ 
ican  citizens,  have  cut  and  carved  some  of  the  best  work  in  Europe. 
Indeed,  we  have  workmen  capable  of  executing  the  most  elaborate  aud 
delicate  work  in  stone,  if  the  public  will  but  give  them  a  chance,  instead 
of  sending  to  Europe  for  anything  of  this  character  which  they  m*ay 
want,  and  which  many  deem  the  American  stone-cutter  incapable  of  ex¬ 
ecuting.  But  it  is  a  fact  that  no  better  workmen  can  be  found  than  our 
own.  They  work  much  faster  than  workmen  in  any  other  country.  In¬ 
deed,  they  must  of  necessity  do  so.  It  is  quite  the  exception  to  see  work¬ 
men  in  Europe  exert  themselves.  It  is  their  quiet,  careful  working  that 
produces  the  finely-finished  work  seen  in  Europe;  it  is  not  the  superior 
men  or  better  tools.  Here,  it  is  only  occasionally  that  work  is  required 
to  be  cut  so  finely  that  the  workmen  are  allowed  all  the  time  that  they 
desire.  When  this  occurs,  a  superb  result  is  obtained,  as  at  the  Dutch 
Reformed  church,  on  the  corner  of  Forty-eighth  street  aud  Fifth  ave¬ 
nue,  New  York  City.  This  building  is  a  perfect  gem,  fully  equalling,  in 
manipulative  skill,  anything  to  be  found  in  Europe. 

22.  It  is  surprising  that  work  should  be  done  so  well  in  Vienna,  with 
such  tools  as  are  used  by  the  workmen.  The  principal  stone  used  for 
building  purposes  is  a  limestone  of  a  light-yellow  color,  much  like  the 
stone  first  quarried  at  Joliet,  Ill.,  but  of  coarser  texture.  It  cuts  freely 
from  the  chisels  and  points.  When  rubbed  down  it  looks  very  coarse, 
but  the  faces  are  seldom  “  drawed”  or  rubbed,  the  practice  being  to 
chis.el  a  margin,  generally  an  inch  wide,  then  bush-hammer  all  the  sur¬ 
face  within  the  margin.  This  treatment  is  probably  the  best  and  most 
economical  for  this  kind  of  stone.  Its  coarseness  does  not  come  out  so 


22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


glaringly  as  it  would  if  it  were  polished  or  drawed  from  the  tool.  The 
tools  used  are  such  as  are  commonly  used  all  over  the  world,  but  of  a 
very  inferior  quality  of  steel,  and  clumsy  in  shape.  Their  “mash”  or 
hand  hammers  would  be  laughed  at  by  our  workmen.  They  are  made 
of  soft  iron,  sometimes  with  lead.  After  working  with  one  of  these  a 
few  weeks  the  workman  wears  a  hole  in  the  faces,  while  our  hammers 
will  sometimes  last  a  life-time.  Their  wooden  mallets  are  of  very  bad 
quality  as  compared  with  our  hickory  staves.  The  Viennese  stone-cut¬ 
ter  gets  his  mallets  and  handles  turned  out  of  one  piece  ;  the  handle  is 
twice  as  long  as  the  mallet.  He  does  not  depend  on  either  the  hand- 
hammer  or  mallet,  and  appears  rather  uncomfortable  when  using  either  ; 
he  prefers  the  diamond-faced  bush-hammer  held  in  both  hands.  The 
employers  find  all  tools.  This  is  a  very  serious  item  of  expense  to  our 
own  mechanics,  who  are  compelled  to  pay  for  good  tools  and  to  meet 
heavy  charges  whenever  they  are  required  to  move  their  tool-chests,  as 
they  aie  so  often  compelled  to  do. 

23.  The  stone-cutters  in  Vienna  are  divided  into  two  classes,  those 
who-’do  the  rough  work  and  cut  plain  moldings,  and  those  who  do  a 
better  grade  of  stone  cutting  and  carving.  The  first  class  generally 
work  by  the  piece,  working  eleven  hours  per  day,  except  in  winter, 
when  they  work  nine  hours.  Their  wages  average  2|  gulden  per  day — 
$1.25.  They  have  no  trade  societies,  but  have  sick  and  provident 
associations  which  take  charge  of  the  burial  of  deceased  members,  &c. 
The  more  highly  skilled  workmen  earn  from  20  to  35  gulden  per  week, 
a  gulden  being  worth  50  cents  of  our  money.  The  men  commence 
w6rk  at  G  a.  m.  and  stop  at  G  p.  m.  Formerly  one  hour  at  noon  was  all 
that  they  were  allowed  for  meals,  though  they  could  sit  down  about  8 
a.  m.  and  swallow  a  hasty  meal.  This  rule  still  prevails  with  some  em¬ 
ployers,  though  most  of  them  allow  their  workmen  a  half-hour  in  the 
morning  for  breakfast  and  another  in  the  afternoon  about  3  o’clock  for 
a  supper  of  bread  and  beer. 

24.  The  stone-cutters,  assisted  by  their  employers,  have  founded  even¬ 
ing  schools  for  the  instruction  of  those  among  their  number  who  may 
want  to  learn  the  technical  part  of  their  business,  architectural  details, 
draughting,  free-hand  drawing,  and  mensuration.  The  apprentices  are 
all  invited  to  avail  themselves  of  the  privileges  to  be  enjoyed  in  these 
schools.  This  is  also  common  in  Germany,  and  it  is  a  capital  idea,  well 
worth  imitating.  The  workmen  who  wish  to  study  the  best  models 
illustrating  their  craft  have  the  art  and  industry  museums  to  visit,  in 
which  splendid  collections  of  models  of  ancient  and  modern  art  are 
found. 

25.  We  were  impressed  with  the  careful  method  pursued  in  the  fine 
art  of  the  stone-cutters’  craft.  The  new  merchants’  exchange,  now 
building  on  the  Ringstrasse ,  will  illustrate  the  system.  On  the  grounds 
are  a  large  studio  and  an  artist’s  workshop.  Here  models  are  made 
of  every  piece  of  sculpture  and  carving  applicable  to  the  adornment  of 
a  building.  A  leading  Vieuuese  sculptor  is  the  head  and  master  spirit 


ARCHITECTURAL  STONE-CARVING. 


23 


here ;  under  him  are  a  number  of  skilful  artists,  who  work,  guided  by 
his  directions  or  their  own  taste,  in  stone,  wood,  plaster  of  Paris,  or 
clay.  On  the  occasion  of  our  visit,  all  of  these  materials  were  used. 
The  models,  when  complete,  are  sent  on  to  the  quarry  or  to  the  stone¬ 
cutters’  yard,  to  be  copied  into  the  stone  used  for  the  building  in  pro¬ 
cess  of  erection.  Finally,  the  sculptor  puts  on  such  finishing-touches 
as  he  may  deem  requisite.  This  care  insures  the  carrying  out  of  the 
architect’s  ideas,  and  furnishes  good,  artistic  work,  that  will  stand 
criticism.  It  is  also  very  much  the  practice  in  Europe  for  the  archi¬ 
tects  to  retain  the  carving  they  design,  for  thefagades  of  their  buildings, 
as  a  separate  contract,  employing  their  own  men  to  execute  it,  generally 
by  the  day.  In  fact,  all  those  who  are  rich  and  celebrated  enough 
insist  on  this  privilege,  knowing  well  that  if  let  to  an  ordinary  stone¬ 
cutter,  unless  in  an  exceptional  case,  the  work  will  be  done  as  poorly 
and  as  cheaply  as  it  can  be  to  pass  inspection  ;  that  there  will  be  no 
effort  made  to  put  individuality  or  thought  into  the  work,  without 
which  it  is  soulless  and  valueless. 

26.  There  is  much  poor  work  of  this  class  done  in  Vienna  as  else¬ 
where  ;  but  it  is  only  in  cheap  houses.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  public  edifices,  the  buildings  of  the  new  Vienna  which  has  grown 
up  since  the  levelling  of  the  old  walls  have  stuccoed  fronts.  This,  how¬ 
ever,  has  not  made  the  stone-cutters’  craft  the  less  busy  or  prosperous. 
Even  in  a  stuccoed  building,  wherever  strength  is  required,  stone  is 
used  in  the  prevailing  Renaissance  style.  There  are  many  caryatids 
under  the  balconies  and  window-cornices.  These  are  nearly  all  of 
stone. 

27.  Within  the  buildings,  the  stair-cases  are  almost  invariably  built 
of  cut  stone,  as  are  the  landings.  This  is  done  as  a  precaution  against 
fire.  Although  a  great  improvement  over  wood,  this  is  not  the  best 
kind  of  stair-way  that  can  be  erected. 

The  following  extract  from  a  report  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Lou. 
don  fire-engine  establishment  will  be  interesting  as  bearing  on  this 
point : 

“  No  stair-case  can  be  considered  really  fire  proof  unless  constructed 
either  of  fire-bricks,  laid  in  fire-cement,  which  would  be  both  costly  and 
cumbersome,  or  of  wrought  iron,  which,  for  appearance,  comfort,  or  con¬ 
venience,  might  be  covered  with  slabs  of  slate,  stone,  or  wood.  In  this 
atter  case  the  real  strength  would  consist  not  in  the  stone  or  covering, 
but  in  the  wrought-iron  framing,  and  such  stairs,  particularly  if  pro¬ 
tected  by  plaster,  which  could  easily  be  done,  might  safely  be  relied  on 
in  all  ordinary  fires,  as  the  heat  near  a  stair-case,  being  tempered  with 
the  cold  draught  from  the  outside,  is  rarely  sufficient  to  weaken 
wrought  iron,  which  only  fuses  at  about  3,000°,  and  retains  a  consider¬ 
able  portion  of  its  strength  almost  to  the  melting  point.’’ 

Stone  is  used  as  a  rule  in  Vienna.  The  hall- ways  and  passages  are 
all  laid  with  cement,  tiles,  marble,  or  mosaics,  all  of  which  are  fire-proof. 


CHAPTER  III. 


PAVING  SIDEWALKS  AND  HALLS. 

Encaustic  tiles;  Mosaic  floors  ;  Wages  ;  Methods  of  work ;  Yorkshire  flag¬ 
ging;  London  Sidewalks;  Asphalt;  Cement;  Other  flooring  materials. 

28.  Encaustic  tiles. — One  of  the  most  beautiful,  as  it  is  also  one  of 
the  most  costly,  modes  of  paving  interiors  is  that  of  laying  down  Min¬ 
ton’s  encaustic  tiles.  These  are  so  well  known  that  a  detailed  descrip¬ 
tion  is  not  needed,  especially  as  no  new  improvement  or  novelty  was 
shown.  Indeed,  the  firm  did  not  exhibit  a  great  quantity  of  this  kind 
of  ware.  The  writer  saw  a  better  display  at  their  agent’s  place  at  Brus¬ 
sels  than  at  the  exhibition. 

Minton  &  Hollis,  another  English  firm,  showed  some  very  highly 
finished  wall-tiles,  and  a  chimney-piece,  designed  for  a  hunting  lodge, 
enriched  with  appropriate  and  most  beautifully  painted  tiles. 

The  English  makers  are  acknowledged  to  be  at  the  head  of  this  manu¬ 
facture,  but  there  are  several  German  firms  closely  competing  with 
them. 

Yilleray  &  Bach,  of  Luneburg,  and  Ernst,  March  &  Son,  near  Ber¬ 
lin,  are  very  large  makers  of  encaustic  tiles,  together  with  many  other 
kinds  of  earth- ware,  such  as  garden-statues  and  terra-cotta.  Their 
tiles  lacked  the  clearness  and  accuracy  of  line  characteristic  of  the  En¬ 
glish  ware,  but  as  a  whole  they  presented  a  good  appearance.  The 
Germans  aim  to  produce  cheap  ware,  while  with  the  Staffordshire  firms 
that  is  a  secondary  consideration.  A  practical  artisan,  thoroughly 
posted  in  this  kind  of  work,  stated  that  the  main  difference  between  the 
German  and  English  tiles  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  tiles  made  in  the 
first-named  country  lack  the  backing  or  extra  layer  of  strong,  close-bodied 
clay,  which,  to  a  great  extent,  keeps  them  from  cracking  or  distorting 
through  unequal  contraction.  This  statement  we  are  inclined  to  be¬ 
lieve,  after  very  carefully  inspecting  the  wares  in  both  the  German  and 
English  sections.  It  is  unfortunate  that  our  own  manufacturers  of 
eartheuware  do  not  try  to  make  this  kiud  of  tile  instead  of  buying  them 
from  the  European  makers.  That  the  demand  for  them  is  large  iu  the 
United  States  is  fully  shown  by  the  large  sales  made  here  by  English 
firms  of  late  years.  Doubtless,  it  will  take  time  and  capital,  and  artistic 
skill  must  be  acquired  before  we  can  take  rank  with  the  best  manufac¬ 
turers  of  other  countries  who  have  worked  long  and  spent  much  money 
before  attaining  to  the  present  great  success.  But  should  we  try  we 
should  succeed,  for  what  has  been  done  ouce  can  be  done  again.  It  is 
simply  a  question  of  money,  study,  aud  labor. 


MOSAIC  STONE-WORK. 


25 


29.  Mosaic  floors. — The  real  mosaic  floors  which  we  saw  at  the 
exhibition,  and  in  the  buildings  lately  erected  or  being-  erected  in  the 
city  of  Vienna,  must  rank  next  in  point  of  beauty  and  first  for  simplicity. 
There  is  no  detail  in  the  whole  process  that  cannot  be  readily  grasped 
in  a  few  moments,  although,  as  a  matter  of  course,  rapidity  of  work 
comes  from  practice.  This  work  is  all  executed  by  Italian  workmen,  of 
whom  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  are  employed  by  a  country¬ 
man  of  theirs,  D’Odorrico,  who,  with  his  cousins,  are  the  only  employers 
engaged  in  this  industry  in  Vienna  and  its  vicinity.  It  is  only  during 
the  last  six  years  that  there  has  existed  any  demand  for  this  work  at 
the  Austrian  capital ;  now  he  has  all  the  business  he  can  possibly  do. 

The  best  specimen  of  the  skill  of  these  people  was  shown  within  the 
exhibition,  at  the  Emperor’s  pavilion.  The  vestibules  of  that  building 
were  laid  with  very  elaborate  designs  in  marble  mosaic.  The  side-walls 
and  the  columns  at  the  entrance  were  artistically  adorned  with  ferns 
and  bright-green  plants.  These  heightened  the  effect  of  the  mosaic 
floors,  which,  when  viewed  from  a  little  distance,  seemed  almost  to 
resemble  some  rich  Brussels  or  Axminster  carpet. 

30.  The  principal  advantages  of  this  process  are :  1.  The  extreme 
simplicity  required  in  manipulation ;  2.  Its  artistic  value,  as  pictures 
can  be  made  in  the  floor  which  will  not  very  easily  wear  out;  3.  Its 
cleanliness  and  coolness;  4.  The  facility  of  utilization  of  waste  material, 
it  being  the  refuse  of  marble  quarries  that  is  used  iu  this  work;  all 
small  pieces  that  are  not  available  for  any  other  purpose  can  be  used 
in  mosaic  flooring ;  5.  And  last,  but  not  least,  it  can  be  used  where  wood 
is  often  laid  down,  with  this  great  advantage  over  that  material,  that  it 
will  not  conduct  the  flames,  but  acts  as  a  preventive  to  their  spread  if 
a  fire  occurs  in  its  vicinity.  Its  cost  is  determined  by  the  design.  A 
simple  pattern  in  black  and  white  can  be  laid  down  very  cheaply  ;  but 
when  it  is  desired  to  introduce  marbles  of  many  colors  in  an  intricate 
design,  there  is  hardly  a  limit  to  the  cost,  or  to  its  value  wheu  finished. 

Security  against  fire  is  the  principal  motive  leading  to  the  general  use 
of  marble  floors  and  of  imitations  of  marble  and  stone,  in  Vienna,  and 
iu  other  large  European  cities.  Modern  buildings  are  erected  with  as 
little  inflammable  material  in  their  construction  as  is  possible. 

31.  Wages  and  methods  of  work. — Signor  D’Odorrico  has  brought 
all  his  workmen  from  Italy.  He  pays  them  from  $1  to  $2  per  day.  His 
contract  with  them  also  includes  paying  thek  fare  home  once  every  two 
years.  Workmen  of  exceptional  skill  and  taste  often  command  more 
than  $2  per  day. 

This  employer  gave  every  facility  for  inspecting  his  method  of  work¬ 
ing,  but  stated  that  there  was  very  little  to  see,  the  whole  process  being 
principally  an  exercise  of  skill  and  experience  ou  the  part  of  the  work¬ 
men.  The  first  operation  is  the  preparation  of  the  design.  This  is  gen¬ 
erally  composed  of  geometrical  combinations  in  several  colors,  and  is 
made  to  a  scale.  The  foundation  is  sometimes  made  of  concrete,  and 
sometimes  the  stone  platform  or  landing  has  a  panel  cut  into  it  about 


26 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


an  inch  in  depth ;  in  either  case  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement  and  fine 
sand  iu  equal  parts  is  floated  down.  This  can  be  colored  if  desired ; 
for  instance,  red  brick  pounded  up  and  mixed  with  the  cement  will 
make  it  red.  The  cement  must  be  gauged,  so  as  not  to  set  too  quickly. 
The  pattern  is  marked  off  on  the  cement  with  thin  strips  of  wood,  or 
by  merely  drawing  a  sharp  line  in  the  cement  with  a  knife  or  other  edge- 
tool.  The  pieces  of  marble,  broken  to  a  uniform  size,  about  half  an  inch 
square,  are  placed  beside  the  operators  iu  boxes,  assorted  as  to  color. 
Th^se  are  bedded  into  the  cement,  one  against  another,  until  the  pattern 
grows  into  shape  under  the  hands  of  the  workmen.  When  enough  of 
the  floor  is  laid,  it  is  rammed  down  to  make  it  compact  and  level.  The 
concluding  process  is  that  of  rubbing  it  all  over  with  a  stone-rubber  and 
sand  and  water.  This  smooths  and  polishes  it.  The  process  of  breaking 
the  marble  into  small  pieces,  fit  for  mosaic,  is  quite  a  task,  demanding 
some  skill,  and  one  that  would  probably  be  performed  by  machinery 
in  this  country.  It  is  very  simple,  and  while  some  men  would  never 

learn  it,  others  would  acquire  the  knack  at 
the  first  attempt.  The  workman  sits  down 
in  front  of  a  wooden  block  having  an  iron 
top  fashioned  as  shown  in  Fig.  1G.  It  is 
6 inches  wide,  and  about  15  inches  in  length. 
The  only  other  tool  is  a  chipping-hammer 
of  two  pounds  weight,  having  one  square 
face  and  one  square  edge.  The  marble  is 
first  broken  into  pieces  2  inches  square 
with  a  sledge-hammer.  These  pieces  are 
placed  on  the  sharp  edge  of  the  iron  plate 
and  broken  with  the  chipping-hammer, 
used  in  making  When  the  plate  is  full  of  pieces,  the  work¬ 
man  scoops  them  out  with  his  hammer 
upon  the  heap  beside  him.  These  pieces  are  from  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  square. 

32.  Yorkshire  flagging. — Near  the  South  Kensington  Museum, 
London,  we  saw  several  workmen  laying  down  a  sidewalk  composed  of 
asphaltum  and  cubes  of  gray  granite.  These  latter  were  worked  into 
the  asphaltum  iu  simple  geometrical  patterns,  interwoven  circles. 
The  granite  was  broken  iuto  small  pieces,  each  about  2  inches  square. 
When  complete,  the  effect  was  very  pleasing,  if  ouly  iu  contrast  with 
the  ordinary  dreary  look  of  the  sandstone  flagging  so  extensively  used 
iu  that  city.  This  Yorkshire  flagging  makes  good  and  cheap  sidewalks. 
The  stone  used  is  generally  softer  than  the  North  River  bluestone,  so 
well  known  iu  New  York,  although  some  of  it  greatly  resembles  our 
flagging. 

33.  London  sidewalks. — The  care  with  which  the  sidewalks  are 
laid  iu  Loudou  is  very  noticeable,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  care¬ 
less  rnauuer  iu  which  ours  are  laid,  except  iu  the  prominent  business 
streets  aud  fashionable  thoroughfares  of  our  large  cities,  than  which 


Fig.  16. — Tools 

stone  mosaics. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  SIDEWALKS. 


27 


there  are  no  better  made  sidewalks  in  the  world.  The  London  method 
is,  first,  to  carefully  grade  the  ground,  sometimes  using  concrete  to 
secure  a  firm  foundation,  where  the  soil  is  too  soft;  generally,  sand  spread 
over  the  levelled  ground  is  considered  good  enough.  The  curbing  is 
made  of  roughly  “  pene-hammered”  gray  granite,  12  inches  wide  on  the 
fop,  and  6  inches  high.  Beside  this  run  the  gutters  draining  the  road¬ 
way.  The  flagging  is  generally  from  3  to  4£  inches  in  thickness.  The 
edges  are  all  squared,  not  being  just  pitched  under,  as  is  the  practice 
with  us.  The  edges  are  chiseled,  not  very  elaborately,  but  sufficiently 
for  the  purpose,  so  that  when  the  flagging  begins  to  wear  away,  under 
the  continuous  traffic,  the  joiuts  will  continue  good  until  it  is  thread¬ 
bare,  if  ever  it  is  allowed  to  remain  long  enough  to  get  iuto  that  condi¬ 
tion.  A  liberal  allowance  of  mortar  is  thrown  down  on  the  sand  in 
which  to  bed  the  stones.  The  stones  are  placed  close  together,  the 
inspector  of  sidewalks  generally  demanding  that  the  joints  should  not 
be  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart,  and  well  filled  with  binding 
and  hardening  cement.  The  surfaces  of  the  flags  are  machine-dressed, 
or  rubbed,  so  that  they  always  meet  evenly  at  the  joints.  The  rough 
stones  are  brought  to  the  streets  to  be  paved  and  are  stacked  in  pdes 
The  pavers  take  them,,  preparing  the  edges  with  wonderful  rapidity.  It 
was  astonishing  to  see  the  defc  way  in  which  workmen  handled  them. 
The  strength  with  which  they  all  seemed  to  be  well  endowed  was  not 
so  remarkable  as  their  clever  knack  of  working  them,  jerking  them  from 
side  to  side,  and,  by  a  sudden  movemeut,  turning  them  over,  so  as  to  bring 
the  edge  to  be  squared  uppermost,  and  placing  it  where  anything  put  be¬ 
hind  the  stone  will  serve  to  keep  it  steady  until  turned  again.  They 
have  a  good  way  of  splitting  the  flags :  anything  under  6  inches  thick 
is  broken  in  the  same  way  that  our  marble- workers  use  to  break  up 
their  slabs.  Our  flaggers  can  break  a  stone  very  quickly,  but  no 
quicker  thau  the  English  workmen,  who  also  do  it  more  neatly,  and  with 
less  waste  of  material.  A  line  is  drawn  on  the  face  where  a  break  is 
required;  this  is  “strummed”  in  with  a  “  pitching-tool”  or  “  nicker ;” 
the  edges  are  also  strummed  in.  Then  the  stone  is  smartly  struck  on 
the  back  with  a  round-faced  hammer,  three  blows  generally  breaking 
it  neatly  down  the  line.  The  writer  is  fully  convinced  that  this  method 
can  be  used  by  our  own  flaggers,  as  he  has  seen  it  successfully  done 
with  North  River  bluestone  and  with  all  kinds  of  sandstone  in  the 
brownstone-cutters’  yards,  when  cutting  up  sawn  slabs  for  ashlar.  Al¬ 
most  any  kind  of  thin  stoue  can  be  broken  iu  this  way,  without  the  use 
of  either  wedges  or  plugs. 

34.  Asphalt  pavements. — The  pavements  between  the  gutters  are 
generally  macadamized,  although,  as  with  us,  stone  and  wooden  blocks  are 
used  quite  extensively.  In  the  city  proper  most  of  the  leading  thorough¬ 
fares  have  recently  been  laid  with  a  new  patented  preparation  of  asphalt. 
Asphalt-covered  roads  are  a  great  improvement.  The  noise  of  heavy 
traffic  is  greatly  diminished,  and  it  becomes  possible  for  pedestrians  to 
hear  each  other  speak  without  effort.  At  first  this  new  system  met  with 


28 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  ]o73. 


the  unqualified  approval  of  owners  and  drivers  of  horses;  but  com¬ 
plaints  have  recently  been  made  that  “  the  least  drop  of  rain  renders 
the  road  so  slippery  that  it  is  as  bad  as  driving  on  ice,  and  the  horses 
continually  stumble  and  lame  themselves.”  This  could  probably  be 
obviated  by  sprinkling  sand  over  the  asphaltum.  It  will  require  very  * 
strong  remonstrance  to  induce  the  authorities  to  cease  using  the  new 
material.  Its  two  great  qualities,  cleanliness  and  quietness  under  heavy 
traffic,  will  outweigh  a  host  of  minor  objections. 

35.  Near  the  opera-house  at  Vienna  a  small  piece  of  the  road  is  laid  in 
the  same  way  as  that  just  mentioned.  It  is  the  best  piece  of  road  in  the 
whole  city.  Asphalt  pavements  for  interiors  are  also  much  used  in 
Vienna,  and  specimens  of  this  work  were  shown  at  the  exhibition.  The 
finest  example  is  seen  in  the  fine  hall  of  the  Vienna  Museum  of  Art  and 
Industry.  This  is  laid  in  different  colors.  The  gentleman  who  did  the 
work,  M.  Suppantschitcb,  who  exhibited  the  certificate  of  merit  the 
museum  authorities  had  given  him,  kindly  prepared  a  statement  of  the 
modus  operandi  of  his  business.  The  following  is  a  translation  of  his 
communication,  which  will  prove  interesting  as  coming  from  a  man 
who, thoroughly  understands  the  subject : 

Instruction  for  workmen  on  asphalt-mosaic. — “1.  Bring  your 
caldron  as  near  as  possible  to  the  place  where  you  intend  to  lay  your 
floor,  in  order  that  you  may  lay  it  down  as  hot  as  j'ou  can  get  it. 

“2.  Put  into  the  caldron  from  10  to  15  pounds  of  pitch  ;  into  the 
pitch,  put  your  asphalt.  This  latter  must  be  placed  in  the  caldron 
when  the  pitch  is  red-hot. 

“3.  The  asphalt  must  be  pounded  into  small  fragments  before  mix¬ 
ing  with  the  pitch. 

“4.  After  the  asphalt  lias  been  in  the  pitch  an  hour  or  an  hour  and 
a  half,  stir  it  up  well  with  an  iron  bar,  broad  at  the  end,  until  the  as¬ 
phalt  is  perfectly  dissolved.  Once  this  is  done,  fill  the  caldron  with  fine 
sharp  sand  ;  allow  this  sand  to  get  warm  for  a  half-hour  by  a  good  fire 
before  mixing,  so  that  it  may  of  itself  combine  with  the  asphalt. 

“5.  Next  stir  up  the  contents  of  the  caldron  at  short  intervals.  If 
the  composition  become  stiff  and  difficult  to  stir,  add  a  few  pounds  of 
pitch,  using  judgment  as  to  how  much. 

“6.  In  laying  it  on  bridges,  thoroughfares,  or  viaducts,  it  is  advisable 
to  use  more  pitch,  as  the  composition  will  then  become  more  elastic. 
The  asphalt  will  set  without  cracking. 

“  7.  If,  in  stirring  it,  yellow  vapors  arise,  that  is  an  indication  that  the 
composition  is  ready  for  use.  In  order  to  prove  the  fact,  make  the  fol- 
owiug  trial  :  dip  a  chip  of  wood  into  the  composition,  and  observe  if  a 
greasy  substance  adheres  to  it ;  if  such  is  the  case,  boil  it  more,  until 
you  are  able  to  take  the  chip  of  wood  out  perfectly  clean.” 

“The  modus  operandi  in  laying  asphalt  is  as  follows:  The  foreman  is 
to  see  that  the  ground  to  be  covered  is  well  swept,  and  clear  of  mud, 
damp  clay,  or  any  such  substance.  He  then  lays  dowu  iron  rails,  3  or  4 
feet  apart.  Those  rails  serve  as  a  rest  for  the  float  used  to  make  a  level 


WORK  IN  ASPHALT. 


29 


surface.  One  man  attends  to  the  caldron,  another  carries  the  prepared 
composition,  in  irop.  or  wooden  pails,  to  the  operator.  The  workman 
who  empties  the  caldron  must  not  neglect  to  stir  the  contents  of  the  cal. 
dron  during  this  time,  as  the  sand,  being  heavier  than  the  pitch  or  as¬ 
phalt,  is  liable  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  causing  an  uneven  surface. 

36.  Asphalt  in  colors. — “  In  order  to  produce  this,  it  is  necessary 
to  observe  the  following  rules : 

“  1.  A  foundation  of  concrete  1  to  1J  inches  thick. 

“  2.  Float  upon  this  a  covering  of  black  asphalt,  half  an  inch  thick, 
as  silicates  will  combine  easiest  with  this. 

“  3.  Put  down  your  thin  wooden  strips  according  to  the  pattern  you 
desire  to  produce.  These  rails  of  wood  should  be  cemented  to  the  floor 
with  hot  asphalt. 

“  4.  Then  commence  laying  out  the  black  part  of  the  design.  This 
should  always  be  done  first,  as  the  black  composition  would  be  apt  to 
soil  the  light  colors  if  not  laid  down  first. 

“  5.  In  order  to  make  the  edges  straight  and  even,  it  is  necessary  to 
smooth  them  with  the  curling-iron,  Fig.  17. 

The  wooden  forms  can  be  taken  away 
when  the  composition  becomes  hard  enough 
to  stand  without  support. 

“  6.  Once  the  design  is  all  laid,  you  commence  polishing  it  with  a 
piece  of  smooth  sandstone  attached  to  a  handle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  18. 

Fig.  18. 


“  PRODUCTION  OF  ARTIFICIAL  BLACK. 

40  per  cent,  chalk  ; 

40  per  cent,  fine  soft  sand; 

20  per  cent,  evaporated  coal-tar. 

“WHITE  SILICATE. 

35  per  cent,  chalk  ; 

35  per  cent,  pure  white  sand,  (silver-sand ;) 

22  per  cent,  pure  white  rosin ; 

8  per  cent,  tallow. 

“  First  put  the  rosin  into  the  caldron — it  must  be  well  melted ;  then 
put  in  your  chalk ;  a  half-hour  afterwards  mix  in  the  sand ;  stir  well 
and  add  the  tallow*. 

“  Asphalt  in  colors,  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  brown,  is  to  be  boiled  like 
the  white  composition,  only  adding  the  respective  mineral  colors.” 


30 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


37.  Cement-floors. — Portland  cement,  and  compositions  that  resem¬ 
ble  that  material,  are  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  Vienna;  among 
others,  for  making  artificial-stone  sidewalks.  We  also  have  done  a 
little  in  this  way  in  the  United  States,  but  so  little  that  the  business  may 
be  regarded  as  a  novelty. 

M.  Chailly  is  tbe  principal  manufacturer  engaged  in  this  business  in 
Vienna.  We  visited  bis  exhibit  at  tbe  Exhibition,  and  also  the  public 
buildings  in  Vienna  where  he  had  laid  floors  of  his  pavement.  The  rail¬ 
road-depots  contain  his  best  work,  the  large  halls  and  covered  entrances 
being  nearly  all  laid  with  Portland-cement  pavements.  The  work  was 
well  done  and  looked  likely  to  be  durable. 

M.  Chailly’s  method  is  about  as  follows  :  He,  like  all  Viennese  manu¬ 
facturers  ot  patent  floors,  lays  great  stress  upon  the  necessity  of  taking 
great  pains  with  the  foundations  under  his  preparation.  We  in  the 
United  States  are  somewhat  careless  in  this  particular,  and  are  apt  to 
slight  the  part  which  will  not  be  seen,  forgetting  that  any  defect  here 
will  affect  the  whole  after  a  very  short  time.  A  dry  soil  is  to  be  pre¬ 
ferred,  but  if  it  should  be  moist,  marshy,  or  a  clayey  soil,  great  care 
must  be  taken  to  make  the  foundation  as  firm  as  possible.  This  will  be 
a  matter  in  which  the  workman  must  exercise  his  own  judgment  and 
experience. 

The  first  layer  of  concrete  should  be  composed  of  one  part  cement  and 
three  of  coarse  gravel.  This  is  laid  upon  the  soil  which  is  already 
smoothed  and  graded.  The  thickness  of  this  layer  will  vary  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  second  layer  should  be  mixed  in  equal 
parts,  two  of  cement,  and  two  of  fine  sand.  Then  a  third  layer,  equal 
parts  cement  and  sand,  completes  the  work. 

The  workman  finishes  a  piece  about  3  feet  wide,  from  the  wall  to  the 
curb,  before  he  attempts  to  touch  another  length.  The  first  layer  is  to 
be  well  rammed  down  to  make  it  compact;  the  other  two  layers  are  to 
be  floated  on  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  requires  about  four  days  for  the 
sidewalk  to  harden.  During  this  time  it  should  be  frequently  sprinkled 
with  water. 

Spring  or  autumn  is  the  best  season  in  which  to  lay  the  cement. 
Summer  is  too  dry,  and  winter  weather  is  too  severe.  A  sidewalk  thus 
prepared  will  last  about  fifteen  years. 

The  curbing  is  also  made  of  cement.  This  is  generally  formed  in  a 
mold.  The  joints  are  made  to  fit  into  each  other  to  prevent  shifting 

after  they  are  set,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19.  The 
body  of  this  curb  is  composed  of  three  and  a  half 
parts  broken  stone  or  gravel  to  one-half  part  of 
ceuieut ;  it  is  coated  with  a  surface  of  equal 
Fig.  19.— Cement-curbing.  parts  fine  sand  and  cement.  Steps  are  made  in 
the  same  way.  These  would  serve  for  door-steps  if  they  had  no  weight 
to  carry.  The  makers  of  such  concrete-work  claim  that,  when  properly 
hai  deued,  it  is  stronger  than  stone.  This  is  doubtful,  especially  as  in  all 


USE  OF  CEMENT  FOR  FLOORS. 


31 


the  buildings  we  have  seen,  stone  is  preferred  by  the  architects,  who  are 
the  most  competent  judges  of  the  relative  values  of  building-materials. 

38.  It  is  impossible,  without  filling  a  volume,  to  notice  all  the  devices 
shown  at  Vienna  by  various  nations,  chiefly,  however,  by  Austria  and 
Germany,  for  covering  the  floors  of  hall- ways  and  corridors,  or  for  mak¬ 
ing  sidewalks. 

There  were  tiles  made  of  gypsum,  with  inlays  of  various  colors,  which 
could  be  scratched  out  with  one’s  finger-nails ;  tiles  made  of  cement,  with 
fragments  of  marble  mixed  in  them ;  tiles  of  slate  ;  tiles  of  common  red 
clay  ;  but  there. was  not  a  single  exhibit  of  a  real  marble  floor,  that  we 
could  discover.  Here  we  have  an  advantage ;  we  can  quarry,  saw  in 
slabs,  and  fix  into  their  places  real  marble  tiles,  native  material,  cheaper 
than  the  imitations  can  be  manufactured  and  laid. 

Bricks  are  very  often  used  for  sidewalks  in  Europe,  and  make  admi¬ 
rable  sidewalks.  Common  red  brick  does  well,  but  the  glazed  brick,  also 
made  by  our  manufacturers,  does  better.  The  principal  precaution  to 
be  taken  by  those  who  wish  to  try  bricks  is  to  look  well  to  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  proposed  sidewalk  before  laying  dowu  the  pavement. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


CEMENT,  STUCCO,  AND  TERRA-COTTA. 

Stucco,  its  use  in  Vienna  and  London  ;  Use  of  Portland  cement  ;  Austrian 
cement;  Style  of  Viennese  buildings;  Terra-cotta,  its  history  and  value  ; 
Improvements  in  manufacture;  Work  of  the  art-schools. 

39.  The  most  noticeable  contrast  betweeu  our  methods  of  building- 
construction  and  those  in  vogue  in  Europe  arises  from  the  fact  that 
we  use  stone,  bricks,  iron,  and  wood  for  our  fronts,  while  there  they 
use,  in  addition,  other  materials  which  we  do  not  generally  use,  such 
as  concrete,  cement,  stucco,  and  terra-cotta. 

A  traveller  who  for  the  first  time  visits  Europe,  can  scarcely  believe 
that  the  magnificent  fronts  seen  in  some  cities,  as  in  Vienna,  are  not 
constructed  of  stone.  The  stucco  with  which  they  are  plastered  is 
made  to  imitate  stone  so  perfectly  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  he  is  at 
first  misled,  and  that  he  should,  when  undeceived,  think  it  a  method  of 
building  well  worthy  of  introduction  into  his  own  country,  forgetting 
that  it  is  still  a  novelty,  and  a  deception  quite  as  much  as  is  brass  jewelry 
made  in  imitation  of  gold. 

No  one  should  say  dogmatically  that  we  should  not  use  stucco,  or 
that  it  is  not  a  good  building-material  when  used  under  proper  condi¬ 
tions.  The  Exhibition-building  was  an  excellent  illustration  of  its  judi¬ 
cious  application.  Built  for  a  temporary  purpose,  it  was  desirable  that 
it  should  be  made  sightly  and  ornamental,  and  at  as  little  expense  as 
possible.  Stucco  was  the  very  thing  in  this  case,  cheap,  capable  of 
being  rapidly  put  up  and  readily  pulled  down.  For  this  purpose  it  was 
better  than  stone.  The  use  of  stone  was  out  of  the  question;  it  would 
have  cost  too  much,  and  would  have  taken  too  long  in  preparation. 
This  is  a  specially  good  illustration  of  the  case  in  which  a  cheap  imita¬ 
tion  could  not  be  deemed  an  attempt  at  imposition.  But  we  cannot  say 
as  much  for  all  the  stucco  which  the  Viennese  have  put  upon  other 
buildings.  To  adopt  all  their  cunning  methods  of  making  imitations 
appear  better  than  the  real,  would  demoralize  both  our  workmen  and 
their  employers.  This  we  too  often  do,  and  it  is  done  in  every  country 
in  the  world  in  which  modern  civilization  has  tended  toward  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  shoddy,  that  rank  weed  which  chokes  real  and  honest  progress. 

The  beautiful  part  of  the  city  of  Vieuua  is  of  recent  construction, 
dating  from  the  levelling  of  the  old  ramparts  and  the  laying  out  on 
their  site  of  the  fine  boulevard  kuowu  as  the  Biugstrasse.  In  this  fact 
may  perhaps  be  found  the  key  to  the  motive  for  the  extensive  use  of 


USE  OF  STUCCO. 


33 


cement  in  building.  The  moneyed  men  began  to  pull  down  and  to  re¬ 
build  too  freely,  as  perhaps  recent  financial  panics  have  proven.  This 
work  became  a  means  of  speculation.  Although  stone  is  very  cheap 
in  Austria,  in  comparison  with  the  prices  paid  here,  it  was  too  expen¬ 
sive  for  the  stock-companies  and  speculators  who  were  anxious  to  get 
rich  quickly.  They  are  compelled  by  the  fire-laws  to  build  solid  and 
heavy  walls.  This  could  be  done  with  the  huge,  cheap  bricks  manufac¬ 
tured  outside  the  city,  but  the  fronts  needed  covering  up  ;  cement- 
stucco  was  precisely  the  thing  needed  to  make  elegant  edifices  of  very 
rough  and  common-looking  brick-work.  Owners  could  demand  high 
rents  while  their  buildings  continued  to  wear  well.  This  they  did  not 
fail  to  do.  The  buildings  had  not  been  erected  long  enough  to  prove 
that  they  would  last  well  ;  they  have  already  been  mended,  scraped 
and  repainted.  This  fact  is  sometimes  used  as  an  argument  in  favor  of 
stucco :  “  It  can  always  be  made  to  look  new  and  bright,  at  small 
expense,  with  a  little  scraping  and  a  coat  or  two  of  wash.” 

40.  Ten  years  ago,  stucco  had  reached  the  zenith  of  its  popularity  in 
London,  whole  districts  being  covered  with  stucco-fronted  houses.  Sud¬ 
denly  public  opinion  veered  around  completely.  Now,  it  is  very  seldom 
used,  where  formerly  thousands  of  houses  had  been  fronted  with  it. 
The  reason  for  this  sudden  change  in  public  sentiment  is  easily  learned. 
The  immediate  cause  of  the  disuse  of  stucco  in  London  was  the  attempt 
of  some  of  its  advocates  to  induce  the  House  of  Commons  to  vote  a 
large  sum  of  money  to  be  used  in  building  some  of  the  public  buildings 
at  South  Kensington,  where  it  was  proposed  to  use  stucco  very  exten¬ 
sively.  This  proposition  brought  down  a  storm  upon  the  heads  of  its 
advocates.  The  truth  came  out.  Instance  after  instance  was  adduced 
to  show  that,  after  a  few  years,  it  fell  to  pieces  unless  continually  mended 
and  painted.  The  money  was  not  granted  to  build  in  stucco.  The  cap¬ 
italists  who  had  first  used  it  began  to  tire  of  it.  Their  turn  was  served. 
They  had  run  up  fine-looking  houses  at  the  West  End  to  meet  a  grow¬ 
ing  want  felt  seriously  in  London  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  when  the 
wealthy  people  of  that  great  metropolis  began  to  move  westward.  The 
capitalists  had  charged  high  rent  on  short  leases,  as  the  Viennese  are 
now  doing.  They  began  to  be  ashamed  of  the  shoddy-looking  places 
they  had  formerly  advertised  as  “elegant  aud  desirable  mansions.’’ 
Time  had  quickly  made  havoc  with  their  shams.  Now,  whole  rows  of 
these  buildings  are  pulled  down,  as  the  leases  expire,  and  good  brick 
and  stone  houses  are  erected  in  their  places.  Still,  stucco  had  paid, 
and  paid  magnificently,  as  is  indicated  by  the  immense  increase  of  the 
income  of  the  Marquis  of  Westminster,  the  principal  owner  of  these 
buildings.  There  was  another  effect  produced  by  this  rush  into  specu¬ 
lative  building.  The  builders,  foremen,  and  workmen  became  so  demor¬ 
alized  by  their  continual  employment  in  the  building  of  shams  that 
they  grew  reckless,  and,  to  make  a  larger  profit  for  themselves,  put  less 
cement  and  more  sand  into  the  composition,  so  that,  at  last,  it  would 
3  ST 


34 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


hardly  hold  together  long  enough  to  permit  them  to  take  away  the  scaf¬ 
folding.  The  Viennese  may  not  have  reached  this  stage  yet,  under  the 
eye  of  their  police,  the  power  of  these  officials  being  greater  and  more 
freely  exercised  among  the  Austrian  and  German  peoples  than  it  is  in 
Anglo-Saxon  communities;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  they  “scamp” 
their  work  in  the  many  corners,  and  run  moldings  carelessly.  Some¬ 
times  a  member  will  be  a  half-inch  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the  other, 
and  cracks  appear  all  over  the  fronts,  looking  as  if  a  sharp  frost  would 
opeu  them,  dropping  huge  flakes  upon  the  heads  of  those  beneath.  But 
it  is  at  the  back  of  the  houses  that  bad  work  can  be  most  readily  found. 
We  have,  from  our  window,  seen  the  occupants  of  the  room  opposite, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  court-yard,  dislodge  a  yard  or  two  of  stucco 
cornice,  fearing  that,  if  left,  it  might  fall  upon  the  head  of  some  un¬ 
lucky  person  beneath.  This  is  a  bad  material  to  use  in  parts  of  the 
United  States  where  the  mercury  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  15°  or  20° 
below  zero. 

In  the  course  of  our  inquiries,  it  became  necessary  to  visit  the  cement 
manufacturers  and  dealers.  They,  one  and  all,  as  was  quite  natural, 
said,  “  This  is  a  most  excellent,  indeed,  the  very  best  material  to  use.” 
They  w'ere  in  harmony  on  this  point ;  but  each  claimed  to  make  the  very 
best  cement  in  the  market ;  his  neighbor’s  being  invariably  defective  in 
some  important  particular. 

41.  Use  of  cement. — The  directions  for  using  cement,  and  other 
particulars  gleaned  from  them,  may  prove  useful  as  a  means  of  compari¬ 
son  of  our  own  cements  with  theirs.  The  only  efficient  test,  however, 
is  to  apply  it  experimentally,  and  await  the  effects  of  time  and  weather. 
Testing  by  weights  and  pressure  is  by  no  means  reliable,  as  specimens 
of  the  same  material,  prepared  under,  apparently,  precisely  similar  con¬ 
ditions,  will  often  show  most  astonishing  dissimilarity  of  results,  when 
thus  tested. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  Euglish  Portland  cement  is  generally 
taken  as  the  standard  of  comparison,  and  of  the  numerous  kinds  manu¬ 
factured  there,  that  of  I.  C.  Johnson  &  Co.  is  generally  considered  to 
rank  among  the  best.  This  firm  exhibited  cement  at  the  exposition, 
having  sent  it  previously  to  but  one  exhibition — that  held  in  Havre  in 
1SG5,  where  they  were  awarded  a  gold  medal.  Accompanying  their 
exhibit  at  Vienna  were  printed  statements  of  its  properties,  and  direc¬ 
tions  for  using  it.  Extracts  from  these  directions  are  here  given  : 

“  This  article  is  of  a  gray  stone-color,  and  does  not  require  any  color¬ 
ing  more  than  it  possesses  in  itself:  this  quality  renders  it  particularly 
suitable  for  stuccoing  the  outside  of  public  buildings,  as  well  for  orna¬ 
mental  as  for  plain  surfaces. 

“  The  French  and  Dutch  government  engineers,  as  well  as  the 
English,  have  subjected  the  English  Portland  cement  to  very  severe 
tests,  and  have  established  the  fact  that,  on  account  of  its  great  binding 
power,  durability,  and  hardness,  it  is  indispensable  in  all  maritime  works. 


APPLICATION  OF  CEMENT.  35 

During  the  last  five  years,  20,000  tons  of  I.  0.  Johnson  &  Co.’s  Portland 
cement  were  used  for  the  harbor  at  Havre. 

“In  analysis,  the  chemical  composition  of  I.  C.  Johnson  &  Co.’s  Port¬ 
land  cement  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 


Lime .  49.  80 

Alumina .  11.  30 

Silica  . .  . 18.  60 

Iron . . . , .  17.  90 

Magnesia . . . . 70 

Water .  1.  70 


100.  00 

In  mixing — 

“  Use  clean  water,  and  mix  to  the  consistence  of  common  mortar. 

“  The  sand  to  be  used  with  Portland  cement  should  be  quite  clean, 
free  from  all  earthy  substance,  and  sharp. 

“  The  bricks,  or  the  work  ou  which  Portland  cement  is  used,  should  be 
first  well  wetted,  and  when  the  cement  has  commenced  setting,  it  should 
never  be  disturbed,  as  it  cannot  be  renewed. 

“  For  ordinary  stuccoing,  the  walls  should  be  well  cleaned  and  wetted; 
for  the  first  coat,  three  to  four  parts  of  coarse  river-sand  to  one  of 
cement  may  be  used ;  and  after  this  is  well  hardened,  for  the  second 
coat,  to  finish  off,  finer  sand  may  be  employed,  three  parts  to  one  of 
cement.  Such  work,  if  neatly  jointed,  bears  an  exact  resemblance  to 
Portland  stone,  but  it  is  better  calculated  to  resist  the  weather  than  the 
stone.”  [  ?  ] 

“  For  moldings,  equal  parts  of  cement  and  sharp  sand  should  be  used. 

“  It  is  admirably  adapted  for  flooring  in  any  situation  where  a  stone 
floor  is  desirable.  The  ground  must  be  first  well  rammed  and  levelled 
with  broken  stone ;  then  the  paving  can  be  filled  up  to  the  required 
thickness  with  one  part  of  cement  to  three  or  four  of  shingle  or  crushed 
bricks ;  it  piust  then  be  finished  off  with  a  steel  float ;  or,  if  the  pave¬ 
ment  is  out  of  doors,  a  wooden  float  should  be  used.  Another  mixture 
for  paving  is  to  put  two  layers,  first  one  of  four  or  five  parts  of  coarse 
gravel  to  one  of  cement,  which  should  be  overlaid  with  one-inch  cover¬ 
ing  of  equal  parts  of  cement  and  sand. 

“  For  reservoirs,  gas-tanks,  &c.,  use  two  parts  of  sharp  sand  to  one 
part  of  cement  for  the  brick-work,  and  coat  the  inside  with  a  mixture  of 
two  parts  of  cement  to  one  of  sand,  about  an  inch  in  thickness  ;  or,  take 
pure  cement. 

“  For  coal-pits  or  other  places  where  the  water  is  to  be  dammed  back, 
the  cement  should  be  used  with  less  sand  than  in  other  cases,  and  some¬ 
times  it  may  be  better  to  use  it  without  any  sand. 

“For  breakwater  and  harbor  works,  as  at  Dover  and  other  places, 
blocks  may  be  formed  in  frames  by  mixing  six  parts  of  coarse  gravel 
with  one  of  cement,  into  which  mass  may  be  inserted  about  one-fourth 


36 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


of  the  whole  bulk  of  rubble-stone  ;  the  mixture  will  then  be  about  eight 
to  nine  parts  of  gravel  and  rubble-stone  to  one  part  of  cement.  These 
blocks  become  hard  and  durable,  and  will  resist  all  decomposing  influ¬ 
ences  of  the  sea  or  of  the  atmosphere. 

“  If  a  tine  surface  is  required  for  the  blocks,  to  make  them  appear  like 
stone,  for  facing  breakwaters,  &c.,  the  sides  of  the  mold  should  first  be 
plastered  about  one  inch  in  thickness  with  a  mixture  of  half  cement 
and  half  saud;  the  interior  of  the  block,  of  course,  is  filled  up  as  before. 

“For  castings,  pure  cement  should  first  be  put  into  the  mold,  and 
then  filled  up  with  one  part  of  cement  and  two  or  three  parts  of  broken 
stone,  or  clean,  sharp  sand  ;  it  must  not  then  be  disturbed  until  quite 
hard.” 

42.  Saullick  and  Curti  are  the  two  principal  manufacturers  and  dealers 
in  the  cements  used  in  Vienna.  Alexander  Curti  has  the  contract  to  sup¬ 
ply  the  Vienna  water-works  with  2,000,000  barrels  of  cement  and  hy¬ 
draulic  lime.  This  gentleman  intended  to  exhibit  at  the  Exhibition  a 
tower  built  of  his  cement,  but  owing  to  a  defective  foundation  his  tower 
had  to  come  down.  The  cement  of  this  firm  is  a  good  article,  notwith¬ 
standing  their  bad  luck  in  this  instance.  Tall  &  Co.,  an  English  firm, 
whose  specialty  is  the  construction  of  houses  of  concrete,  used  Curti’s 
cement  in  building  the  house  erected  behind  the  machinery-hall.  This 
was  the  only  instance  in  which  the  cement  was  used  at  the  exhibi. 
tion. 

Saullick’s  Perlmoor  cement  is  very  much  used  in  Austria.  It  is  very 
fine,  almost  if  not  quite  as  good  as  the  best -Portland  cement.  It  has  ; 
been  subjected  to  severe  tests,  and  to  analysis,  as  the  following  trans¬ 
lation  of  the  report  of  an  eminent  German  chemist  indicates: 

REPORT  ON  CEMENT  MANUFACTURED  BY  SAULLICK,  AT  PERLMOOR, 
NEAR  WORGEL,  TYROL. 

43.  “Mr.  Saullick  handed  me,  several  mouths  ago,  a  few  samples  of 
his  cement. 

“My  assistant,  Mr.  Wagner,  tested  these  samples  thoroughly  in  my  | 
laboratory.  As  there  have  been  executed  in  my  laboratory  two  other 
analyses  of  English  Portland  cement,  oue  by  Dr.  Hopfgarten,  the  other 
by  Dr.  Feichtinger,  I  am  able  to  compare  the  ingredients  of  Mr.  Saul- 
lick's  cement-  with  them,  and  the  result  is  as  follows  : 


SAULLICK  CEMENT. 


37 


English  Portland  cement. 

Saullick’s  ce¬ 
ment. 

Tested  by 
Hopfgarten. 

Tested  by 
Feichtinger. 

Tested  by 
Wagner. 

f  Water . 

1.  00 

0.  96 

0.  50 

o 

Lime . . . . . 

54.  01 

54.  40 

58.  50 

■s 

Magnesia . . . . . 

0.75 

0.  86 

2.  55 

o 

SH 

Oxide  of  manganese . . . 

Trace. 

0.30 

Oxide  of  iron . . . . . 

5.  03 

5.  05 

5.  60 

J2  O 

A  es 
a  o  ^ 

Alumina . . _ . . 

7.  75 

7.  36 

4.  75 

Carbonic  acid . . 

2. 15 

2.80 

0.  50 

©  U 

Sulphuric  acid. . . . 

1.  00 

1. 12 

2. 10 

3 

Phosphoric  acid . 

0.  75 

Trifling:. 

■3 

Potash . . . . 

1  10 

0.  86 

0.  95 

w. 

^Soda  . . . . . . . 

1.66 

1.76 

0.  75 

a  ( Oxide  of  iron _ 

X— 1  S'S'O  !  Olav _ _ 

0.  37 

S 

2  1  Flinl-dnst,  .  _  . 

22. 23 

2.  30 

23.  72 

18.  60 

i-h'-2—*  o  1  Olav  and  sand _ _ 

2.  35 

“  From  this  comparison  it  will  be  seen  that  Saullick’s  cement  contains 
a  little  more  lime  and  less  flint-dust  than  the  English  Portland  cements, 
but,  on  the  whole,  it  shows  a  great  similarity  to  them  in  composition.  As 
we  are  well  aware  of  the  fact  that  two  cements  of  the  same  chemical  com¬ 
position  may,  nevertheless,  possess  quite  different  adhesive  powers,  i.  e., 
whether  they  are  united  closely  or  loosely,  a  mere  analysis  of  the  cement 
does  not  satisfy  the  mind  regarding  its  quality. 

“Former  trials  have  proved  that  the  physical  condition  and  the  chemi¬ 
cal  composition  of  the  clayey  substances  exercise  the  greatest  influence 
on  the  quality  of  the  product  which  is  obtained  by  the  11  glowing”  of 
the  natural  and  artificial  mixtures  of  clay  and  carbonic  acids,  and  which 
are  called  hydraulic  limes  or  cements.  The  clay  of  the  Medway  Biver, 
which  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  Portland  cement,  contains,  in  100 
parts  flint-dust — 

Clay . 17.00 

Alkali . . . . . . . 2.  08 

Soda . . . . 3.00 

Oxide  of  iron . 21.  06 

While  the  common  hydraulic  lime,  in  100  parts  flint-dust,  contains 
less  than  one-half  these  quantities  of  clay  and  iron. 

“  For  this  reason  I  had  sent  to  my  laboratory,  by  Mr.  Saullick,  some 
unburnt  cement  stones,  in  order  to  investigate  thoroughly  the  contents 
of  the  contained  clays.  The  stone  is  very  uniform  in  its  formation,  and, 
during  the  process  of  analysis,  emits  a  bituminous  smell,  and  yields  am- 
moniacal  vapors. 

“  In  hydrochloric  acid,  78.03  per  cent,  dissolves,  consisting  of — 

Carbonate  lime . . . .  „ . 72.15 

Carbonate  magnesia .  3.25 


38 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Oxide  of  iron 

Clay . 

Water . 


1.00 

0.50 

1.40 


arid  20.4  per  cent,  remains  as  an  insoluble  precipitate  in  the  acid ;  this 
is,  therefore,  the  clayey  substance  of  the  stone.  Xow,  this  clay  con¬ 
tains,  in  one  hundred  parts  flint-dust — 


Clay . 17.03 

Potash . 4.08 

Soda .  3.08 

Oxide  of  iron . 9.06 


“If  we  compare  the  composition  of  the  clay  of  SaulliclCs  cement- 
stone  with  that  of  the  river  Medway,  the  result  is  reached  that  these 
clays,  in  their  proportion  of  flint-dust  and  clay,  are  equal,  and  that  they 
only  differ  in  proportions  of  alkalies  and  oxide  of  iron. 

“  There  is  yet  an  important  feature  for  the  Portland  cement,  namely, 
its  adhesiveness — the  force  by  which  the  particles  adhere  to  each  other, 
and  which  is  indicated  by  its  density.  While  some  of  our  common 
light  cements  in  the  ground  condition  weigh  45  to  50  pounds  per  cubic 
foof,  a  cubic  foot  of  Portland  cement  weighs  S3  pounds.  The  Saullick 
cement  weighs  S3.47  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  is  therefore  similar  to 
Portland  cement  in  this  important  particular. 

“Dr.  Mat.  Peltenkafer.” 


It  must  bo  borne  in  mind  that,  in  Vienna,  there  is  an  abundance  of 
good  sand  from  the  valley  of  the  Danube.  This  is  an  important  point, 
as  cement  is  A’ery  seldom  used  without  mixture ;  hence,  the  cemeut  that 
will  mix  well  with  sand,  without  losing  its  adhesive  power,  is  commer¬ 
cially  the  best. 

The  process  of  mixiug  and  using  is  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  as 
that  given  above,  in  the  “  directions  for  using,”  by  Johnson  &  Co. 

If,  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  to  be  held  at  Philadelphia,  a  collection 
of  the  native  cements  and  hydraulic  limes  of  the  United  States  could 
be  shown,  with  a  carefully-prepared  statement  of  the  qualities  possessed 
by  each,  and  of  the  points  of  difference  between  them  and  the  best 
European  cements,  the  exhibit  aud  statement  would  be  of  great  prac¬ 
tical  value. 

44.  The  Yienuese  have  been  most  fortunate  in  the  architects  who- 
have  designed  their  modern  buildings.  The  favorite  style — the  Renais¬ 
sance — allows  a  wide  scope  for  the  introduction  of  sculptured  ornament 
aud  rich  molding.  These  adjuncts  have  been  freely  used,  but  with  good 
taste.  27ot  a  little  of  the  admiration  elicited  from  visitors  to  the  Aus¬ 
trian  capital  is  largely  due  to  the  beauty  of  the  street  facades.  The 
buildings  have  a  general  uuiformity,  but  vary  in  their  details.  Though 
leaning  to  the  French  school,  the  Viennese  have  given  to  the  Renais¬ 
sance  a  tone  all  their  own.  Their  interiors  are,  to  the  writers  taste, 
much  more  beautiful  than  their  exteriors. 


VIENNESE  ARCHITECTURE. 


39 


All  their  modern  public  buildings,  such  as  the  opera-house,  the  new 
museums,  Votive  church,  the  palace  of  the  archduke,  the  new  exchange, 
the  barracks,  &c.,  are  built  either  of  stone  or  brick.  This  would  in¬ 
dicate  that  the  authorities  have  but  little  faith  in  stucco. 

45.  In  all  stuccoed  buildings  where  strength  is  required,  stone  or  some 
other  strong  material  is  used. 

The  chief  points  urged  in  favor  of  stucco  are,  first,  its  cheapness  as 
compared  with  stone  or  pressed-brick  work,  and  consequently  the  facil¬ 
ity  it  gives  for  applying  at  small  cost  what  would  be  enormously  expen¬ 
sive  if  wrought  in  the  costlier  materials ;  secondly,  the  ease  with  which, 
it  can  be  cleaned  and  repainted  when  it  is  weather-stained. 

Garden-houses,  statues,  ornamental  curbing,  brackets,  fountains,  &c., 
are  made  of  cement.  Very  much  of  the  so-called  patent  stone  is  noth¬ 
ing  more  than  cement,  sand,  and  a  little  coloring-matter.  There  was  a 
large  exhibit  of  the  above-mentioned  articles,  made  chiefly  in  Austria 
and  Germany. 

46.  There  was  also  exhibited  a  large  collection  of  a  much  finer  and 
more  durable  material,  one  that  is  no  imitation,  but  which  may,  of  right, 
be  considered  as  a  building-material  and  as  an  artists’  material  as  much 
as  stone,  wood,  or  iron — terra-cotta.  This  is  a  product  that  it  would  pay 
well  to  manufacture  in  the  United  States.  A  market  much  greater 
than  at  present  exists  would  readily  be  found  for  really  good  work 
among  our  own  people.  It  seems  strange,  when  it  is  remembered  that 
we  make  some  of  the  most  beautiful  bricks  manufactured  in  the  world, 
that  we  have  not  developed  an  American  terra-cotta.  Terra-cotta  to 
brick-work  is  what  the  flower  is  to  the  plant — its  natural  outgrowth. 

It  has  been  used  since  the  earliest  times.  In  the  British  Museum, 
specimens  of  ancient  terra-cotta  are  shown,  at  least  two  thousand  years 
old.  In  Europe  the  last  fifteen  years  have  witnessed  a  great  revival  of 
this  manufacture,  especially  in  Austria,  Germany,  and  England.  In  the 
latter  country  has  been  built  the  largest  building  ever  constructed  with 
this  material — the  Eoyal  Albert  Hall. 

47.  The  chief  points  of  improvement  made  during  the  last  decade 
consist  not  so  much  in  the  improved  designs  as  in  the  system  of  manu¬ 
facturing.  The  old  systems  of  kilns  are  superseded  by  new  circular 
ovens,  based  for  the  most  part  on  Hoffman’s  plan.  Coal  is  used  instead 
of  wood,  producing  a  great  saving  in  cost  of  fuel,  the  coal  used  being 
the  siftings  and  refuse  of  the  coal-pits.  The  powerful  draught  of  Hoff 
man’s  system  causes  almost  anythiDg  to  burn  sti-ongly  and  evenly,  while 
there  is  little  if  any  waste  of  heat.  Much  attention  has  also  been  paid 
to  the  correction  of  the  contraction  and  distortion  caused  by  the  shrink  - 
age  of  the  clay  during  the  period  of  firing.  The  manufacturers  have 
learned  to  allow  for  this,  having  set  down  for  reference  and  guidance  a 
scale  of  probable  shrinkage  for  all  kinds  of  ware. 

48.  The  many  art-schools  and  museums  established  by  the  European 
governments  have  produced  a  very  efficient  class  of  artist-workmen 


40  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873.  . 

who  do  the  modelling  and  designing  necessary  in  this  manufacture,  and 
add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  modern  work.  It  is  noticeable  that 
modern  art-work:  is  tending  more  to  a  level.  There  are  not  so  many 
leviathans  of  art,  but  there  are  more  average  artists  who  might,  cen¬ 
turies  ago,  have  been  considered  masters, .but  who  to-day  have  so  many 
equally  talented  competitors  that  they  ra’te  but  as  men  of  average 
standing. 

Any  one  interested  iu  the  production  of  terra-cotta  will  find  much  val¬ 
uable  information  in  a  paper  read  by  its  author,  Mr.  Charles  Barry, 
architect,  before  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects.  (No.  II  Ses¬ 
sional  Papers,  1S67-68.)  Mr.  Barry  has  had  great  experience  iu  the 
use  of  this  material  for  architectural  purposes. 


CHAPTER  Y. 


ARTIFICIAL  STONE. 

Ransom e’s  stone  ;  History  of  the  invention;  Chemistry  of  manufacture  ;  The 
later  process ;  History;  Chemistry;  Belgian  artificial  stone ;  Increase  of 
business. 

49.  The  manufacturers  of  this  article  iu  America  know  more  of  the  . 
method  of  production  than  could  be  gleaned  by  any  one  at  the  exhibi¬ 
tion;  the  only  illustration  of  this  work  being  a  solitary  specimen,  ex¬ 
hibited  in  the  Danish  section — a  medallion  executed  by  a  Copenhagen 
firm.  Still,  the  manufacturing  of  this  stone  has  made  such  rapid  strides 
that  this  report  would  be  incomplete  without  some  reference  to  it. 

Mr.  Eansome,  the  inventor,  makes  no  secret  of  his  method,  and  has 
fully  explained  it  in  a  paper  communicated  by  him  to  the  mechanical 
section  of  the  British  Association  at  Brighton,  August  20,  1872,  from 
which  the  following  statement  is  an  extract: 

50.  “  His  [the  inventor’s]  investigation  into  the  nature  and  properties 
of  stone  commenced  nearly  thirty  years  since,  and  he  found  that,  with 
few  exceptions,  the  hardest  and  most  durable  stones  were  those  which 
contained  the  largest  proportion  of  silica.  After  numerous  attempts  of 
combining  crystals  of  sand  with  powdered  glass,  under  hydraulic  pres¬ 
sure,  and  uniting  the  mass  by  partial  fusion,  and  after  having  exhausted 
the  combinations  of  these  substances  with  the  various  cements,  it  oc¬ 
curred  to  the  author  to  substitute  a  concentrated  solution  of  silicate  of 
soda  or  potash  for  the  other  cementing  materials  he  had  previously  em¬ 
ployed. 

“  This  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  or  potash  being  mixed  with  sand  and 
pressed  into  a  mold  formed  when  dried  a  very  hard  stone,  having  a  close 
and  uniform  texture,  but  which,  however,  disintegrated  upon  being  ex¬ 
posed  to  moisture.  The  next  step  was  to  submit  the  compound  to  the 
action  of  heat,  when  the  free  alkali  of  the  cementing  silicate  combined 
with  an  additional  quantity  of  the  silexof  the  sand,  and  produced  an  in¬ 
soluble  silicate,  unaffected  by  moisture.  In  the  course  of  time,  however, 
the  efflorescence  of  a  salt  was  observed  to  form  on  the  surface  of  the 
stone  in  buildings  where  it  had  been  used.  This  for  the  most  part 
proved  to  be  sulphate  of  soda,  which  existed  originally  in  the  soda-ash 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  silicate.  This  objection  was  removed  by 
treating  the  solution  of  soda  with  caustic  baryta  before  using  it  in  the 
preparation  of  the  silicate. 


42 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  13.  . 


“  Such,  iu  general,  were  the  results  the  author  had  obtained  by  the 
year  1859.  *  *  *  .  *  *  * 

51.  “  The  process  of  the  manufacture  of  the  solution  of  silicate  of  soda 
has  been  so  fully  and  frequently  described  iu  various  scientific  journals, 
that  the  author  considers  it  unnecessary  to  do  more  than  simply  allude 
to  it  here.  Ordinary  flint-stones  are  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  strong 
solution  of  caustic  soda  in  cylindrical  boilers  or  digesters,  under  steam- 
pressure  of  from  GO  pounds  to  80  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Under 
these  conditions  the  flint  is  rapidly  dissolved  by  the  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  and  silicate  of  soda  iu  solution  is  produced,  which,  after  being 
discharged  from  the  boiler,  is  concentrated  by  evaporation  to  a  specific 
gravity  of  17000,  and  contains  about  GG  per  cent,  of  silicate,  33  percent, 
of  soda. 

“  In  manufacturing  the  stone,  the  silicate  is  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  clean,  dry  sand,  and  other  suitable  siliceous  or  earthy  ingredi¬ 
ents,  iu  a  mixing-mill  specially  constructed  for  the  purpose,  when  the 
compound  assumes  a  stiff,  pasty  consistency,  is  readily  pressed  into 
molds  of  any  required  form  or  pattern,  and  is  capable  of  receiving 
and  retaining  the  most  delicate  impressions.  If,  now,  the  mass  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  dry  gradually,  at  an  ordinary  temperature,  it  will  become 
hard  and  to  all  appearance  a  perfect  sandstone;  but  inasmuch  as  the 
several  particles  of  sand,  &c.,  are  combined  together  by  a  soluble  silicate, 
if  exposed  to  the  action  of  water  the  silicate  will  soon  become  redis¬ 
solved,  the  sand  and  other  ingredients  will  be  set  free,  and  the  mass  en¬ 
tirely  disintegrated. 

“  The  next  problem  was  to  determine- how  to  convert  the  soluble  sili¬ 
cate  of  soda  into  some  insoluble  silicate,  which  should  possess  the  prop¬ 
erties  requisite  for  the  formation  of  a  good,  hard,  compact,  and  durable 
stone,  without  the  action  of  fire-heat,  which  had  been  found  so  inconven¬ 
ient  and  expensive  in  its  application  iu  former  methods. 

“In  the  year  1S61,  in  consequence  of  the  premature  decay  of  the  stone  of 
the  houses  of  Parliament,  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  government 
to  examine  and  report  on  the  causes  of  such  decay,  and  the  best  means 
of  preserving  the  stone  from  further  injury.  The  author,  iu  common 
with  others,  was  summoned  to  give  evidence  on  the  subject,  having  for 
some  years  previously  been  engaged  in  working  a  process,  pateuted  by 
himself,  for  preserving  stone,  by  first  saturating  it  with  a  solution  of 
silicate  of  soda,  and  afterwards  applying  a  solution  of  chloride  of  cal¬ 
cium,  which  immediately  decomposed  the  former  and  produced  an  in¬ 
soluble  silicate  of  lime  in  the  stone  so  operated  upou.  In  order  to  demon¬ 
strate  conclusively  the  efficiency  of  such  application,  he  proposed  to  re¬ 
duce  a  piece  of  stone  to  powder,  and  then  by  the  aid  of  those  two  solu¬ 
tions  to  reconvert  the  powder  back  into  a  solid  stone. 

“The  experiment  was  tried,  and  the  result  was  so  completely  success¬ 
ful,  that  a  patent  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  stoue  by  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  these  ingredients  was  at  once  obtaiued,aud  arrangements  were 


ransome’s  artificial  stone. 


43 


made  for  carrying  out  the  same  upon  an  extended  and  practical  scale. 
In  doing  so  the  mixture  of  sand,  silicate,  &c.,  when  molded  as  pre¬ 
viously  described,  was  immediately  removed  to  benches  placed  over 
open  tanks,  or  immersed  therein,  and  completely  saturated  with  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  chloride  of  calcium.  This  operation,  in  cases  of  large  masses,  is 
materially  assisted  and  accelerated  by  aid  of  air-pumps,  &c.  Double 
decomposition  of  the  two  solutions  of  silicate  of  soda  and  chloride  of  cal¬ 
cium  immediately  takes  place,  resulting  in  the  production  of  an  insolu¬ 
ble  silicate  of  lime,  firmly  uniting  and  enveloping  all  the  particles  of 
which  the  object  under  treatment  is  composed,  and  a  solution  of  chloride 
of  sodium  or  common  salt,  which  is  subsequently  removed  by  the  free 
application  of  water. 

52.  u  The  foregoing  is  a  brief  history  of  the  material  manufactured 
by  the  author  down  to  the  year  1S70,  when  he  developed  another  pro¬ 
cess,  as  distinct  from  the  last  described  as  that  is  from  the  process  ex¬ 
plained  to  this  association  in  1859. 

“  It  was  found  in  practice  that  the  process  of  washing  so  as  completely 
to  remove  all  trace  of  the  chloride  of  sodium  from  large  masses  of  the 
stone  was  open  to  objection.  It  was  both  tedious  and  expensive,  espe¬ 
cially  in  localities  where  there  was  a  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  good  sup¬ 
ply  of  tolerably  pure  water  at  a  reasonable  cost. 

“  The  author  then  conceived  the  idea  of  obviating  this  washing  pro¬ 
cess  by  producing  the  insoluble  silicate  of  lime  without  the  formation  of 
the  chloride  of  sodium  or  other  soluble  salt,  which  would  require  subse¬ 
quent  removal.  Step  by  step  this  result  has  at  length  been  arrived  at, 
and  the  process  of  manufacture  thereby  materially  simplified,  the  cost 
of  production  reduced,  and  the  application  of  the  material  considerably 
extended.  Many  gentlemen  present  will  doubtless  recollect  that  some 
years  since  a  siliceous  mineral  was  discovered  at  the  base  of  the  chalk- 
hills  in  Surrey,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Farnham,  possessing 
some  very  peculiar  properties,  among  others  that  of  being  readily  sol¬ 
uble  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  at  a  moderately  low  temperature. 
Taking  advantage  of  this  peculiarity,  the  author  commenced  a  series  of 
experiments  in  order  to  determine  if  it  were  not  possible,  without  the 
use  of  chloride  of  calcium,  to  produce  a  stone  in  all  respects  equal  in 
quality  to  what  had  hitherto  been  done,  and  in  this  he  has  now  suc¬ 
ceeded. 

53.  “  By  this  latter  process  he  combines  a  portion  of  the  Farnham 
stone,  or  soluble  silica,  with  a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  or  potash,  lime, 
(or  substances  containing  lime,)  sand,  alumina,  chalk,  or  other  conven¬ 
ient  and  suitable  materials,  which,  when  intimately  mixed,  are  molded 
into  the  required  form  as  heretofore,  and  allowed  to  harden  gradually, 
as  silicate  of  lime  is  formed  by  the  combination  of  the  ingredients  pres¬ 
ent.  The  mass  then  becomes  thoroughly  indurated  and  converted  into 
a  compact  stone,  capable  of  sustaining  extraordinary  pressure,  and 
increasing  in  hardness  with  age. 


44 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 

“The  chemical  actions  which  effect  these  results  appear  to  be  as  follows : 
When  the  materials  are  mixed  together  the  silicate  of  soda  is  decom¬ 
posed,  the  silicic  acid,  being  liberated,  combines  with  the  lime,  and 
forms  a  compound  silicate  of  lime  and  alumina,  while  a  portion  of  soda 
in  a  caustic  condition  is  set  free.  This  caustic  soda  immediately  seizes 
upon  the  soluble  silica  (from  Farnham)  which  constitutes  one  of  the 
ingredients,  and  thus  forms  a  fresh  supply  of  silicate  of  soda,  which  is, 
in  its  turn,  decomposed  by  a  further  quantity  of  lime,  and  so  on. 

“If  each  decomposition  of  silicate  of  soda  resulted  in  the  setting  free 
of  the  whole  of  the  caustic  soda,  these  decomposing  processes  would  go 
on  as  long  as  there  was  any  soluble  silica  present,  with  which  the  caus¬ 
tic  soda  could  combine,  or  until  there  ceased  to  be  any  uncombined  lime 
to  decompose  the  silicate  of  soda  produced,  the  termination  of  the  ac¬ 
tion  being  marked  by  the  presence  in  the  pores  of  the  stone  of  the  excess 
of  caustic  soda  in  the  one  case  or  of  silicate  of  soda  in  the  other.  In 
reality,  however,  the  whole  of  the  caustic  soda  does  not  appear  to  be  set 
free  each  time  the  silicate  of  soda  is  decomposed  by  the  lime,  there  ap¬ 
pearing  to  be  formed  a  compound  silicate  of  lime  and  soda,  whereby  a 
small  portion  of  the  latter  is  fixed  at  each  decomposition.  The  result 
is  that  the  caustic  soda  is  gradually  fixed,  and  none  remaius  to  be  re¬ 
moved  by  washing  or  other  process.” 

“  By  means  of  the  last-mentioned  process,  the  field  has  been  widely 
extended  for  the  application  of  the  stone  produced  thereby,  and  which 
for  convenience,  as  distinguishing  it  from  all  others,  has  been  termed 
‘apcenite.’  It  is  now  no  difficult  task  to  produce  blocks  of  this  material, 
of  any  form  and  of  any  size,  the  only  limit  being  the  means  available 
for  handling  them  upon  the  spot  where  they  are  to  be  employed.  More¬ 
over,  the  materials  which  form  the  bulk  of  apcenite  are,  as  a  rule,  gener¬ 
ally  to  be  found  in  abundance  where  hydraulic  or  other  important  works 
are  being  carried  on,  and  for  which  purpose  the  new  stone  is  eminently 
suited. 

“Besides  possessing  the  several  properties  which  have  been  described, 
the  apcenite,  wheu  prepared  with  suitable  materials,  is  capable  of 
receiving  the  most  delicate  impressions,  and,  by  the  incorporation  of 
various  metallic  oxides,  any  variety  of  color  can  be  imparted  to  it.” 

54.  A  considerable  quautity  of  Rausome’s  patent  stone  has  been  used 
in  the  rebuilding  of  Chicago,  where  it  has  stood  the  test  of  an  Ameri¬ 
can  winter,  having  been  exposed  to  a  temperature  27°  below  zero  with¬ 
out  being  in  any  way  affected. 

We  saw  a  shop-front,  in  Xew  Bond  street,  London,  built  of  patent 
stone.  It  was  pointed  out  to  us  as  being  Ransome's  patent.  Black,  like 
all  its  neighbors,  with  London  soot,  it  looked  quite  as  good  as  any  of 
the  stone  buildings  around  it.  This  front  has  stood  ten  years,  and,  if 
we  had  not  been  led  to  examine  it  closely,  it  would,  at  a  cursory  view, 
have  passed  with  ns  for  sandstone. 

There  are  other  specimens  of  patent  stone  built  up  in  the  pat- 


ransome’s  artificial  stone. 


45 


entee’s  own  country  that  cannot  be  said  to  have  stood  as  well  as  in 
the  instance  first  quoted ;  but  former  errors  and  defects  are  frankly 
acknowledged,  while  it  is  claimed  that  they  have  now  been  overcome. 
This  is  undoubtedly  a  good  thing  in  a  country  where  natural  stone  is 
scarce  or  very  expensive ;  but  one  difficulty  presents  itself  strongly  to 
our  mind.  How  is  it  to  be  mended  when  broken,  as  must  necessarily 
happen  often,  just  as  stone  will  get  chipped  or  damaged?  The  latter  is 
capable  of  being  easily  restored.  Can  as  much  be  said  for  the  patent 
stone  ? 

Mr.  Eansome  states  that,  “  by  the  use  of  the  native  red  oxide  of  iron, 
manganese,  and  other  mineral  substances,  artificial  marbles  or  granite 
of  almost  every  description  can  be  produced.  These  artificial  stones, 
like  their  originals,  are  capable  of  taking  an  excellent  polish,  are 
extremely  hard,  and  can  be  readily  molded  into  the  most  elaborate 
forms  at  a  very  small  cost.” 

55.  This  may  resemble  the  method  practiced  by  the  Universal 
Marble  Company,  (temporary  address,  9  quai  de  Guenart,  Brussels, 
Belgium,)  who  exhibited  in  the  Belgian  section  of  the  exposition  a  fine 
collection  of  mantels,  table-tops,  vases,  &c.,  made  by  their  process,  and 
very  closely  imitating  natural  marble.  But,  unlike  Mr.  Bansome,  the 
manager  of  this  company’s  works  retains  the  secret,  as  he  expects  to 
introduce  his  business  into  America  himself.  He  therefore  declined 
to  tell  any  one  before  that  event  should  happen  anything  more  than  he 
communicates  to  the  public  in  advertising  his  work. 

So  much  of  this  information  as  is  worth  recording  is  given  below. 
We  may  add  that,  in  the  writer’s  judgment,  they  do  not  overstate  the 
good  points  of  their  “universal  marble.”  Some  specimens  of  their 
imitations  of  costly  marble  were  very  fine,  difficult  to  distinguish  from 
the  original,  unless  by  the  fact  that  the  imitation  was  made  in  much 
larger  pieces  than  are  usually  supplied  in  natural  marble.  This  was 
done  to  show  one  of  the  advantages  of  the  artificial  material.  '  The  cost 
was  not  greater  in  proportion  for  20  feet  run  than  for  a  single  square 
foot,  while  in  the  naturab  material  every  inch  of  increased  size  helps 
vastly  to  increase  its  value,  almost  doubling  at  every  foot.  This  stone 
is  used  for  interiors,  for  lining  the  sides  of  corridors,  hall- ways,  &c.,  and, 
in  the  buildings  where  we  saw  it,  it  produced  a  very  rich  and  cool  effect. 
It  can  be  used,  if  desired,  in  lieu  of  expensive  trimmings  in  wood. 
The  circular  of  the  company,  left  on  one  of  their  “marble”  tables  in  the 
exhibition,  says:  “A  thorough  investigation  and  analysis  of  real  mar¬ 
ble  has  placed  us  in  a  position  to  produce  ‘ours,’,  as  we  have  endeav¬ 
ored  to  imitate  the  formation  of  natural  marble,  and  to  apply  a  pri¬ 
mary  substance  which,  by  crystallization,  becomes  as  durable  and 
hard  as  the  very  best  of  marble,  and  even  in  some  respects  surpasses 
it.  We  warrant  our  articles  to  be  free  from  flaws  or  cracks,  and  we 
imitate  all  the  innumerable  different  kinds  of  marble  to  perfection. 

“  We  wish  to  remark  here  that  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  the 


46 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


imitations  of  marble  in  stucco  and  our  article.  Stucco  -will  always 
crack,  aud  is  a  bad  imitation  of  marble.  The  advantages  offered  by  our 
article,  even  above  real  marble,  are  the  following: 

“  1.  Cheapness,  only  one-third  of  the  cost  of  real  marble. 

“  2.  Greater  endurance  under  atmospheric  influence. 

“  3.  More  variety  in  application,  as  we  can  supply  surfaces  straight, 
angled,  bent,  or  round. 

#*####* 

“We  are  always  ready  to  furnish  builders  or  architects,  who  may 
write  to  us,  with  prices  for  articles,  from  plan  or  design,  with  dimensions, 
and  we  can  also  provide  buyers  with  the  different  patterns  we  produce, 
and  cau  bring  testimony  from  those  houses,  public  buildings,  and 
churches  we  have  supplied  with  our  work.” 

50.  The  manufacture  of  this  article  was  commenced  about  eight  years 
ago  in  Germany.  Beginning  with  only  a  few  workmen,  they  now  em¬ 
ploy  three  hundred  at  the  original  works,  while  in  Brussels  they  em¬ 
ployed  the  same  number  last  summer  in  executing  orders  on  hand  for 
public  and  private  buildings.  This  would  indicate  that  they  have  a 
very  excellent  article.  It  certainly  pleased  the  writer  better  than  any¬ 
thing  of  a  similar  character  either  within  or  without  the  exhibition. 
The  only  source  of  dissatisfaction  consisted  in  the  fact  that  it  was  quite 
impossible  with  the  means  at  command  to  learn  any  details  of  the  pro¬ 
cess  of  manufacture,  as  the  managers  of  the  company  declined  to  give 
any  information. 


INDEX 


America,  adaptability  of  British  machinery  to . . . 

stone-working  in. . 

Annani’s  stone-dresser . 

Art  schools,  results  of  their  work . 

Asphalt,  colored . 

mosaics . - . 

Austrian  cements . 

Belgian  artificial  stones . 

British  machinery,  adaptability  to  use  in  the  United  States 

Business  in  Europe  in  artificial  stones . 

methods  in  Europe . 

Cement,  Austrian . 

flooring . 

Portlaud . 

Saullick . 

Cornices  of  molded  ston» . . 

Description  of  Annani’s  stone-dresser . . 

Holmes  &  Payton’s  stone-dresser . 

machine  stone-dressing  works  . . 

saw  quarrying-machine . 

Young’s  diamond  saw . 

Diamond  saw,  Young’s . 

Durability  of  Ransome’s  stone . 

Education  of  Viennese  workmen . . . 

Encaustic  tiles . 

Exhibits,  extent  and  character  of . 

various . 

Flagging,  Yorkshire . 

Flooring-cement  . . . . 

Flooring-materials . . 

History  of  Ransome’s  stone . 

stone-dressing  in  Great  Britain . 

Holmes  &  Payton’s  stone-dressing  machine  . . 

London  sidewalks . 

use  of  stucco  in . . . 

Machine  stone-dressing  works . 

Manufacture  of  Ransome’s  stone . 

stucco . . . 

M  aterials  for  flooring . 

Mausoleum,  Wasserburger’s . 

-Methods  of  business  in  Europe . 

doing  fine  work  in  Vienna . . 

making  mosaic  in  Vienna . . 


Art. 

Page. 

13 

16 

21 

21 

7 

10 

48 

39 

35 

28 

36 

29 

42 

36 

55 

45 

13 

16 

19 

20 

56 

46 

42 

36 

37 

30 

41 

34 

43 

36 

8 

10 

7 

10 

3 

*  7 

9 

10 

15 

17 

14 

16 

14 

16 

54 

44 

24 

22 

28 

24 

17 

19 

20 

20 

32 

26 

37 

30 

38 

31 

50 

41 

10 

11 

9 

10 

33 

26 

41 

34 

9 

10 

51 

42 

39 

32 

38 

31 

18 

19 

19 

20 

25 

22 

31 

25 

48 


INDEX. 


Methods  of  working  stone  in  Vienna . 

Mosaic  floors,  advantages  of . 

Portland  cement . 

stone . 

Process  of  manufacture  of  Eansoine  stone. . . . 

Quarrying-mackine . 

Eansome’s  stone . 

chemistry  of  manufacture  of 

durability  of . 

history  of  invention  of  _ _ 

processes  of  manufacture  of  . 

Saullick  cement . 

Saw  quarrying-machine . 

Sidewalks  of  London . 

Stair-ways,  methods  of  construction  of . 

Stone,  molded,  for  cornices . 

Portland . 

Eansome’9  artificial . 

Stone-dressing  machine,  Annani’s . 

application  of . . 

history  of,  in  Great  Britain  ... 

Stone-working  in  America . 

Vienna . . 

Stucco,  application  and  uses  of . 

use  of,  in  London . . . 

Vienna . 

Terra-cotta . 

Tilglnnan’s  sand-blast . 

Value  of  terra-cotta . 

Viennese  application  of  stucco . 

buildings,  style  of . 

methods  of  working  stone . 

Wages  of  workmen . 

Wasserburger’s  mausoleum . 

Work,  methods  of  doing  fine . 

in  stone  in  America . 

Workmen,  education  of  Viennese . 

wages  of . . . 

Yorkshire  flagging . 

Young’s  diamond  saw . 


Art.  Page. 


22 

21 

29 

25 

41 

34 

12 

12 

51 

42 

15 

17 

49 

41 

53 

43 

54 

44 

50 

41 

53 

43 

45 

39 

15 

17 

33 

26 

27 

23 

8 

10 

12 

12 

49 

41 

7 

10 

2G 

23 

1G 

18 

21 

21 

22 

21 

39 

32 

40 

33 

45 

39 

46 

39 

1 

5 

46 

39 

39 

32 

44 

38 

22 

21 

31 

28 

18 

19 

25 

22 

21 

21 

24 

22 

31 

2S 

32 

26 

14 

16 

t 


E. 


METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


W.  P.  BLAKE. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


R  E  V  0  R  T 


ON 


IRON  AND  STEEL 


WILLIAM  P.  BLAKE, 

DELEGATE  TO  THE  INTERNATIONAL  JURY,  GROUP  I. 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1876. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Page. 

?  1.  Scope  of  report ;  sources  of  information .  1 

2.  Production  of  iron  in  the  world .  2 

3.  Acknowledgments .  2 

CHAPTER  I. 

THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE. 

4.  Extent  of  Austrian  display  of  iron  and  steel .  5 

5.  Statistics  of  mining . ■ .  6 

G.  Neatness  and  elegance  of  arrangement  of  exhibits .  7 

7.  Austrian  production  of  iron  and  steel .  8 

8.  Austrian  production  in  the  Alpine  region .  8 

9.  Production  of  pig-iron  in  the  Alpine  region .  10 

10.  Puddling-works  in  the  Alpine  region .  11 

11.  Rod  and  bar  iron  produced .  13 

12.  Steel  made  in  the  Alpine  country .  13 

13.  Cast  steel . - . . .  14 

14.  Bessemer  steel .  15 

15.  Martin  steel .  16 

16.  Iron-industries  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  16 

17.  Mining  of  iron-ore  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  17 

18.  Production  of  pig-iron  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  18 

19.  Fouuderies  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  19 

20.  RolliDg-mills  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  19 

21.  Bloomaries  and  puddling-mills .  19 

22.  Development  of  iron-industries  in  Carinthia .  20 

23.  Sections  of  Carinthian  furnaces .  21 

24.  Dimensions  of  European  blast-furnaces .  41 

25.  Forms  assumed  after  long  working .  41 

26.  Exhibit  of  the  Resicza  State  Railway .  46 

27.  Ferro-mauganese  of  Resicza .  46 

28.  Ore  and  furnace  charges .  . 47 

29.  Ferro-manganese  of  Laibach .  48 

30.  Exhibit  of  the  Rositzer  Mining  Company .  48 

31.  Exhibit  of  the  Judenberger  Iron-Works .  49 

32.  Rotary  puddling-furnaces .  50 

33.  Ehrenwerth’s  puddler . 50 

34.  Hydraulic  forging .  53 

35.  Wire-rope  traces .  54 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

36.  Extent  and  arrangement  of  German  exhibits . .  55 

37.  German  production  of  iron  and  steel . .  55 

38.  Chief  seat  of  the  industry . . . . .  55 

39.  Growth  of  the  production  of  iron  and  steel .  56 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


IV 

Page. 

40.  Growth  of  steel-making .  56 

41.  Prussian  iron-making  and  ore-extraction .  56 

4.2.  Graphic  illustration  of  the  growth  of  the  industry . 57 

43.  Statistics  of  commerce  in  metals .  59 

44.  Number  of  exhibitors .  59 

45.  Borsig’s  exhibit .  59 

46.  Exhibit  of  the  Dillinger  Company  . .  60 

47.  Exhibit  of  the  Styruin  Company .  60 

48.  Iron  shoes  for  railway-brakes .  60 

49.  Exhibit  of  the  United  Konigs  and  Laurahiitto .  60 

50.  Iron-wire  from  Westphalia .  66 

51.  Causes  of  high  quality  of  Westphalia  wire .  61 

52.  Hamm  wire-works .  62 

53.  Naehrodt  wire-works . 62 

54.  Lippstadt  wire-works . .. .  63 

55.  Werdohl  wire-works . 64 

56.  Iron  girders  and  columns .  64 

57.  Burbach  Works;  railway-ties .  65 

58.  Schaltenbrnnd's  iron  cross-ties .  66 

59.  Works  of  Friedrich  Krupp .  69 

60.  Exhibits  of  machinery  by  Krupp .  72 

61.  Exhibits -of  artillery  by  Krupp . . .  76 

62.  Buttgenbaeb’s  blast-furnaces .  82 

63.  Osnabriick  Iron  and  Steel  Works . „ .  92 

64.  Georgs-Marien-lliitto  Company .  94 

65.  Care  of  work-people .  98 

66.  Houses  for  work-people . 98 

67.  Schools . 101 

68.  Churches .  101 

69.  Industrial  schools .  101 

70.  Libraries .  102 

71.  Courts  of  justice . 102 

72.  Workingmen's  associations .  102 

75.  Hospitals .  103 

7  1.  Store-union .  104 

75.  Lodging-houses. .  105 

76.  Club-houses .  106 

77.  The  Tuvu-Hallo .  106 

7~.  Official  statements  regarding  schools,  hospitals  and  dwelling-houses .  107 

79.  Bochum  Mining  and  Steel  Works .  110 

80.  Bochum  cast-steel  works .  Ill 

81.  Bochum  coal-mines .  Ill 

82.  Bochum  iron-mines .  Ill 

85.  Bochum  coke  blast-furnaces .  Ill 

84.  Bochum  coke-furnaces .  Ill 

85.  Bochum  steel  castings .  112 

86.  Boelnuu  cast-steel  bells .  112 

87.  Extent  of  the  Bochum  Works .  114 

88.  Assistance  of  working-people .  114 

89.  Exhibit  of  the  Gleiwitz  furnace . .  114 

CHAPTER  III. 

FRENCH  IRON  AND  STEEL  MAKING. 

90.  French  exhibits ;  production  of  iron  and  steel .  116 

91  Creusot:  Schneider  &  Co .  118 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Y 


92. 

93. 

94. 

95. 

96. 

97. 

98. 

99. 
100. 
101. 
102. 

103. 

104. 

105. 

106. 


107. 

108. 

109. 

110. 
111. 
112. 

113. 

114. 

115. 

116. 

117. 

118. 
119. 


120. 

121. 

122. 

123. 

124. 

125. 

126. 

127. 

128. 

129. 

130. 

131. 

132. 

133. 
131. 

135. 

136. 

137. 

138. 

139. 


Page. 

Arrangement  of  exhibit .  118 

Details  of  display .  118 

Statistics  of  production  . . 120 

Awards  in  1867  .  121 

Classification  of  iron  and  steel . 121 

Commercial  steel .  122 

Elongation  as  a  test  of  quality . 115 

Resilience ;  effect  of  shock .  125 

Scientific  investigations .  125 

Deductions .  122 

Varieties  of  steel ;  applications . 122 

Hardness ;  value .  127 

Iron  linings  for  shafts  of  mines .  127 

Various  other  exhibits .  127 

Algerian  ores  and  mines . . .  128 

CHAPTER  IV. 

BELGIAN  IKON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY. 

Belgiau  exhibits  and  production  of  iron  and  steel .  129 

Soci6te  Anonyme  des  Hants  Fourneaux .  130 

Rolled  tires  from  the  Ougree  Company .  130 

The  Cockerill  Company  of  Seraing  ;  history .  131 

Mining-property  and  iron-works .  132 

Miscellaneous  statistics .  134 

Marine  steam-engines  and  machinery . 135 

Blowing-engines .  136 

Locomotive-engiues .  137 

Rock-drills .  137 

Iron  and  steel  forgings .  138 

Production  of  the  steel-works .  139 

Naval  architecture  at  Antwerp .  140 

CHAPTER  V. 

THE  SWEDISH  IRON  INDUSTRY. 

Character  of  the  Swedish  exhibit .  141 

Fagersta  Steel  Works  exhibit .  141 

Iron-ores  and  limestone .  142 

Steel  gun-barrels . 144 

Experiments  by  Kirkaldy .  147 

Steel-plate;  tests  of .  150 

Wykmannshytta  cast-steel ;  Uckatius  process .  151 

Iron  manufactures  in  Sweden .  152 

Akermau  on  Swedish  iron-making . -• .  152 

Distribution  of  ores  in  Sweden .  153 

Sources  of  fuel .  154 

Transportation .  155 

Use  of  English  coke .  156 

Water-power  in  Sweden . 157 

Geology  of  Swedish  iron-ores .  158 

Production  of  iron-ore .  162 

Methods  and  cost  of  mining . 165 

Bog-ores  and  limonite .  167 

Production  of  pig-iron .  168 

Means  and  methods  of  transportation .  181 


VI 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

140.  Wrought-iron  and  steel .  172 

141.  The  puddling  process . 175 

142.  The  Bessemer  process .  175 

143.  Martin  steel;  cemeut  steel .  177 

144.  Rolling-mills .  177 

145.  Statistics  ot' the  industry .  178 

140.  Locality  of  greatest  production .  182 

147.  Composition  of  Swedish  ores .  182 

CHAPTER  VI. 

SPANISH,  RUSSIAN,  AND  SIBERIAN  IRON-MAKING. 

148.  Spanish  iron-mines  . .  207 

140.  Statistics  of  Russian  iron  and  steel  making .  208 

150.  Russian  iron-works  ;  production .  210 

151.  Production  of  coal . 217 

CHAPTER  VII. 

TIIK  BRITISH  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY. 

152.  Character  of  exhibit ;  production .  223 

153.  British  exports .  223 

154.  Principal  British  exhibitors . 224 

155.  Whitwell’s  hot-blast  stoves . ! .  125 

15t>.  Siemens’s  direct  process .  232 

157.  Decorated  tin-plato .  222 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  UNITED  STATES. 

158.  Character  of  the  exhibit . - .  234 

159.  Lake  Superior  ores .  234 

160.  Park,  Brother  &  Co.’s  cast  steel .  235 

161.  Essex  County  (New  York)  iron-ores . 236 

162.  Pennsylvania  and  Alabama  ores .  238 

163.  Rothwell’s  Wyoming  map .  338 

164.  Sellers’s  puddling-machine .  139 

165.  Sellers’s  higli-rolls .  241 

166.  Iron  production  of  the  L'uited  States .  241 

CHAPTER  IX. 

IRON  INDUSTRIES  OF  ASIA. 

167.  Iron-ores  aud  steel  of  Japan.  .  252 

168.  Chinese  iron-making .  252 

169.  Central  Asia;  Turkestan .  253 

170.  Iron  and  steel  of  British  India .  253 

171.  Wootz,  or  Indian  steel .  254 

172.  Indian  iron-ores  and  coal .  255 

173.  New  Zealand .  256 

CHAPTER  X. 

HYDRAULIC  FORGING. 

174.  Haswell’s  exhibit  of  locomotive  hydraulic  forgings .  257 

175.  Method  of  hydraulic  forging .  257 

176.  Apparatus,  material,  products .  258 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


VII 


Page. 

177.  Haswell’s  account  of  the  process .  25b 

178.  The  hydraulic  press . 250 

179.  Wrought-iron  cross-heads .  259 

180.  Journal-boxes .  262 

181.  Link-motion  blocks .  262 

182.  Cylinder -heads .  266 

183.  Solid  locomotive  wheels  . .  267 

184.  Forged  cranks . 270 

CHAPTER  XI. 

IKON  AS  AN  ARTIST’S  MATERIAL. 

185.  Illustrations  at  Vieuua  of  art-work  in  iron .  275 

186.  Wrought-iron  gates  and  railings .  276 

187.  Ilsenbjirg  cast-iron  art-work,  the  foundery .  276 

188.  Molding  sand  .  279 

189.  Iron  for  art  castings;  its  quality .  283 

190.  Temperature  of  fusion .  292 


APPENDIX. 

TABLE  OK  MARKS  AND  MONOGRAMS  OF  SEVERAL  BRANDS  OF  SWEDISH  IRON. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig.  Art.  Page. 

1.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Kremsbrucken,  1808-1833 .  23  21 

2.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Eisentratten,  1808  .  23  22 

3.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Eisentratten,  1872  .  23  22 

4.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Radentheiu,  1808;  last  campaign,  1863.  23  23 

5.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Deutsch  Pontafel,  1808-1849 .  23  23 

6.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  St.  Salvator,  1808  .  23  24 

7.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  St.  Salvator,  1872 .  23  24 

8.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Hirt,  1808  .  23  25 

9.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Ilirt,  1872  .  23  25 

10.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Olsa,  1808  .  23  26 

11.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Olsa,  1862  .  23  26 

12.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Fei-Stritz,  1808 ;  last  campaign,  1834. .  23  27 

13.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Freibach,  1808 .  23  28 

14.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Freibach,  1872  .  23  28 

15.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace.  Freibach,  1872  .  23  29 

16.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Freibach,  1872 .  23  29 

17.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Urtl ;  last  campaign,  1834 .  23  30 

18.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Kompagnie  Hiitte  ;  1834  .  23  30 

19.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Heft,  1808 .  23  31 

20.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace.  Heft,  1872 .  23  31 

21.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Heft,  1872 . .  23  31 

22.  Section  of  Carinthiau  furnace,  Mosinz,  1808 .  23  32 

23.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Mosinz,  1872 .  23  32 

24.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Eberstein,  1808 .  23  33 

25.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Eberstein,  1872 . 23  33 

26.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Lolling,  1808  .  23  34 


VIII 


TABLE  OF  CONTEXTS. 


Fig. 

27.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Lolling,  1872 . 

28.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Lolling,  1372  . 

29.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Lolling,  1872  . 

30.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Windisch  Kappel,  1808-1825  . 

31.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Waidisch,  1872 . 

32.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Waldeustein,  1803 . 

33.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Waldeustein,  1S72 . 

34.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  St.  Gertraud,  1308 . 

35.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  St.  Gertraud,  1872 .  . 

30.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  St.  Leonard,  1808 . 

37.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  St.  Leonard,  1872 . 

38.  Section  of  Carinthian  furnace,  Prevali . 

39.  Vertical  section  of  Mariazell  furuaco . 

40.  Vertical  section  of  Mariazell  furnace . 

41.  Horizontal  section  of  the  Mariazell  furnace . 

42.  Vertical  section  of  Styrian  furnace . 

43.  Vertical  section  of  blast-furnace  at  Mariazell,  Styria  . 

44.  Vertical  section  of  blast-furnace  at  Mariazell,  Styria . 

45.  Ehronwerth’s  rotary  puddling-furnacc . 

40.  Ehrenworth’s  rotary  puddling-furnace . 

47.  Production  of  pig-iron,  Prussia,  1837-1871,  (diagram) . 

48.  /Production  of  steel,  Prussia,  1837-1871,  (diagram) . 

49.  Production  of  bar-iron,  Prussia,  1837-1871,  (diagram) . 

50.  Iron  railway-tie . 

51.  Iron  railway-tio . 

53.  Section  of  iron  railway-tie . . 

v  54.  Cross-section  of  the  foot  of  rail  and  the  damps . 

55.  Buttgenbach’s  blast-furnace,  elevation  and  section . 

56.  Biittgeubach’s  blast  furnace,  elevation  and  section . 

57.  Biittgenbach’s  blast  furnace,  front  view  of  opening . 

58.  Plan  of  Creusot  exhibition,  general  arrangement . 

59.  Diagram  of  steel  plate,  1927 .  . 

60.  Diagram  of  steel  plate,  1924 . 

til.  Whitwoll’s  hot-blast  stoves . 

62.  Vertical  section  and  elevation . 

63.  Arrangement  of  Whitwell’s  stoves . 

64.  Sellers’s  rotary  piuldler . . 

65.  Button  of  wootz,  or  Indian  steel...  . 

66-106.  Hydraulic  forgings . 

107.  Etched  surface  of  locomotive  axle-box  frame . 

108.  Section  of  a  pressed  locomotive  cross-head . 

109.  Section  of  a  pressed  link-bar . 

110.  Section  of  a  pressed  frame . 

111.  Haswell’s  press . 

112.  Has  well’s  press .  . 

113.  Sliding-block  and  link . 

114.  Front  of  sliding-block . 

114a.  Double  sliding-blocks . 

115.  Mold  for  sliding-block . 

116a.  Upper  part  of  mold . 

11C6.  Section  on  b  c  without/,  Fig.  118 . . 

116c.  Side  view  of  / . 

Il6d.  Plan  of  f . 


Art. 

Pago. 

23 

34 

23 

35 

23 

35 

23 

36 

23 

36 

23 

37 

23 

37 

23 

38 

23 

38 

23 

39 

23 

39 

23 

40 

25 

43 

25 

43 

25 

44 

25 

45 

25 

46 

25 

46 

33 

51 

33 

51 

42 

57 

42 

57 

42 

58 

57 

66 

57 

66 

58 

67 

58 

67 

62 

87 

62 

88 

62 

88 

93 

119 

124 

148 

124 

149 

155 

225 

155 

226 

155 

236 

164 

239 

171 

254 

174 

257 

180 

262 

180 

262 

181 

262 

181 

262 

179 

260 

179 

261 

181 

263 

181 

263 

181 

263 

181 

264 

1S1 

264 

181 

264 

181 

265 

181 

265 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


IX 


Pig.  Art.  Page. 

116e.  Stamp  or  die . 181  265 

116/.  Plan  of  the  die .  181  265 

116y.  Side  view  of  the  punch .  181  265 

117.  Top  view  of  the  punch . 181  265 

118.  Side  view  of  the  punch . 181  266 

119.  Stamp . . . 181  266 

120.  Cylinder-head  and  mold .  182  266 

121.  Punching  through  cylinder-head .  182  267 

122.  Wheel-segment,  first  stage .  183  267 

123.  Vertical  section  through  mold .  183  268 

124.  Lower  mold . . 183  268 

125.  Mold  A .  183  268 

126.  Wheel-segments  in  the  press .  183  269 

127.  Vertical  section  through  press  and  mold .  183  269 

128.  Section  through  mold .  183  270 

129.  Section  through  dies  and  plan  of  lower  die .  183  271 

130.  View  of  die  from  beneath . . .  183  271 

131.  Locomotive-crank,  first  stage .  184  272 

132.  Vertical  section  through  mold .  184  272 

133.  Locomotive-crank . 184  272 

134.  Double  sliding-blocks,  plan .  181  273 

135.  Plan  of  lower  part  of  mold .  181  273 

136.  Section  through  mold . 183  273 

137.  Section  of  mold  and  die .  184  274 

138.  Plan  showing  part  of  mold . 184  274 

I— II 


/ 


IRO N  AND  STEEL. 


INTRODUCTION. 

1.  This  report  on  the  iron  and  steel  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  in  1873 
was  undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  scientific  commission  of  the  United 
States  to  Vienna,  and  of  the  chief  commissioner.  The  materials  were 
gathered  and  the  outline  of  the. report  was  drawn  before  leaving  Vienna 
at  the  close  of  the  exhibition.  It  was  designed  to  present  a  review  of 
the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  globe,  but  on  the  author’s  return  to  the 
United  States  the  pressure  of  other  occupation  prevented  giving  that 
attention  to  the  elaboration  of  the  subject  which  its  importance  demands. 
The  data  are  necessarily  presented  to  a  great  extent  in  the  form  in  which 
they  were  procured,  and  without  attempts  at  generalization. 

Two  or  more  excellent  reports  upon  the  iron  and  steel  at  Vienna  have 
been  published  abroad $  one,  by  Messrs.  Maw  &  Dredge,  appears  in  the 
reports  of  the  British  commission ;  another,  by  Anton  Kerpely,  appears 
in  a  separate  and  private  publication,  in  two  parts,  at  Schemnitz — “  Das 
JEisen  aufder  Wiener  WeltausstellungP 

2.  According  to  the  figures  given  by  Messrs.  Maw  &  Dredge,  the  total 
production  of  all  countries  in  pig  and  malleable  iron  is  about  15,322,500 


tons  annually,  divided  approximately  as  follows : 

,  Tods. 

England . . . . . .  6,733,000 

United  States. . . 2,800,000 

Germany .  .  2,  664,  000 

France . . . . . .  1, 182,  000 

Belgium .  . . . . . .  565,  000 

Austria-Hungary .  425,000 

Bussia . . . .  360, 000 

Sweden  and  Norway .  306,000 

Italy .  74,000 

Spain . 72,  000 

Switzerland  .  7,  500 

British  and  South  America . . . 50,  000 

Japan . .  9, 000 

Asia . 40,  000 

Africa .  25,  000 

Australia . 10,000 

1  I 


2 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Mr.  David  Forbes,*  in  his  report  upon  the  progress  of  iron  and  steel 
industry  in  the  year  1S73,  gives  a  total  of  14,885,488  tons  as  a  close 
approximation  to  the  total  production  of  cast  iron  on  the  globe.  Pro¬ 
fessor  Gruener  has  since  published  the  following  estimate  of  the  total 
production  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  steel  for  the  year  1S72.  He 
estimates  the  total  produce  of  steel  in  the  year  1873  as  about  1,250,000 
tons. 


Cast  iron. 

Wrought 

iron. 

Steel. 

Tons. 

6,  723,  387 
2.  250,  000 
1,000, 000 

1,  160, 000 
655,  565 
250,  000 

too,  000 

300,  000 
300,  000 
34,  500 
25,  000 
100,  000 

Tons. 

3, 500,  000 
1,602,  000 
1,  150, 000 
883,  000 
502, 577 

Tons. 

500,  006 
143,  000 
200,  000 
138,  0C0 
15,  284 

United  States . 

Germany . 

Austria-Hunjtarv.. . . 

300,  000 
191,  800 
245,  000 
35,  COO 
24,  000 
70.  000 

49, 250 
12,  000 
7,  204 
250 

Total . 

13,  678,  452 

8. 503,  977 

1,  064,  968 

The  secretary  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  Mr. 
Swank,  adopts  the  following  for  the  world's  production  of  cast  or  pig 
iron : 


,  Countries. 

V  ear. 

1873 

1873 

1872 

1873 
1872 
1871 

1871 

1872 
1872 
1872 
1670 

Gross  tons. 

6,  566,  451 
2.  560,  962 
1,664,  802 
1,  361,  000 
052,  565 
424,  606 
354,  000 
322, 000 
300,  000 
73,  709 
54,  007 
20,  000 
15,  000 
10,  000 
9.  370 
7,500 
40.  000 
20.  000 
10,  000 

Germany . 

tr  .  p  . 

Italy . . . 

1871 

1672 

14,  485,  972 

3.  The  author’s  acknowledgments  are  due  to  the  Messrs.  Haswell,  of 
the  Austrian  State  Kailway  Works,  for  information  regarding  the  oper¬ 
ations  of  forginguuder  the  hydraulic  press,  aud  for  opportunities  of  in¬ 
specting  the  process:  to  Commissioner  Daufeldt  and  Professor  Acker¬ 
man,  of  Sweden,  and  to  Dr.  Serlo,  of  Breslau.  They  are  also  due,  in 
general,  to  several  of  the  miuing  engineers  at  Vienna,  and  to  the  represent¬ 
atives  of  most  of  the  exhibitors  of  iron  and  steel  for  their  courtesy  in  re¬ 
plying  to  inquiries,  and  in  furnishing  information.  The  brochures  de- 
*  Bul'fitin  de  la  Societe  d’Eneouragement,  September,  1874,  cited  by  David  Forbes. 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


scriptive  of  the  principal  works,  which  were  generally  illustrated  by  maps 
and  drawings,  were  of  great  service,  and  have  been  freely  used  in  the 
report.  Such  publications  are  important  in  conveying  information  to  the 
visitor  at  the  exhibition,  but  particularly  to  jurors  and  reporters.  They 
greatly  facilitate  the  labor  of  reporting,  and  save  time  and  trouble  to  both 
visitors  and  exhibitors.  Several  of  the  official  catalogues  were  enriched 
by  statistical  and  descriptive  statements,  notably  those  of  Sweden  and 
Prussia,  by  which  the  value  and  significance  of  the  exhibition  from 
those  countries  were  greatly  enhanced.  The  utility  and  educating 
power  of  an  exhibition  is  vastly  increased  by  the  publication  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  catalogues  of  judiciously-prepared  statistical  and  descrip¬ 
tive  summaries  of  the  various  industries. 


Mill  Bock,  New  Raven ,  Conn. 


W.  P.  B. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  AT  THE  VIENNA  EXPOSITION,  1873. 


CHAPTER  I. 

AUSTRIA-H  UNGARY. 

General  view  of  the  extent  of  the  manufactures  and  display  of  iron  and 
steel  from  Austria  and  other  countries  of  Middle  Europe  ;  Tasteful 
arrangement  of  objects  ;  Production  of  iron  and  coal  in  Austria  ;  Devel¬ 
opment  of  iron-industry  in  Carinthia  ;  Sections  of  furnaces,  siiowin  g 

INCREASING  DIMENSIONS  AND  INCREASE  OF  PRODUCT ;  DIMENSIONS  OF  BLAST-FUR¬ 
NACES  in  Europe  ;  Interior  forms  assumed  by  furnaces  after  long  working  ; 
Sections  of  Mariazell  furnaces  ;  Resicza  States  Railway  exhibition  ;  Large 
Bessemer  ingot;  Steel  samples  and  rails;  Etched  iron;  Ferro-manganese  ; 
Rositzer  Mining  Company;  Rotary  puddler,  Dane’s  system;  Ehrenwerth’s 
rotating-iiearth  puddler;  Hydraulic  forging;  Wire-rope  traces. 

4.  Austria-Hungary. — Tlie  iron-industry  of  Austria  has  advanced 
rapidly  in  the  last  decade.  It  is  prominent  at  the  exhibition,  and  has 
never  before  been  so  well  illustrated  by  ores  and  their  products,  by 
models,  maps,  and  statistics.  The  iron  and  steel  production  of  the 
empire  is  referable  to  three  principal  groups :  (1)  The  Austrian  Alps — 
Styria,  Carinthia,  Krain,  Tyrol,  and  Salzburg ;  (2.)  Bohemia,  Moravia, 
and  Silesia  ;  and  (3)  Hungary. 

The  importation  of  iron  from  England  and  Germany  has  been  greatly 
lessened,  and  the  exportation  of  iron  and  steel  has  greatly  increased. 
There  has  of  late  been  a  tendency  to  a  consolidation  of  small  and  scat¬ 
tered  private  establishments  into  large  joint-stock  associations,  with  in¬ 
creased  capital.  The  spirit  of  enterprise  and  speculation  has  been  aroused 
and  stimulated  by  the  great  demand  for  iron  and  steel,  and  by  the  opening 
of  communication  between  the  mines  and  coal-fields  by  rail  and  between 
the  furnaces  and  a  market  for  their  products.  The  exhibition  happens 
to  be  at  about  the  culminating  point  of  many  speculative  enterprises, 
and  no  doubt  many  are  desirous  of  making  the  best  display  possible  of 
the  properties  upon  which  these  enterprises  are  based. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  ores  is  earthy  and  calcareous,  in  strong  con¬ 
trast  with  the  ores  of  Sweden  and  America.  Spathic  ore  is  the  rule,  and 
other  ores  the  exception.  They  are  remarkably  pure,  and  very  favor¬ 
able  for  the  manufacture  of  steel.  But  it  is  not  sufficient  to  have 
this  abundance  of  ores  ;  the  fuel  is  equally  necessary,  and,  unfortunately 
for  the  iron-industry  of  the  empire,  is  not  abundant  or  cheap.  Char¬ 
coal  can  no  longer  be  relied  upon.  The  forests  are  giving  out,  or  are 
required  for  other  jjurposes  than  to  be  converted  into  charcoal.  The 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


iron-industry  is  consequently  being  revolutionized.  As  in  other  coun¬ 
tries,  steel  is  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  iron,  and  the  iron-production 
undergoes  great  modification  from  this  cause,  independently  of  others. 

5.  The  visitors  to  the  exhibition  interested  in  metallurgical  industry 
are  greatly  iudebted  to  the  forethought  of  the  Acherbauministerium  in 
preparing  for  distribution  a  very  instructive  resume  of  the  mining  indus¬ 
tries  of  the  empire,  and  particularly  for  the  historical  view  of  the 
industries  of  coal  and  of  iron  and  of  steel  in  the  several  provinces.* 
This  volume  contains  a  series  of  descriptive  memoirs  from  such  able 
authorities  as  Baron  v.  Beust,  the  imperial  and  royal  general  mining 
inspector;  from  Bitter  v.  Tunuer,  and  from  Dusauek,  Ilofmauu,  and 
Bittler.  These  exhaustive  memoirs  are  really  a  part  of  the  exhibition, 
and  they  justify  their  liberal  use  in  reporting  upon  the  departments  of 
Avhich  they  treat.  A  free  and  greatly  condensed  translation  of  portions 
of  these  memoirs  has,  therefore,  been  made  for  the  following  pages, 
descriptive  of  the  extent  and  condition  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
of  Austria  Hungary.  A  few  of  the  preliminary  and  later  statistics  are 
added  from  the  recent  report  of  Prof.  David  Forbes,  received  about  the 
time  of  sending  these  pages  to  press. 

There  were  184  iron-mines  worked  in  Austria  in  1S72,  and  223  in  1S73. 
The  number  of  iron  blast-furnaces  in  operation  in  1S71  was  115,  employ¬ 
ing  12,278  workmen;  but  in  1S72,  112  furnaces,  with  10,0G9  workmen. 
There  were  120  works  in  operation  in  1873,  and  the  production  is  stated 
as  follows: 


Vienna  tons.  Value. 


Iron  ore .  928,982  £40S,3G6 

Pig-iron,  (foundery) .  45,048  459,725 

Pig-iron,  (forge) .  280,236  2,590,133 

The  production  of  the  mines  and  works  of  the  Austrian  Government 
Bailway,  (Staatsbahn,)  including  the  collieries  at  Kladno,  in  Bohemia,  and 
the  machine-works  at  Vicuna,  has  increased  in  the  eighteen  years  since 
the  properties  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Slaatsbahn ,  from  (annu¬ 
ally)  80,000  to  7,000,000  tons  of  coal  raised ;  15,000  .to  70,000  tons  of  iron- 
ores  raised ;  7,500  to  35,000  tons  pig-iron  produced  ;  0,000  to  27,500  tons 
wrought  iron  produced;  25  to  100  locomotives. 

The  coal-mines  of  Beschitza  yielded  57,S00  tons  iu  1872,  a  part  of 
which  was  made  into  coke.  The  three  blast-furnaces  are  supplied  with 
charcoal-fuel,  and  yield  gray  Bessemer  pig-iron  from  magnetic  iron-ore. 
The  yield  of  these  furnaces  is  about  34  tons  of  this  Bessemer  pig  in 
twenty-four  hours.  A  fourth  blast-furnace  at  Bogsan  produces  about 
5,000  tons  of  pig-iron  annually.  The  iron  at  Beschitza  is  run  directly 
from  the  blast-furnaces  into  the  Bessemer  converters,  which  are  nine 


*  Denkbucb  des  Osterreicbiscben  Berg-  und  Hiittenwesens.  Aus  Anlass  der  Wiener 
Weltausstelluug  berausgegeben  vom  K.  K.  Ackerbaumiuisterinm,  unter  der  Redaction 
des  Ministerialratbes  Anton  Scbaueustein.  Wien,  Verlag  des  K.  K.  Ackerbaunnuisteri- 
nius,  1S73.  8vo.  pp.  370. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 


7 


tons’  capacity  and  three  in  number.  The  annual  production  is  about 
9,000  tons. 

There  are  17  puddling-furnaces  and  30  furnaces  for  reheating  and 
welding.  There  are  10  trains  of  rolls.  The  production  in  1872  amounted 
to  12,550  tons  of  finished  products,  7,810  tons  being  plates  and  rails* 
and  4,6691  tons  Bessemer  steel,  in  the  form  of  axles,  tires,  rails, 
plates,  &c. 

6.  As  might  be  expected,  Austria-Hungary  takes  the  lead  in  this  ex¬ 
hibition  in  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  display  of  iron  and  steel.  It 
is  at  first  bewildering  to  tbe  visitor.  He  roams  from  one  pavilion  to 
another,  seeing  in  each  a  museum  of  metallurgy,  a  mine  of  instruction. 
It  is  more  than  can  be  grasped  in  several  visits,  and  requires  repeated 
examinations  and  time  for  review  and  comparisons. 

This  exhibition  of  iron  and  steel  from  Austria  and  Middle  Europe, 
being  by  far  too  extensive  and  bulky  to  be  received  in  the  main  industry 
palace  or  in  the  courts  of  the  building,  was  placed  for  the  most  part  in 
a  series  of  separate  buildings  between  the  machine  hall  and  the  palace. 
Belgium  alone  makes  most  of  its  display  in  tbe  main  building.  Austria 
and  Prussia  each  have  separate  and  special  buildings  for  displaying  the 
products  of  mining  industry.  For  Austria  there  are  three  or  four  build¬ 
ings,  of  which  Carinthia  alone  fills  one,  and  Styria  another.  The  State 
Railway  Company  and  other  wealthy  corporations  have  exhibitions  of 
their  own. 

The  Prussian  miuers  and  manufacturers  of  iron  fill  the  greater  portion 
of  two  large  buildings,  one  on  each  side  of  Krupp’s  central  pavilion, 
erected  exclusively  for  his  remarkable  collection.  On  entering  one  of 
these  buildings,  devoted  to  mining  and  quarrying,  the  miner  feels  more 
than  ever  a  just  pride  in  his  vocation.  He  sees  the  miner’s  arms,  the 
crossed  hammers,  conspicuously  emblazoned  in  gold  over  the  doors,  and 
underneath  the  familiar  motto,  “  Gliick  auf ,”  u  Good  luck  to  you,”  and 
within,  inscribed  upon  the  walls,  such  sentiments  as,  “  Gott  schiitze  das 
Vaterland  und  segue  den  Bergbau .”  Here,  truly,  the  typical  honest  miners 
are  to  be  found.  The  government  honors  their  calling,  and  ranks  it 
with  agriculture,  as  at  the  foundation  of  national  prosperity.  But  for 
the  organized  mining-systems  of  Europe,  such  a  magnificent  exhibition 
in  the  group  of  mining  and  quarrying  could  hardly  have  been  made. 
As  it  stands  to  day,  it  is  an  honor  to  the  art,  a  fair  child  of  science  and 
industry. 

The  attention  of  every  visitor  is  at  once  arrested  not  only  by  the 
wealth  of  the  display  in  every  branch  of  the  industry  of  iron  and  of 
steel,  but  by  the  skill  and  taste  shown  in  the  arrangement  of  the  objects. 
Railway  wheels  and  axles  jiroduce  little  effect  when  tumbled  loosely 
upon  the  floor  ;  but  if  .they  are  grouped  in  monumental  masses,  or  are 
supported  high  in  the  air  by  light  but  strong  steel  bands,  they  provoke 
interest  and  admiration,  even  in  those  who  know  nothing  of  their  ex¬ 
cellencies  or  defects.  In  all  of  these  buildings  devoted  to  mining  and 


8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


metallurgy,  a  liberal  aud  generous  spirit,  worthy  of  the  true  miner,  is 
shown  in  the  provision  of  chairs  and  tables  for  the  use  of  visitors,  so 
that  they  may  consult  books  of  reference,  or  take  notes  at  their  ease. 
Maps  and  diagrams  on  the  walls  explain  the  position  of  the  mines,  the 
geology,  and  the  method  of  working  them.  The  more  important  of  the 
Austrian  mines  are  illustrated  by  models,  showing  the  topography,  the 
surface-construction,  and  the  geological  structure  of  the  deposits,  while 
by  means  of  machinery  part  after  part  can  be  lifted  off,  aud  the  whole 
interior  of  the  mine  displayed.  The  ores  are  sent  in  quantity  enough 
to  form  pyramids  outside  of  the  buildings,  in  addition  to  the  systematic 
collections  within.  Iron  is  shown  in  all  its  stages  of  manufacture,  and 
the  more  direct  manufactured  products,  such  as  rails,  tires,  girders,  boiler¬ 
plates,  &c.,  are  exhibited  in  profusion.  It  is  impossible  to  describe 
such  collections,  or  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of  their  value.  They  are 
complete  museums  of  the  industry,  such  as  any  mining  institution  in 
the  world  would  be  glad  to  take  aud  preserve  intact. 

Austria-Hungary  has  of  late  years  made  great  strides  in  the  extent 
of  production  of  iron  and  steel,  and  in  the  quality  of  the  product.  The 
importations  from  England  aud  Germany  are  considerably  lessened,  and 
the  exportations  are  increasing. 

7.  Iron  and  steel  production. — The  iron-ores  of  Austria  are  princi¬ 
pally  spathic  (the  carbonate  of  iron)  aud  the  deposits  are  very  exten¬ 
sive  and  easily  worked.  The  celebrated  ore-mountain  has  beds  from  20 
to  -10  feet  thick,  containing  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  has  been 
worked  for  a  thousand  years  without  any  signs  of  exhaustion.  With 
such  ores,  aud  charcoal  for  fuel,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  producing  a  very 
fine  quality  of  iron  and  of  steel.  Brown  coal  or  lignite  is  largely  used, 
and  a  coke  made  from  turf  is  the  fuel  in  some  places.  In  the  display 
made  by  the  State  Railway  Compauy  there  is  a  complete  section  of  a 
coal-seam  1-1  feet  thick  ;  so  that,  in  some  districts  at  least,  there  seems 
to  be  no  scarcity  of  mineral  fuel.  Iu  the  charcoal-districts  the  great 
care  of  the  forests  by  the  government  prevents  their  complete  extinc¬ 
tion,  and  with  them  the  dependent  iron-furnaces,  as  would  be  the  case 
under  the  reckless  policy  pursued  iu  the  United  States. 

The  production  of  iron-ore  in  the  Austrian  Empire  has  steadily  in¬ 
creased  from  a  total  of  655,970  tons  iu  1SG7  to  1,067,753  tons  in  1871. 
To  this  may  be  added  132,700  tons  for  Hungary,  giving  a  grand  total 
of  1,1S2,000  tons.  The  total  product  of  pig-iron  for  the  same  year  was 
8,200,000  centners.  The  production  of  Bessemer  steel  is  also  rapidly 
increasing. 

8.  The  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  Austrian  Altine  re¬ 
gion. — The  irou  and  steel  industries  of  this  part  of  Austria  are  found  iu 
the  provinces  below  the  river  Enus,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Krain,  Tyrol,  and 
Salzburg.  Xiueteen-twentieths  of  the  ore  mined  is  spathic  ore,  which, 
when  roasted,  yields  50  per  cent,  or  more  of  pig-iron.  The  production 
has  increased  iu  some  of  the  provinces  and  decreased  in  others,  as  will 


THE  ALPINE  REGION. 


9 


be  seen  by  the  following  tabular  statement  of  the  product  at  three 
decennial  periods,  with  the  cost  per  hundred-weight  at  the  mouths  of 
the  mines : 


Location  of  mines. 

Production  of  iron-ores  during  tbe  year— 

Average  cost-price  of 

one  hundred  weight 

at  the  mouths  of  the 

pits. 

1851. 

1861. 

1871. 

Austria,  below  river  Enns . 

Centners. 
175, 150 
3,  221,  240 
1,712,  490 
251,  930 
248,  550 
308,  040 

Centners. 
195,  560 
3,  876,  000 
2,  135,  600 
350,  000 
271,  560 
220,  270 

Centners. 

141,380 
7,  537,  330 
3,  252,  700 
203, 160 
176,  860 
120,  710 

Kreutzer. 

32.  5 
15.0 
20.0 
37.5 
36.0 
18.0 

5,  917,  400 

7,  048,  990 

11,  432, 140 

18.4 

The  above  table  shows  that  in  1871  the  joint  produce  of  the  sis  prov¬ 
inces  was  nearly  double  the  amount  produced  in  1851.  During  the  last 
few  years  especially  this  increase  has  been  marked.  The  reason  of  this 
lies  not  only  in  the  increased  demand  for  iron  and  in  the  enormous  rise 
in  its  price,  but  the  principal  cause  is  the  adoption  of  mineral  fuel  in 
the  furnaces.  The  exclusive  use  of  vegetable  fuel  in  the  Alpine  region 
is  the  only  reason  for  the  non-increase  of  iron  produce  in  several  of  the 
provinces  and  the  failure  to  satisfy  the  home  demand.  All  regious  that 
have  adhered  to  the  vegetable  fuel  labor  under  the  same  difficulties.  It 
is,  therefore,  Styria  and  Carinthia  only  which  show  an  increased  product 
and  which  supply  the  increased  demand  for  iron  in  the  above-mentioned 
provinces. 

Styria  and  Carinthia  possess  two  most  important  iron-mines — Eisen- 
berg  and  Hiittenberg.*  These  two  localities,  in  quality  and  quantity 
of  ores,  are  equaled  by  few  and  surpassed  by  none  of  the  other  European 
mines.  They  have  already  been  worked,  according  to  the  most  au¬ 
thentic  researches,  almost  two  thousand  years;  and  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  the  increased  demand  for  iron  will  not  exhaust  their 
capacity  in  a  thousand  years  to  come.  The  raw  material  of  the  Erzberg 
is  mostly  quite  accessible,  and  the  quantity  is  estimated  at  2,500,000,000 
to  3,000,000,000  hundred- weight;  that  of  the  Hiittenberg  a  little  less. 

The  celebrated  Eisenberg,  or  ore-mountain,  is  well  represented  by 
a  model,  upon  a  scale  of  one-twentieth,  made  by  Professor  Allgayer  in 
Leoben,  and  exhibited  in  the  building  of  the  Inneberger  Company. 
The  ore  crops  upon  the  side  and  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  forms  the 
greater  portion  of  its  mass  upon  one  side.  The  beds  of  ore  are  inter- 
stratified  with  limestone  and  grauwacke  overlying  black  slate,  and  are 
from  20  to  40  feet  thick  in  the  aggregate.  A  portion,  mixed  with  lime- 


For  the  statistics  and  history  of  these  mines,  see  Muchan’s  History  of  Styria. 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


stone,  contains  only  20  per  cent,  of  iron,  but  the  best  averages  50  per 
ceut.  The  old  systems  of  transporting  the  ore  from  mine  to  smelting- 
works  by  means  of  “  slides,”  wagons,  &c.,  have  been  replaced  by  tram¬ 
ways  and  steam-railways.  The  cost  of  transportation  on  the  railroads 
is  li  to  3  kreutzers  per  hundred-weight  per  mile.  The  mines  of  Mariazell 
and  Xeuburg  have  been  worked  a  long  time,  and  are  now  rapidly 
growing  in  importance.  They  are  upon  the  northern  vein  of  spathic 
iron.  All  the  other  iron-mines  of  the  Alps  are  of  minor  importance, 
producing  tolerably  good  ores,  but  in  small  quantities.  The  cost  of  the 
ores  is  higher,  mainly  on  account  of  inconvenient  methods  of  transpor¬ 
tation. 

0. — Production  of  pig  iron.  The  production  of  pig-iron  in  the  Alpine 
provinces  is  of  much  more  recent  date  than  in  the  rest  of  the  Austrian 
dominions.  Pig-iron  was  produced  in  Carinthia  in  the  year  1050,  and  in 
Styria  it  dates  from  17GG.  xVccordiug  to  an  official  report  of  the  year 
1745,  Yordernberg  produced  in  a  common  furnace  9,000  hundred-weight 
of  half-refined  iron  yearly,  with  a  consumption  of  about  40  cubic  feet  of 
charcoal  per  hundred- weight.  In  1850,  with  furnaces  25  to  30  feet  high, 
and  using  a  hot  blast  of  150°  centigrade,  the  produce  per  furnace  rose 
to  30,000  to  40,000  centners,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  diminished  to 
12  or  15  cubic  feet.  The  42  foot  furnaces  now  adopted  throughout  the 
provinces  have  increased  the  product  to  150,000  to  200,000  centners  per 
annum,  and  GO  to  70  of  coal  per  100  pounds,  or  9  to  10  cubic  feet  of  char¬ 
coal.  The  air  used  in  the  blast  is  heated  to  30tP  to  500°  centigrade. 

The  following  tableshows  (a)  the  produceof  pig-iron  ;  (b)  the  fouudery- 
iron  from  furnaces  in  hundred-weight;  (c)  the  price  per  centner  iu 
Austrian  bank-notes  ;  (d)  the  number  of  furnaces  working : 


Production  of  pig-iron,  the  price  and  number  of  furnaces. 


During  the  year. 

Austria 
below  the 
Enns. 

Styria. 

Carinthia. 

Krain. 

Tyrol. 

Salzburg. 

Total. 

fa 

43, 350 

145,  570 

633,  860 

67,  770 

49,  460 

50. 240 

1,  799, 250 

1851 . 

\  b 

1.  460 

34,  no 

17.  600 

6,  630 

12.  240 

4.670 

76,  7*0 

1  c 

$3.  75 

$2.  86 

$2.  35 

85 

83.03 

$2.64 

82.  70 

trf 

o 

32 

22 

11 

5 

5 

“ 

f a 

40, 220 

1,  439,  380 

831,  810 

121,020 

56,  900 

59,  290 

2,  548,  620 

1861 . 

1  b 

940 

30,  850 

15,110 

6.  380 

9.  650 

5.  390 

68.  320 

. V 

$3.29 

$3.  25 

$2.  85 

$3.  10 

83. 89 

S3  74 

S3.  9 

l(i 

o 

32 

21 

11 

4 

4 

72 

fa 

39,  0-20 

2,  437,  160 

1,  263,  820 

71,010 

55,  900 

40,  760 

3,  907,  670 

•1871 . 

14,070 

165. 350 

38.  290 

6,  314 

24,  195 

2,  850 

191,  069 

)  c 

$3.  50 

$3.  60 

S3.  50 

S3.  84 

S3.  30 

$4.  00 

S3.  56 

l  d 

2 

31 

17 

7 

3 

2 

62 

The  small  produce  of  fouudery  cast  iron  shown  iu  the  above  table  is 
caused  by  the  quality  of  the  ores,  which  are  more  adapted  for  white  and 
half-refiued  iron,  which  serves  only  for  refiueries,  mills,  aud  furnaces, 
but  is  less  adapted  for  casting  purposes.  The  smelting  of  the  spathic 
and  brown  iron-ores  requires  from  15  to  20  per  ceut.  more  fuel  to  pro¬ 
duce  fouudery-iron  than  ordinary  pig-iron.  In  1851  the  produce  per  fur- 


PRODUCTION  OF  PIG-IRON. 


11 


aace  amounted  to  134,000  hundred  weight ;  iu  1S61  to  30,000  hundred¬ 
weight  ;  in  1871  to  66,000  hundred-weight.  The  exhaust-gas  of  the  fur¬ 
naces  is  employed  for  heating  the  blast.  The  introduction  of  this  system 
dates  from  1835,  and  was  tried  for  the  first  time  in  Jenbach,  in  the 
Tyrol.  Only  those  works  erected  or  altered  since  1872  have  blasts  able 
to  work  up  to  a  temperature  of  500°  ceutigrade.  The  greatest  difficulty 
under  which  the  production  of  iron  labors  in  the  Alpine  countries  is  the 
small  amount  of  pig-iron  turned  out,  and  the  reason  is  the  exclusive  use 
of  charcoal-fuel.  This  not  only  makes  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
iron  manufactured  impossible,  but  the  immense  decrease  of  timber,  and 
the  high  prices  paid  for  it  for  building  purposes,  have  created  a  remark¬ 
able  diminution. 

Eo  changes  in  the  fuel  were  made  until  1870,  but  the  scarcity  of  suit¬ 
able  coal  for  smelting  purposes  proved  an  obstacle.  The  efforts  to 
utilize  the  large  amount  of  brown  coal  (lignite)  existing  there  for  smelt¬ 
ing  purposes  have  always  been  unsuccessful.  The  first  coke-furnace  was 
erected  at  Pravali  iu  1870.  One  centner  of  coke  costs  in  Pravali,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  pit,  one  Austrian  guilder.  The  consumption  of  fuel  for  100 
pounds  of  iron  is  150  to  160  pounds  of  coke.  A  trial  with  English  coke, 
which  cost  1  florin  40  kreutzer  at  the  works  iu  Pravali,  required  114 
pounds  coke  for  100  pounds  of  iron.  The  produce  of  this  first  coke- 
furnace  amounted  in  1870  to  88,300  hundred-weight  of  iron.  In  1872 
the  building  of  coke-furnaces  was  commenced  at  Eiklasdorf,  near  Leo- 
ben,  and  at  Zeltweg. 

The  fact  that  in  1871  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  in  the  whole  of  Aus¬ 
tria-Hungary  amounted  to  8,000,000  hundred- weight,  and  that  the  import 
of  foreign  pig-iron  was  8,236,000,  shows  the  immense  deficiency  iu  the 
home-produce,  and  that  a  radical  change  in  the  working  system  is 
necessary. 

The  annexed  table,  taken  from  “Munichsdorfer,”  gives  the  price  per 
meiler  (equal  to  10  Vienna  centners)  of  iron,  and  per  cubic  foot  of  char¬ 
coal,  in  Carinthia,  from  (at  different  successive  periods)  1600  to  1872. 


Price  of  pig-iron,  and  of  charcoal  per  cubic  foot. 


During  the  year — 

Price  of 
pig-iron  in 
florins. 

Price  of 
charcoal  in 
kreutzer. 

During  the  year — 

Price  of 
pig-iron  in 
florins. 

Price  of 
charcoal  in 
kreutzer. 

lfiOO . 

15 

1840  . . . . 

33.  1 

4.  2 

1650  . . 

17 

30.  5 

5.  0 

1700  . 

18 

18(50  . . . . . 

34.  5 

6.  8 

1750  . 

26 

1866  . . . 

27.  9 

8.  0 

1800  . 

33.  5 

3. 1 

1870  . 

42.  5 

12.  0 

1810 . 

22.  1 

3.  4 

1871 . . . 

45.  5 

13.  0 

1820  . . 

30.  4 

3.3 

S  48. 2 

14.  0 

1830  . 

25.8 

3.  0 

l  53.8 

14.  0 

10.  Puddling-worJcs. — The  first  puddling-furnace  using  coal-fuel  was 
erected  in  1826,  at  Witkowitz,  in  Moravia,  on  English  principles  and  by 
English  workmen.  The  first  gas-puddling  furnace  using  brown  coal  as 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


fuel  was  erected  by  C.  von  Scheuchenstuel,  iu  St.  Stefan,  near  Leoben. 
From  year  to  year  the  statistics  show  an  increase  in  the  nnmbers,  so  that 
in  Austria,  excepting  Hungary,  there  existed  23  puddling-works,  having 
G3  puddling  and  3G  welding  furnaces.  In  1831,  there  were  41  puddling- 
works,  with  114  puddling  and  7G  welding  furnaces,  and  122  roll ing- mills. 
The  total  produce  of  these  41  puddling-works  amounted,  in  1837,  to  only 
three-quarters  of  a  million  centners  raw  material,  making  about  130  to  1G0 
centners  per  furnace  per  week.  Influenced  by  the  great  variety  and  ex¬ 
pense  of  the  fuels,  the  puddling  aud  welding  processes  in  the  Austrian 
Alpine  regions  have  attained  a  great  variety  of  forms,  many  improve- 
ments  having  been  introduced  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  economy 
in  fuel. 

In  1842,  gas-welding  furnaces  using  brown-coal  slack  as  fuel  were  in¬ 
troduced.  The  erection  of  wood-gas  puddling-furnaces  iu  1844-’45,  at 
Lippitzbach,  in  Cariuthia,  created  quite  a  seusation  by  the  favorable 
results  attained,  (3  to  4  cubic  feet  of  wood  to  100  pounds  puddled  iron.) 
Turf-puddling  commenced  in  1S12,  at  Buchscheiden,  iu  Freudenberg, 
aud  at  Rottenmanu,  and  was  imitated  by  several  minor  works  in  Tyrol, 
Salzburg,  and  Carinthia.  The  step-grate  for  using  the  poor  brown  coal 
of  the  Alps  was  introduced  ih  Pravali  iu  1S30.  The  Swedish  gas-pud¬ 
dling  furnaces  were  introduced  in  Eibiswalde  in  185S-’59,  the  fuel  being 
a  mixture  of  brown  coal  and  wood. 

Siemens  furnaces  have  been  introduced  with  great  advantage.  They 
are  in  general  use  for  welding,  but  are  only  occasionally  met  in  pud¬ 
dling-works,  for  the  reason  that  the  exhaust  heat  of  the  waste  gas  is 
used  for  raising  steam.  The  double  furnaces  are  largely  in  use  in 
Cariuthia,  but  iu  Styria  the  single  oues  are  preferred  on  account  of  less 
expenditure  in  wages,  and  the  better  quality  of  the  product.  Hydrau¬ 
lic  motors  have  been  replaced  by  steam-power  in  most  of  the  puddling- 
works.  Upright  and  horizontal  boilers  are  used,  ranging  from  23  to  30 
horse  power.  The  first  large  steam-hammer  was  erected  at  Feuberg  in 
1832 j  it  was  of  the  Condies  design,  and  gave  a  100  hundred-weight 
blow.  Then  followed  the  introduction  of  several  Xasmyth  hammers 
with  from  83  to  200  hundred-weight  blows.  The  largest  steam-hammer 
of  the  region  was  erected  iu  18G3  at  Xeuberg,  the  weight  of  the  blow 
being  330  hundred-weight.  Iu  1839  the  first  hydraulic  forge-press  was 
erected  at  the  Donawitz  works.  It  has  a  maximum  pressure  of 
15,000  hundred-weight. 

In  the  wire-manufacture,  which  is  ver\-  extensive  on  account  of  the 
excellence  of  the  raw  material,  the  factories  of  St.  Egydi,  in  Upper 
Austria,  of  Feistritz,  iu  Carinthia,  aud  of  Therl,  iu  Styria,  should  be 
mentioned  on  acouut  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  material  turned  out. 
The  tin-plate  manufacture  has  attained  considerable  promiueuce  iu 
Wollersdorf,  iu  Austria,  below  the  Enns,  and  especially  in  Passhammer, 
in  Styria.  The  produce  of  these  two  factories  amouuted  iu  1S70  to 
42,280  centners,  being  23,190  centners  of  tin-plate,  1G,140  centners  of 


ROD  AND  BAR  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


13 


olack  plate,  and  2,9d0  centners  of  zinked  iron.  Other  factories  of  the 
same  description  have  been  erected  since  then  in  Ludenberg  and  Trie- 

ben. 

A  number  of  puddling  and  rolling  works  exist  in  Styria  and  Carinthia, 
producing  annually  more  than  200,000  hundred  weight  of  iron.  Most  of 
these  works  are  well  fitted  up  and  in  the  hands  of  companies  and  associa¬ 
tions.  A  pleasing  fact  relative  to  these  works  is  that  all  the  operatives, 
from  the  managers  and  engineers  down  to  the  lowest  workmen,  are 
natives  of  the  provinces,  showing  thereby  that  the  industry  has  taken 
firm  root,  and  that  a  successful  opposition  to  foreign  trade  could  be 
carried  on  if  pig  iron  can  be  produced  in  sufficient  quantities  and  at  a 
price  low  enough  to  compete  with  the  imported. 

11.  Rod  and  bar  iron. — The  direct  method  of  producing  bar-iron  from 
the  ores  has,  till  within  a  short  period,  been  adhered  to  by  several  of  the 
minor  smelting-works  in  the  Alpine  countries ;  but  now  they  first  pro¬ 
duce  the  pig-iron,  and  from  this  make  bar-iron  by  puddling. 

Bloomaries  or  forges  were  formerly  numerous  throughout  the  Alps, 
but  the  increased  price  of  charcoal  and  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  it  in 
blast-furnaces  have  considerably  reduced  the  proportion  of  bar-iron 
produced  in  this  way.  The  first  puddling-furnace  in  Carinthia  was 
erected  in  1828,  and  in  1851  the  ratio  of  puddling  furnaces  to  blooma¬ 
ries  was  as  2  to  1.  In  1861  the  bloomaries  were  reduced  to  one-lialf,  and 
in  Styria  in  1871,  out  of  the  formerly  legally-licensed  271  bloomaries 
only  100  to  110  remained,  producing  about  33  per  cent,  of  the  bar-iron 
of  Styria.  A  great  number  are  now  totally  extinct,  and  only  those  fur¬ 
naces  working  the  Lancashire  method,  and  producing  wire  and  fine  tin¬ 
plate,  are  still  existing.  A  limited  number  of  bloomaries  favored  by 
local  fuel  will,  of  course,  continue  to  exist.  Such  works  are  generally 
far  removed  from  other  furnaces,  and  are  confined  to  one  or  two 
specialties. 

12.  Steel  in  the  Alpine  regions  of  Austria.— The  spathic  ores  of  Austria 
are  so  favorable  for  steel-manufacture  that  they  are  often  named  “steel- 
ores.”  This  adaptation  of  the  ores  is  the  reason  that  as  long  as  open- 
hearth  steel  predominated  in  the  steel-market,  the  Alpine  provinces^ 
Styria,  Carinthia,  Erain,  and  Tyrol,  ranked  first  in  the  steel-production. 
Thirty  or  forty  years  ago  the  production  of  steel  in  the  Alpine  provinces 
of  Austria  amounted  to  300,000  centners,  of  which  a  great  part  was  ex. 
ported  to  the  East  and  America  via  Trieste,  and  some  to  Germany, 
France,  and  Switzerland,  leaving  to  the  exporters  a  handsome  profit. 
The  produce  of  these  provinces  at  present  hardly  amounts  to  30,000 
centners,  and  is  steadily  decreasing,  owing  to  the  scarcity  and  cost  of 
charcoal.  The  first  puddled  steel  was  made  in  Frantschack,  in  1835,  by 
Messrs.  Schlegel  and  Muller,  who  took  out  a  patent  for  their  method. 
But  the  real  production  of  puddled  steel  in  Austria  dates  from  1852,  at 
the  foundation  of  the  Eibiswald  and  Eeuberg  works.  This  method  is 
largely  in  use  at  the  present  time,  and,  by  its  cheapness,  has  driven  the 


14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


open-hearth  steel  almost  entirely  from  the  market.  Puddled  steel  is  at 
present  refined  to  all  the  different  kinds  of  steel  (Brescian,  Gerb,  scythe, 
and  damask  steel)  formerly  produced  from  open  hearth  steel.  The  pro-  i 
duction  of  tires  and  railroad-iron  increased  the  make  of  puddled  steel,  I 
but  the  Bessemer  and  Martin  processes  have  now  superseded  it.  The 
largest  steel-puddling  works  are  those  of  Streitben.  The  introduction 
of  puddled  steel  has  largely  increased  the  steel-production  of  Austria,  ) 
but  not  in  the  same  ratio  as  in  other  countries,  especially  in  Germany. 
The  immense  advantage  possessed  by  Austria  in  the  excellence  of  her  • 
raw  material,  so  well  suited  for  steel -production,  is  more  than  balanced  j 
by  the  cheapness  of  labor  and  fuel  of  her  German  competitors,  especi¬ 
ally  the  Westphalian  manufacturers.  It  is  only  the  decided  superiority  ; 
of  the  steel  which  gives  the  Carinthian  product  a  hold  upon  the  market 
against  the  much  cheaper  Westphalian  puddled  steel. 

Cement-steel. — The  demand  for  a  suitable  steel  for  springs  of  rail¬ 
road  carriages,  for  which  the  cement-steel  is  best  adapted  and  cheapest, 
stimulated  the  erection  of  works  of  this  description  in  Eibiswald,  and 
soon  after  in  Donawitz,  near  Leoben.  The  results  were  satisfactory. 
The  annual  production  of  Donawitz  amounts  to  25,000  centners  spring 
and  saw  blades.  But  in  proportion  to  the  use  of  puddled  steel,  that  of 
cement  steel  is  very  limited. 

The  gliihstahl  (welded  steel)  is  a  similar  product,  which  is  now  made  at 
Donawitz.  This  steel  was  exhibited  in  Loudon  in  1851,  and  again  in 
Munich  in  1S54,*  by  F.  Lohmann,  of  Witten,  Westphalia. 

Since  1S54  there  has  been  an  annual  produce  of  5,000  to  0,000  centners 
of  this  variety  in  Donawitz.  A  cement-furnace  for  the  manufacture  of  | 
welded  steel  was  erected  in  1S71  in  Beichramiug. 

13.  Cast  steel. — The  manufacture  of  crucible  cast  steel  has  long  been 
established  in  the  Alpine  provinces;  but  as  the  old  Euglish  method  of 
manufacture,  by  draught-furnaces,  required  an  immense  quantity  of  char, 
coal,  often  as  much  as  50  cubic  feet  per  centner  of  steel,  the  production 
has  naturally  been  kept  down.  In  1851  the  total  production  of  cast 
steel  in  Austria  amounted  to  a  little  more  than  S,000  centners.  Im¬ 
mense  progress  was  effected  in  185S  by  introducing  the  Siemens  fur¬ 
naces  in  Kapfeuberg.  These  works  commenced  with  furnaces  of  8  cruci¬ 
bles,  each  holding  a  charge  of  45  pounds,  and  using  400  pounds  Leoben 
brown-coal  slack  per  100  pounds  steel.  At  present  (1873)  there  are  10 
Siemens  furnaces  of  IS  to 20  crucibles  in  use.  The  charge  is  still  45 
pounds  to  each  crucible,  but  the  consumption  of  fuel  is  reduced  to  250 
pounds  brown-coal  slack.  The  annual  production  of  these  works  is 
30,000  centners.  This  steel,  mostly  soft-tempered,  is  used  for  guu-bar- 
rels,  and  is  partly  exported  to  Germany.  It  is  no  loiger  a  secret  that 
the  raw  material  used  to  produce  crucible  steel  is  regulated  according 

*  Described  by  Peter  v.  Tunoer  in  bis  book  “Her  TVohhmterrichtete  Hammer  meistir, 
Graz,  1846,  p.  424. 


CAST  AND  BESSEMER  STEEL. 


15 


to  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  steel  required.  It  consists  in  mixing 
bar  and  spiegel  iron,  (ferro-manganese.) 

The  inventor  of  this  method  is  Alvis  Obersteiner  of  Murau.*  He 
lias  used  this  mixture  in  Austria  as  far  back  as  the  year  1S25,  and  re¬ 
ceived  a  patent  for  it.  From  the  small,  unimportant  iron-works  ofMu- 
rau  it  was  transported  to  Westphalia,  and  from  thence  to  Essen,  form- 
'  ing  the  basis  of  Mr.  Krupp’s  immense  success  and  giant  works. 

A  specialty  of  the  Austrian  cast  steel  is  the  “silver-steel”  of  Mr.  Muller’s 
works  in  St.  Egydy,  widely  known,  likewise,  for  the  production  of 
steel  strings  for  piano  fortes. 

The  manufacture  of  Wolfram  steel  has  been  everywhere  abandoned, 
on  account  of  the  easy  oxidation  of  the  Wolfram. 

The  whole  production  of  crucible  cast  steel  in  1871,  in  Austria, 
amounted  to  85,000  centners,  from  18  different  smelting-works, 
and  has,  therefore,  been  augmented  tenfold  in  the  last  twenty  years. 
This  increase  would  have  been  still  greater  but  for  the  Bessemer-steel 
liroduction. 

14.  Bessemer  steel. — The  first  Bessemer-steel  in  Austria,  and  (except  a 
few  unimportant  trials  made  in  several  places)  the  first  of  the  continent, 
was  produced  in  1862,  at  Turrack,  in  Styria.  Other  works  soon  followed 
in  Heft,  in  Carinthia,  in  1864.  In  1865  the  works  of  Neuberg  were 
opened.  The  production  of  the  existing  Bessemer  works  in  the  south¬ 
ern  portion  of  the  Alpine  provinces  is  shown  by  the  annexed  table  : 


Production  of  Bessemer  steel  in  Austria. 


Same  of  Bessemer  work. 

Number  of 
converters. 

Annual  production. 

Estimated 
amount  of 
present 
produce. 

Percentage  of 
net  produce. 

1869. 

1870. 

1871. 

Total. 

Clean 

ingots. 

Styria : 

Cwt. 

Cwt 

Cwt. 

Cwt. 

Turrack . 

3 

9,  270 

12,  153 

22,  800 

50,  000 

90.  1 

83.5 

Neuberg . 

2 

62,  250 

79,  598 

105,  230 

120,  000 

89.  0 

87.0 

2 

63,  3*25 

77,  563 

91,  538 

85.  5 

84.  5 

21 

30j  000 

250,  000 

Carinthia: 

2 

24,  551 

15,  276 

62,  051 

100,  000 

84.  0 

Austria  below  the  Enns  : 

(  Since  July  1 . 

2 

) 

Ternitz . 3  Middle  of  1871  . . . 

4 

>  106,  284 

178,  985 

386,  896 

720,  000 

89.7 

88.  4 

t  Middle  of  1872  . . . 

6 

3 

Total . 

365,  680 

303,  575 

698,  515 

1,  240,  000 

To  be  added  to  this  is  the  production  of  Reschitza,  in  Hungary,  in 
1871,  125,000  centners,  and  Witkowitz,  in  Moravia,  65,566  centners, 
which  gives  for  the  total  produce  of  1871,  889,231  centners.  It  is  much 
in  favor  of  the  Bessemer  method  that  the  production  of  puddled  steel  in 
Austria  and  Hungary  from  1826  to  1S51  (twenty-five  years)  amounted 
annually  only  to  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  centners,  while  the  pro¬ 
duct  of  Bessemer  steel  in  eight  years  attained  the  annual  figure  of  SS9,231 
centners.  This  is  still  more  strikingly  shown  by  the  statistics  of  Styria, 

*  See  Vordernberger  Jahrbueh.  2  baud.  Graz,  1843. 


16 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


which  show  that  the  produce  of  puddled  steel  in  1851  amounted  to 
about  200,000  centners,  while  the  Bessemer  product  in  1871  reached 
250,000  centners,  and  may  be  calculated  for  1872  at  400,000  centners. 
The  charge  in  the  different  Bessemer  works  varies  between  100  and  50 
centners,  and  the  average  charge  may  be  put  down  at  70  centners. 

15.  Martin  steel. — The  manufacture  of  Martin  steel  was  commenced  in 
1S07,  in  Kapfenberg,  under  the  direct  superintendence  of  Mr.  Martin, 
who  made  the  drawings  for  the  furnaces,  and  supplied  the  workmen. 
This  trial  showed  that  the  resulting  steel  was  better  in  quality  than  the 
crucible  cast  steel,  and  that  it  cost  less.  In  1SG9  immense  works  were 
erected  in  Florisdorf,  near  Vienna,  by  Messrs.  Barber  &  Klusemann,  the 
patentees  for  Austria.  These  works  contained  5  smelting  and  3  welding 
furnaces,  with  32  distant  and  4  close  gas-generators,  and  likewise  with 
11  Siemens  furnaces.  Martin’s  process  is  also  used  in  Gratz  and  Neu- 
berg.  The  charges  average  about  GO  centners,  consisting  of  25  per  cent, 
gray  pig-iron,  70  per  cent,  bar-iron  aud  steel  scraps,  and  5  per  cent, 
spiegel  iron  and  waste.  The  consumption  of  fuel  is  SO  to  100  pounds 
coal,  or  140  to  1G0  pounds  of  brown  coal,  per  centner  of  steel.  The  pro¬ 
duce  of  the  Martin’s  works  of  Gratz,  in  1871,  was  as  follows:  Charges 
of  iron,  3,205,285  centners,  which  produced  3,019,774  centners  of  steel, 
with  a  waste  of  52,515  centners.  The  pure  steel  produced  amounted, 
therefore,  to  94.21  per  cent.,  the  waste  to  5.79  per  cent.  The  Martin 
works,  in  Neuberg,  produced  iu  1S71  14,3G8  centners  of  steel  ingots, 
with  a  loss  in  raw  material  of  9.S  per  cent.,  and  a  waste  of  1.7  per  cent. 

1G.  Extent  of  the  tron-industry  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 
Silesia. — Iron-mining  in  Bohemia  dates  back  in  the  remote  past  beyond 
the  records  of  history.  It  is  mentioned  in  lays  and  traditions  as  early 
as  G77  years  before  Christ,  and  the  historian  Hajeck  locates  these  early 
works  in  the  vicinity  of  Caslaw.  Many  of  the  names  of  Bohemian  towns 
are  derived  from  the  ancient  mining  localities.  Iron-smelting  was  for¬ 
merly  carried  on  by  Bohemian  proprietors  to  utilize  the  otherwise  value¬ 
less  tracts  of  timber  covering  the  country  ;  but  the  far-spreading  exten¬ 
sions  of  railroads  have  recently  given  so  high  a  value  to  building-tim¬ 
ber  that  iron-smelting  works  are  forced  to  employ  a  cheaper  fuel. 
Moravia  was  in  advance  of  Bohemia  in  changing  from  charcoal  to  a 
mixture  of  wood  aud  coke.  Although  the  veins  of  brown  coal  in  Bohe¬ 
mia  are  almost  inexhaustible,  there  is  still  an  acknowledged  want  of  suit¬ 
able  coals  for  smelting  purposes.  There  soon  (1S72-73)  will  be  thirteen 
•furnaces  using  coke  in  full  working  order  iu  Bohemia.  They  will  con¬ 
sume  at  the  minimum  calculation  5,000,090  centners  of  coke  to  produce 
the  same  effect  as  12,500,000  centners  of  coal.  The  coals  of  Schadowitz 
are  the  most  suitable  for  smeltiug  purposes.  The  Miroschan  coals,  on 
account  of  their  brittleuess,  are  neither  suitable  nor  profitable  for  use  in 
furnaces.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  iron-works  iu  Bohemia  using 
coke  will  always  have  to  rely  upon  a  foreign  supply  of  fuel.  The  Mora¬ 
vian  iron- works  are  differently  situated.  The  coal-fields  of  Ostran  insure 


IRON-ORE  IN  BOHEMIA. 


17 


an  ample  supply  of  coke-proclucing  coal ;  but  rich  iron-ore  veins  are 
scarce.  The  difficulties'  in  the  rapid  development  of  smelting-works 
using  coke  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia  are  very  formidable,  but 
the  iron -masters  are  determined  to  overcome  them  and  to  maintain  the 
success  of  the  iron-industry. 

17.  Iron-ore  Mining. — In  the  year  1807  there  existed  in  Bohemia  46 
furnaces  in  full  working  order,  producing  1,040  hundred  weight  of  iron 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  iron-ores  produced  during 
1870 : 

Production  of  iron-ores  during  ihe  year  1870. 


Country. 

Production. 

Number  of  mines. 

Number  of  work¬ 

men  employed. 

Average  price  at 

the  works. 

Total  value. 

Bohemia . 

Cwt. 

4,  581,  582 

49 

1,  877 

Florins. 

15.3 

Florins. 
563,  703 

Moravia . 

1,  788,  075 

18 

1,464 

630 

13.  0 

234,  406 

Silesia . 

296,  318 

6 

26.3 

45,  926 

6,  665,  975 

73 

3,  971 

844,  035 

Out  of  these  73  iron-works,  2  did  not  yield  any  profits  and  15  sus¬ 
pended  operations.  Their  joint  production  of  iron-ores  amounted  to  40 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  produce  of  Austria. 

About  the  year  1865,  the  product  increased  in  Bohemia  2,184,486 
centners,  and  in  Moravia  to  381,379  centners,  but  diminished  in  Silesia 
66,977  centners,  showing  a  total  increase  of  2,49S,888  centners  in  the 
three  countries.  Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  iron-ore  comes  from  the  Silurian 
districts,  and  the  amount  carried  out  of  Bohemia  forms  90  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  produce  of  that  country.  The  principal  proprietors  of  the 
iron-mines  are  the  “  Prseger  Eisenindustrie  Gesellschaft,”  the  Lebrow 
estate,  the  elector  of  Hesse-Cassel,  the  Prince  Colloredo  Metteruich, 
and  Prince  Furstenberg  and  the  State  of  Pilsen.  The  greatest  mines 
are  those  of  Nucier.  The  Chamoisit  mines  are  worked  by  the  aforesaid 
company,  and  the  product  is  taken  through  horizontal  tunnels  to  the 
Rucier  Railroad.  Below  the  level  of  the  tunnels  the  transportation  of 
the  ore  is  difficult  and  expensive.  The  red-ironstone  mines  are  com¬ 
prised  in  two  divisions.  The  eastern  one  embraces  the  Karabina  Mount¬ 
ains,  and  the  veins  of  Swarover  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Racier  brook. 
The  western  division  is  formed  by  the  mines  of  Jezovcin  Chrbina,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  little  river  Raciba.  The  eastern  division  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Suarow  works,  the  western  as  Chrbina  mines.  In 
Suarow  the  veins  are  perpendicular,  in  Chrbina  they  are  horizontal. 
The  average  cost-price  in  the  two  principal  works  is  as  follows  :  Chrus- 
tenic,  1  hundred- weight  of  iron-ore,  15  £  to  17  kreutzer  ;  Krahulov,  1  hun¬ 
dred-weight  of  iron-ore.  22£  to  23J  kreutzer.  The  total  produce  of  iron- 
ore  from  the  mines  of  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel,  in  the  year  1870, 

2  i 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


amounted  to  371,190  hundred- weight,  and  the  average  cost  per  hun¬ 
dred-weight  amounted  to  10.9  kreutzer.  All  'the  iron-mines  of  Bohe¬ 
mia  are  worked  on  the  most  approved  scientific  principles.  In  minor 
works  the  water  is  taken  out  either  by  windlass  or  by  bucket,  but  in 
the  more  important  ones  pumps  are  employed,  moved  either  by  steam 
or  water  power.  In  Moravia,  in  most  cases,  the  mines  are  a  long  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  smelting-works,  and  often  the  transportation  is  difficult 
and  insufficient.  The  cost-price  of  the  product  therefore  varies  con¬ 
siderably.  In  a  total  production  of  9,173,374  hundred- weight  the 
price,  at  the  mouth  of  the  pit,  ranges  from  71  to  10  kreutzer  (minimum)  to 
IS  to  19  kreutzer,  (maximum.)  The  transportation  to  the  smelting- 
works  increases  these  prices  from  a  minimum  of  19  up  to  65  kreutzer. 

The  ores  of  Silesia  are  mostly  magnetic,  red,  brown,  and  spathic  iron¬ 
stones,  and  specular  iron,  yielding  23  to  27  per  cent.  The  large  iron¬ 
works  of  the  Archduke  Albrecht  of  Austria  cover  a  surface  of  1,229,312  , 
square  klafters,  and  their  produce  in  the  year  1S71  amounted  to  18S,730 
centners.  The  average  cost-price  amounted  to  37  kreutzer  per  centner. 
Some  of  the  ores  were  very  poor,  containing  only  IS  to  24  per  cent,  of 
iron. 

IS.  Production  of  pig-iron. — The  following  table  gives  the  quantity  of 
pig-iron  produced  in  the  three  countries  during  the  year  1S70  : 


Country. 

Raw  iron. 

Number  of  furnaces. 

Bloom. 

Cast. 

Not  work¬ 
ing. 

Working. 

Total. 

Working 

weeks. 

Bohemia . 

Centners.' 
953,  433 

Centners. 
320,  47fi 

Centners. 

1,  273,  920 

12 

40 

52 

Number. 

1,727 

410,  fill 
05,  910 

18(3,  221 

511(3,  832 

21 

21 

874 

Silesia . 

5l|  974 

117'  885 

1 

o 

293 

Total . 

1,  429,  954 

558,  67  L 

1,  988,  637 

13 

67 

80 

2,  894 

*  Or  one  hundred-weight. 


The  production  of  pig-iron  was,  until  the  year  1S3S,  effected  through¬ 
out  the  whole  of  Bohemia  by  ineaus  of  charcoal- furnaces.  From  this 
period  the  use  of  coal-fuel  commenced,  and  a  constant  changing  of  old 
furnaces  and  adding  of  new  ones  has  been  going  on  ever  since. 

The  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  pig-iron  in  the  Silurian  districts 


may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

Fl.  Kr.  j| 

330  pounds  of  ore,  at  20  kreutzer  . 0  66  < 

45  pounds  of  limestone .  0  2  I 

16  cubic  feet  of  charcoal,  at  15  kreutzer .  2  40  ) 

Wages .  0  20 

General  working-expenses . .  0  25  I 


Total .  3  53 


The  steady  advance  in  the  prices  of  charcoal  will,  in  the  future,  in¬ 
crease  the  cost  of  the  raw  material. 


BOHEMIAN  IRON-WORKS. 


19 


19.  Founderies. — In  Bohemia,  casting  is  generally  done  directly  from 
the  furnaces,  and  the  largest  portion  is  common  commercial  castings. 
The  most  important  foundery  of  Bohemia  is  that  of  Kladno,  which  pro¬ 
duces  the  most  complicated  and  heaviest  machinery-castings.  The 
founderies  of  Moravia  are  almost  entirely  employed  in  machinery-cast¬ 
ing.  Several  works  use  cupolas  with  hot-blast.  The  most  important 
foundery,  that  of  Blansko,  turns  out  annually  150,000  centners  of  cast¬ 
ings. 

The  Silesian  founderies  are  on  the  same  principle  as  the  Moravian, 
and  their  annual  produce  is  about  60,000  hundred-weight  of  castings. 
The  founderies  of  Adamsthal  work  up  annually  46,000  hundred- weight  of 
raw  material,  consuming  fuel  as  follows :  Coke,  1 8,000  hundred- weight 
coal,  (Ostrau,)  12,000  hundred-weight;  charcoal,  24,000  cubic  feet. 

20.  Bolling-icorTcs. — (1.)  The  works  of  the  Prceger  Eisenindustrie 
Gesellschaft.  These  works  are  iu  Kladno,  Niirschau,  Wilkischen,  and 
Josephihiitte.  The  annual  production  is  700,000  centners. 

(2.)  Baron  von  Bothschilds’s  works  at  Witkowitz.  The  produce, 
mostly  railroad-iron,  tires  and  axles,  sheet-iron  and  commercial  iron,  is 
400,000  centners  per  annum. 

(3.)  The  works  of  Archduke  Albrecht  at  Karlshiitte  and  Ustron 
produce  320,000  centners  per  annum. 

(4.)  Boiling-works  of  Prince  Fiirstenberg  in  Althiitten,  near  Beraun 
and  Bras,  Rostok,  in  Silesia,  and  Purgletz,  in  Bohemia,  with  a  joint  pro¬ 
duce  of  290,000  centners  per  annum. 

(5.)  Iron- works  of  the  Klein  Brothers  in  Top  tan  and  Stefanau,  produc¬ 
ing  200,000  centners  annually  of  beams,  girders,  boiler-iron,  and  steel. 

(6.)  The  white-iron  works  of  Keudeck  produce  80,000  centners  per 
annum. 

(7.)  Mr.  Bondy’s  works  at  Bubna,  near  Prague',  produce  70,000  hun¬ 
dred-weight  per  aunura. 

(8.)  Count  Harrach’s  establishments.  The  production  amounts  to 
28,000  centners  of  tin-plate,  18,000  centners  of  drawn  wire  and  light  bar- 
iron. 

(9.)  Two  works  of  an  unimportant  character  are  iu  process  of  erection 
at  Komotan  and  Leibnitz.  Besides  these  large  establishments,  there 
are  several  smaller  ones. 

21.  Bloomaries  and  puddling-ivorlcs. — The  manufacture  of  wrought  iron 
was,  up  to  the  year  1865,  au  important  branch  of  the  Bohemian  iron- 
industry,  and  there  were  then  in  operation  110  bloomaries  and  28 
blast-furnaces,  producing  more  than  250,000  hundred- weight  per  au- 
uum.  The  production  of  Moravia  failed  to  come  up  to  this  stand¬ 
ard,  and  in  1865  it  amounted  to  120,000  hundred-weight.  Silesia, 
with  28  bloomaries  and  10  blast-furnaces,  produced  about  50,000  hun¬ 
dred-weight,  so  that  the  total  production  of  the  three  countries  dur¬ 
ing  the  year  1865  amounted  to  420,000  hundred-weight.  But  since 
this  period  most  of  the  Bohemian  bloomaries  ceased  to  work,  and 
in  1870  only  a  few  were  in  active  operation,  and  these  worked  only 


20 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


to  utilize  the  remnants  aud  scrap-iron  of  their  founderies  and  roll¬ 
ing-mills.  Most  of  the  charcoal-furnaces  possessed  two  to  four  bloorn- 
aries,  which  partly  refined  the  pig-iron  but  never  converted  it  into 
wrought  iron.  At  the  present  time  only  those  bloomaries  are  of  any 
importance  which  produce  raw  material  for  rolling-mills,  especially  if 
the  object  is  to  produce  a  good  quality  of  iron  from  scraps  and  remnants. 
In  the  year  1S71  there  were  116  puddling- furnaces  in  Bohemia,  and  70  in 
Moravia  and  Silesia,  making  a  total  of  186  puddling-furnaces.  The  pig- 
iron  produced  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia,  aud  the  remnants  and 
scraps  of  rolling-mills,  do  not  satisfy  the  demand  of  the  puddling-works 
for  raw  material,  so  that  over  2,500,000  hundred-weight  of  pig-iron  is 
annually  imported.  In  all  the  new  works  each  furnace  is  supplied  with 
a  separate  chimney.  Double  furnaces  are  only  employed  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  inferior  kinds  of  iron.  The  “loupes”  are  compressed  by 
steam-hammers  on  the  Nasmith  principle.  The  works  are  fitted  up  with 
two  pairs  of  rollers,  but  those  erected  during  the  last  five  years  have 
generally  three  rollers  placed  one  above  the  other. 

The  producing  capacity  and  the  consumption  of  material  differ  vastly 
on  account  of  the  different  kinds  of  coal  employed.  The  annexed  table 
shows  the  results,  employing  Ostran  coals,  in  the  manufacture  of  an 
average  quality  of  iron  per  UK)  pounds  rails  : 

Consumption  of  pig-iron :  single  furnace,  114  pounds;  double  furnace, 
114  pounds.  .Consumption  of  coal :  single  furnace,  135  pounds;  double 
furnace,  95  pounds.  Weekly  capacity  of  production  :  single  furnace, 
270  hundred-weight ;  double  furnace,  400  hundred-weight. 

22.  Development  of  iron-industry  in  Carinthia.— Among  the 
many  interesting  special  publications  to  accompauy  the  exhibits  at 
Vienna,  the  memoir  of  Friedrich  Miinichsdorfer  upon  the  production 
of  iron  in  Carinthia*  is  deserving  of  special  mention.  Besides  a  gen¬ 
eral  history  of  the  development  of  the  iron-industry  since  the  time  of 
King  Otto  in  the  year  953,  it  gives  an  account  of  the  prices  of  iron  dur¬ 
ing  the  century,  a  tabular  statement  of  the  production  for  the  last  fifty 
years,  and  a  comparison  of  existing  furnaces  with  those  of  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  century,  as  respects  form,  capacity,  extent,  and  economy  of 
production.  This  comparison  is  Teudered  striking  and  instructive  by  a 
series  of  vertical  sections  of  the  furnaces  at  different  periods,  drawn  to 
the  same  scale,  presenting  a  complete  view  of  the  gradual  development 
of  furnaces,  from  the  simplest  form  in  early  times  to  the  modern  furnace, 
with  its  comparatively  enormous  product. 

During  the  construction  of  a  railway  a  few  years  since,  some  aucient 
smelting-hearths,  dating  back  to  the  time  of  the  Romans,  were  un¬ 
covered.  They  consist  of  holes  or  ditches  depressed  below  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  ground  and  lined  with  fire-clay  and  quartz  to  a  thickness  of 
some  IS  inches. 

*  Gescliichtliche  Eutwicklung  der  Roheiseu-Produktiou  in  K;irnTen,  zusainmeu- 
gestellt  von  Friedrich  Miinichsdorfer,  Oberbergver waiter  in  Hiitteuberg.  Klagenfnrt, 
1'73.  Pp.  36,  aud  14  plates. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


21 


Blast-furnaces  from  5  to  6  feet  high  were  introduced  in  the  eighth 
century.  They  were  so  placed  as  to  have  a  natural  draught  or  blast. 
The  li  wolf”  furnaces  had  a  rectangular  base  of  4  or  5  feet,  and  a  height 
of  from  6  to  8  feet.  A  furnace  of  this  kind  at  Soiling,  in  1775,  was 
elliptical  in  section  and  12  feet  high.  The  iron  bloom  was  removed 
from  the  front. 

23.  Sections  of  Carinthian  furnaces.— The  sections  which  fol¬ 
low  show  the  constantly-increasing  dimensions  of  the  furnaces  and  the 
economy  of  production.  In  the  following  descriptions  of  the  Carinthian 
furnaces  the  numbers  of  the  notes  at  the  foot  refer  as  below: 

1.  Kind  and  mixture  of  ore. 

2.  Blast. 

3.  Tuyeres. 

4.  Average  production  in  twenty-four  hours. 

5.  Consumption  of  coal  per  Vienna  centner  of  pig-iron  in  cubic  feet. 

6.  Per  cent,  of  production. 

The  name  of  the  furnace  and  the  date  are  placed  at  the  head. 


kremsbrucken. 


Last  campaign,  1833. 


Fig.  1. 


1.  Brown  iron-ore  and  ocher. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One  tuyere. 


4.  62  Vienna  centners. 

5.  20.6  cubic  feet. 

6.  36  per  cent. 


22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873 
EISENTRATTEN. 


ISOS. 


2  8" 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


1.  Brown  iron-ore  and  ocber. 

2.  Four  box-bellows. 

3.  Two  tuyeres. 

4.  95  Vienna  centners. 

5.  23.2  cubic  feet. 

6.  38  per  cent. 


1.  Brown  iron-ore  and  ocber. 

2.  Three  cylinders. 

3. „Three  tuyeres. 

4.  118  Vienna  centners. 

5.  16  cubic  feet. 

6.  37  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


23 


RADENTHEIN. 


DETITSCH-PONTAFEL. 


Last  campaign,  1863. 


Last  campaign,  1847. 


JSC8 


Fig.  4. 

1.  Magnetic  iron-ore. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

.  One, 

4.  25  Vienna  centners. 

5.  20.3  cubic  feet. 

6.  30  per  cent. 


rm 


So! 


9o 


Fig.  5. 

1.  Red  and  brown  iron-ore. 

2.  Three  water-strommels. 

3.  One. 

4.  45  Vienna  centners. 

5.  25.3  cubic  feet. 

6.  46  per  cent. 


24 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ST.  SALVATOR. 


1872 
4-0"  . 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


1.  Brown  iron-ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One. 

4.  71  Vienna  centners. 

5.  18.6  cubic  feet. 

6.  40  per  cent. 


1.  Brown  iron-ore. 

2.  Three  box-bellows. 

3.  Two. 

4.  120  Vienna  centners. 

5.  16  cubic  feet. 

6.  40  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES, 


25 


HIRT. 


1803 


Fig.  8. 

1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One. 

4.  59  Vienna  centners. 

5.  16.7  cubic  feet. 

6.  36  per  cent. 


1872 

40" 


Fig.  9. 

1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Cylinders. 

3.  Two. 

4.  130  Vienna  centners. 

5.  12  cubic  feet. 

6. '  46  per  cent. 


26 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


raaBSjs*  «* 


Fig.  10. 

1.  4-5  brown  iron-ore,  1-5  spatbic. 

2.  Two  bos -bellows. 

3.  One. 

4.  75  Vienna  centners. 

5.  15.9  cubic  feet. 

6.  36  per  cent. 


OLSA. 


1872 


Fig.  11. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore. 

2.  Three  cylinders. 

3.  Four. 

4.  275  Vienna  centners. 

5.  11  cubic  feet. 

6.  36  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


FEISTRITZ. 
Last  campaign,  1834. 


1.  Brown  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  “  spitzbalge.” 

3.  One. 


Fig.  12. 

4.  80  Vienna  centners. 

5.  10.3  cubic  feet. 

6.  45  per  cent. 


27 


28 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 
TRE1BACH. 


1808 


Fig.  13. 

1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic. 

2.  Four  box-bellows. 

3.  Three. 

4.  160  Vienna  centners. 

5.  12.2  cubic  feet. 

6.  46  per  cent. 


Fig.  14. 

1.  91  per  cent,  of  brown  ore  and  9  per 

cent,  of  spathic  ore. 

2.  Four  cylinders. 

3.  Three. 

4.  278  Vienna  centners. 

5.  10.48  cubic  feet. 

6.  46  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


29 


Fig.  15. 


81  pci  cent,  of  brown  ore  and  9  per  cent,  spathic 
ore.  2.  Eight  cylinders.  3.  Five  tuyeres. 
4.  447  Vienna  centners.  5.  7.85  cubic  feet. 
6.  47  per  cent. 


Fig.  16. 

1.  91  per  cent,  of  brown  ore  and  9  per  cent,  spathic 
ore.  2.  Eight  cylinders.  3.  Five.  4.  422 
Vienna  centners.  5.  839  cubic  feet.  6.  46  per 
cent. 


30 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


URTL. 

Last  campaign,  1834. 


1808 


2/" 


li — 
!  % 


Fig.  17. 

1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  box-beilows. 

3.  One. 

4.  71  Vienna  centners. 

5.  21.7  cubic  feet. 

6.  38  per  cent. 


KOMPAGNIE  HDTTE. 
Last  campaign,  1812. 


/8C8 


24-"' 


7V 

1 5 


Fig.  18. 

1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  “  Schnbalge.” 

3.  One. 

4.  61  Vienna  centners. 

5.  21.1  cubic  feet. 

6.  48  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


31 


HEFT. 


/872 
_  3' 107 


1872 

^3' 10“ 


7808 


Abhl 

~Z5^ 


AH 

j  w> ! 


Fig.  19. 

1.  Browu  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One. 

4.  99  Vienna  centners. 

5.  12.J7  cubic  feet. 

6.  50  per  cent. 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 

1  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore.  1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Four  oscillating,  four  fixed,  and  2.  Four  oscillating,  four  fixed,  and 

two  horizontal  cylinders.  two  horizontal  cylinders. 

3.  Five.  3.  Five. 

4.  225  Vienna  centners.  4.  264  Vienna  centners. 

5.  9.87  cubic  feet.  5.  9.5f  cubic  teet. 

6.  50  per  cent.  6.  51  per  cent. 


32 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


MOSINZ. 


/872 

32" 


<- - -> 


Fig.  22.  Fig.  23. 


1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  iron-ore. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One. 

4.  90  Vienna  centners. 

5.  14.1  cubic  feet. 

6.  52  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


f  33 


EBERSTEIN. 


1808 

_/a" 


Fig.  24. 

-•  Brown  iron-ore  and  spathic  ore  f. 
!.  Two  “spitzbalge.” 

!.  One. 

1.  G3  Vienna  centners. 

>.  16.8  cubic  feet. 

i.  30  per  cent.  * 


o 


'  Fig.  25. 

1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore 

2.  Two  oscillating  and  two  fixed  cylinders 

3.  Three. 

4.  286  Vienna  centners, 

5.  9.88  cubic  feet, 

6.  47  per  cent. 


34  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

LOLLING. 


/ 


1808 


6'  6" 


Fig.  26. 


Fig.  27. 


1.  Brown  ore  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One. 

4.  88  Vienna  centners. 

5.  11.8  cubic  feet. 

6.  50  per  cent. 


1.  Brown  ore  85  per  cent.,  and  15  per  cent 
spathic  ore. 

2.  Two  fixed,  two  oscillating,  and  two  Lor-  f 
izontal  cylinders. 

3.  Three. 

4.  293  Vienna  centners. 

5.  9.13  cubic  feet. 

6.  SOper’cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


35 


LOLLING. 

1872. 


46" 


42'^ 

o 


Fig.  28. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore  85  per  cent.,  spathic  iron- 

ore  15  per  cent. 

2.  Two  fixed,  four  oscillating,  and  two  hor¬ 

izontal  cylinders. 

3.  Three  tuyeres. 

4.  296  Vienna  centners. 

5.  8.35  cubic  feet. 

6.  50  per  cent. 


Fig.  29. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore  85  per  cent.,  spathic  iron- 

ore  15  per  cent. 

2.  Two  fixed,  four  oscillating,  and  two  hor¬ 

izontal  cylinders. 

3.  Three  tuyeres. 

4.  325  Vienna  centners. 

5.  9.39  cubic  feet. 

C.  50  per  cent. 


36 


VIENNA.  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


MINDISCH-KAPPEL. 

Last  campaign,  1823. 
1808 


pn 

24" 

- -= 

rw~ 

I 

I 

! 

I 

I 


Fig.  30. 

1.  Red  iron-ore, .(hematite.) 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One  tuyere. 

4.  35  VienDa  centners. 

5.  25  cubic  feet. 

6.  38  per  cent. 


WAIDISCH. 


o 


Fig.  31. 

1 .  Trischsclilacke. 

2.  One  oscillating,  one  fixed  cylinder. 

3.  One  tuyere. 

4.  50  Vieuua  centners. 

5.  12  cubic  feet. 

6.  5S  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


37 


1808 


Fig.  32. 

1.  Brown  ore  £,  spathic  ore  A. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One  tuyere. 

4.  38  Vienna  centners. 

5.  26.2  cubic  feet. 

C.  30  per  cent. 


W  ALDEN  STEIN . 


Fig.  33. 

1.  Specular  ore,  brown  ore,  and  spathic  ore. 

2.  Three  “  wackier.” 

3.  Three. 

4.  115  Vienna  centners. 

5.  11  cubic  feet. 

6.  45  per  cent. 


38 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

ST.  GERTRAND. 


1672 


Fig.  34. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore  §>  aud  spathic  iron-ore  §-. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One  tuyere. 

4.  57  Vienna  centners. 

5.  174  cubic  feet. 

6.  39  per  cent. 


Fig.  35. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore  and  spathic  iron-ore. 

2.  Three  cylinders. 

3.  Three  tuyeres. 

4.  120  Vienna  centners. 

5.  12.5  cubic  feet. 

6.  41.6  per  cent. 


CARINTHIAN  FURNACES. 


39 


/B08 


ST.  LEONARD. 


Fig  36. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore  f,  and  spathic  iron-ore  J-. 

2.  Two  box-bellows. 

3.  One  tuyere. 

4.  53  Vienna  centners. 

5.  18  cubic  feet. 

6.  45  per  cent. 


Fig.  37. 

1.  Brown  iron-ore  f,  and  spathic  iron-ore 

2.  Two  cylinders. 

3.  Three  tuyeres. 

4.  132  Vienna  centners. 

5.  10.4  cubic  feet. 

6.  42  per  cent. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 
PREVALI. 


/  5.  1 50  pounds  coke. 

/  6.  84  per  cent. 


DIMENSIONS  AND  FORMS  OF  FURNACES. 


41 


24.  Dimensions  of  blast-furnAces. — From  data  obtained  at  the 
exhibition,  a  writer  in  Engineering  gives  a  very  interesting  tabular  ex¬ 
hibit  of  the  sizes  and  yield  of  some  of  the  principal  blast-furnaces  in 
Europe. 

Principal  dimensions  of  blast-furnaces  in  various  parts  of  Europe .* 


Description  of  furnace. 


Year  of  erection. 

Gleiwitz,  1854,  coke-fur 
nace. 

Gleiwitz,  1872,  coke-fur 
uace. 

Konigsbiitte,  1855,  coke 
furnace. 

Kduigshiitte,  1865,  coke 
furnace. 

Kbnigshiitte,  1872,  coke 
furnace. 

Creusot,  coke-furnace  . . . 

Heinrichskiitte,  1861, 
coke-furnace. 

Bessiige,  coke-furnace  . . . 

Wittkowitz,  Moravia,  i 
coke-furnace.  < 

Pravali,  Carintbia,  1872  . 

Gleiwitz,  charcoal,  1799  . 

Gleiwitz,  charcoal,  1829  . 

Kbuigshiifcte,  charcoal, 
1826. 

Bogshau,  Hungary,  char¬ 
coal. 

St.  Gotraud,  Carintbia 
1872. 

Waldenstein,  Carinthia, 
1872. 

Combiers,  charcoal, 
France. 

Friedau,  charcoal,  Styria 

Trummelsberg,  Sweden . 

Bjornhittan,  Sweden  .... 

Finubo,  Sweden . 

Straczena,  Hungary . 


o  . 

© 

Diameter  between. 

«  f 
® 

B  s 
ft43 

+3  © 

.£f  E 

©  3 

Tuy¬ 

eres. 

Boshes. 

Top. 

Meters. 

Meters. 

Meters. 

Meters. 

3 

15.58 

.94 

4.  7 

1.  88 

8 

13.  7 

2.  56 

5.  34 

4 

3 

14.4 

1.07 

4.  7 

2.2 

7 

14.8 

2.5 

4.7 

3.  14 

8 

13.  5 

2.  67 

5.  65 

3.  77 

3 

16.  8 

1.  4 

5 

3 

3 

15 

1.  1 

4. 1 

2.51 

3 

14.  1 

1 

3.  96 

2 

7 

18.  72 

2.  24 

5.44 

5  3.2 
i  4.8 

6 

16.  96 

1.93 

4.  68 

2.  c8 

11. 18 

.  90 

3.  45 

.  96 

2 

13.  14 

.  63 

3.  14 

1.36 

2 

12.  11 

.76 

3.22 

1.25 

4 

13.3 

1 

2.  85 

2.  02 

3 

11.2 

1.  16 

2.  56 

1.  11 

3 

9.  98 

.  85 

2.56 

.  95 

2 

8.  79 

.  63 

2.  05 

.  62 

13.  27 

1.  89 

2.  26 

.  79 

o 

13.  06 

1.36 

2.  82 

1.  78 

2 

12.  76 

1.  17 

2.  67 

1.  45 

2 

11.  87 

9.28 

.94 

.72 

2.  37 

2.  56 

1.39 

.  85 

'  Capacity  of 
furnace. 

© 

© 

rz  © 

*©  ^ 

P 

Remarks. 

Cubic 

meters. 

Tons. 

117.  58 

56.  25 

Open  breast. 

220.7 

250 

Closed  hearth  and 
top. 

138. 1 

204 

Open  hearth. 

231.6 

Closed  hearth. 

158.  7 

175 

l . 

112 

5 

240 

40.31 

13.  7 

Open  hearth. 

48.  14 

25 

Do. 

46.9 

Do. 

56.  5 

100 

46 

Charcoal-furnace. 

39 

Do. 

17.5 

Open  hearth. 

161 

67.5 

Charcoal-furnace. 

31 

Do. 

. 

24 

Do. 

Charcoal. 

*  Engineering,  Augusts,  1873,  from  the  Vienna  Exhibition. 


25.  Forms  assumed  by  furnaces  after  long  working. — In  con¬ 
nection  with  this  table  of  the  principal  dimensions  of  blast-furnaces,  it 
is  very  instructive  to  compare  the  dimensions  which  furnaces  assume 
after  working  for  a  long  time.  Engineering  justly  observes: 

“  This  table  gives  good  evidence  that  no  general  rules  have,  up  to  the 
present  time,  been  deduced  for  the  best  form  of  blast-furnaces  under 
certain  conditions,  as  not  even  those  furnaces  which  are  in  close  vicinity 
to  each  other,  and  which  are  worked  under  similar  conditions,  have 
been  built  with  corresponding  dimensions. 

“This  fact  will  be  understood  easily  enough  when  we  say  that  only 
the  original  designs  for  the  construction  of  a  blast-furnace  to  be  erected 
at  a  certain  place  happen  to  be  brought  to  the  knowledge  of  metallurgi¬ 
cal  engineers  ;  but  never,  or  very  seldom  only,  are  the  results  and  expe¬ 
rience  gained  in  working  this  furnace  brought  before  the  public.  This 
want  of  general  rules  becomes  the  more  striking  when  we  find  that  ua- 


42 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ture  itself  has  made  the  best  engineer  and  draughtsman  in  this  case, 
and  that  we  only  want  to  keep  onr  eyes  open  to  its  teachings.  Ambi¬ 
tion  and  selfishness  alone  can  have  kept  us  so  loug  from  acknowledging 
these  facts. 

“  It  is  clear  that  the  best  form  of  blast  furnaces  will  be  that  which,  all 
other  circumstances  being  equal,  will  work  with  the  greatest  economy 
of  fuel  and  with  the  least  deterioration  of  the  furnace-lining.  Xow,  in¬ 
stead  of  engaging  ourselves  with  extended  speculation  about  the  mode  !| 
of  finding  out  the  best  form  of  furnaces,  it  would  prove  to  be  much 
wiser  to  look  at  the  iuside  of  such  furnaces  after  they  have  worked  ef¬ 
fectively  for  some  time.  It  is  by  uo  means  a  rare  fact  that  blast¬ 
furnaces  give  the  best  working  results  a  very  short  time  before  they  are 
obliged  to  be  put  out  of  use  on  account  of  the  general  wear  and  tear  of 
the  lining. 

“In  all  such  cases  the  furnace  itself,  at  the  end  of  a  campaign,  will 
give  valuable  hints  as  to  the  form  best  adapted  for  the  particular  cir¬ 
cumstances.  But  instead  of  learning,  by  close  inspection,  the  wants  of 
nature,  in  most  cases  we  rebuild  the  furnace  according  to  the  original 
type,  quite  irrespective  of  the  conclusions  which  may  be  drawn  from  the 
excessive  deterioration  of  some  parts  of  the  interior. 

“  It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  comparison  of  a  series  of  such 
self-formed  sections  of  blast-furnaces  at  the  end  of  their  campaigns  will 
afford  us  means  of  deducing  certain  formulae  for  the  determination  of 
the  most  effective  form  of  coke  or  charcoal  blast-furnaces,  with  due  ref¬ 
erence  to  the  different  circumstances  under  which  they  may  work.  But 
to  arrive  at  such  a  desirable  result,  it  is  necessary  before  all  that  the 
different  iron-masters  and  metallurgical  engiueers  should  aid  the  under¬ 
taking,  by  publishing  the  results  obtained  with  furnaces  of  certain  con¬ 
struction,  and  at  the  end  of  each  campaign  give  a  complete  section 
showing  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  lining.  \Ye  believe  it  to  be  of  the 
highest  interest  to  all  connected  with  the  iron-trade  that  such  knowl¬ 
edge  should  be  largely  diffused  among  the  iron-works  proprietors  and 
metallurgical  engineers.” 

Accordingly,  Engineering  presents  sections  obtained  from  drawiugs 
at  Vienna  of  a  charcoal  blast-furnace,  exhibiting  in  a  striking  manner 
the  modification  of  the  form  of  the  interior  after  a  campaign  of  five 
years’  duration.  These  drawings  are  here  reproduced.  They  represeut 
one  of  a  set  of  three  furnaces  at  Mariazell,  in  Stvria,  working  calcined 
spathic  ores  containing  42  per  cent,  of  iron.  It  was  lined  with  brick, 
and  the  crucible  was  built  of  sandstone.  The  broken  lines  in  the  verti¬ 
cal  and  horizontal  sections  show  the  ultimate  shape  assumed. 

The  furnace  was  working  well  when  stopped  on  accouut  only  of  the 
falling  of  part  of  the  brick  lining. 

There  is  a  striking  similarity  between  these  sections,  the  result  of 
wear,  and  the  form  considered  in  some  parts  of  Styria  as  the  best  for 
smelting  spathic  ores.  Take,  for  example,  a  section  of  a  charcoal  blast- 


DIMENSIONS  AND  FORMS  OF  FURNACES. 


43 


Vertical  sections  of  Mariazell  furnace. 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40. 


44 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Fig.  41. — Horizontal  sections  of  the  Mariazell  furnace. 


DIMENSIONS  AND  FORMS  OF  FURNACES. 


45 


Fig.  4  V — Vertical  section  of  Styrian  furnace. 


46 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


furnace  at  Hieftau,  near  Eisenerz.  It  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  ultimate 
section  of  the  Mariazell  furnace. 

In  further  illustration  and  confirmation  of  this  tendency  to  assume  a 
form  corresponding-  closely  to  the  shape  and  proportions  believed  to  be 
the  best  in  Styria,  sections  of  another  of  the  three  Mariazell  charcoal- 
furnaces  are  shown.  These  are  contributed  by  J.  Stummer-Traunfels, 
of  Vienna,  to  Engineering,  in  corroboration  of  the  views  expressed, 
and  are  also  very  instructive.  This  furnace  was  also  working  in  a  sat- 
^factory  manner  up  to  the  time  of  the  stoppage  of  the  blast  for  the 
purpose  of  putting  in  a  new  lining.  It  had  been  in  blast  continuously 
for  three  years,  and  produced  good  iron  with  economy  of  fuel. 

RESCHITZA  STATE  RAILWAY. 

20.  This  company  makes  one  of  the  most  complete  of  the  exhibitions  of 
iron  and  steel,  including  the  fuel  used  and  models  of  the  mines  and  ap¬ 
paratus  for  extraction  of  the  ore.  We  here  find  a  complete  section  of  a 
bed  of  coal,  showing  the  roof  and  floor,  with  a  clay  parting  in  the  midst 
of  the  bed.  This  specimen  is  14  feet  4  inches  long,  and  stands  about 
0  feet  high,  the  seam  being  inclined  to  the  horizon.  Here,  also,  is  the 
largest  Bessemer- steel  ingot  in  the  exhibition,  7  feet  1  inch  long,  and  33 
inches  in  diameter,  weighing  8,925  kilograms.  There  are,  besides,  a 
series  of  steel  ingots,  test-objects,  showing  the  character  of  the  fracture; 
a  series  of  sections  of  rails  with  hard  crystalline  heads,  and  fibrous 
bottom,  some  with  steel  head  andiron  base.  A  series  of  sections  of 
shape-iron  of  various  forms  is  shown  to  illustrate  their  internal  struc¬ 
ture,  one  beiug  polished,  and  the  other  etched  in  acid,  bringing  out  in 
this  way  the  folding  of  the  layers  in  the  birrs  or  the  “fibrous”  structure. 

A  large  tire  for  railway  driving-wheels,  8  feet  9i  inches  in  diameter,  at¬ 
tracts  attention  on  account  not  only  of  its  size,  but  its  lightness  and 
perfection  of  form. 

In  a  fish-plate  joint  for  rails  a  method  of  preventing  the  nuts  from 
turning  is  shown.  A  small  square  plate  of  steel  or  iron,  about  oue- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  is  placed  under  the  nut,  and  one  side  is  raised 
up  by  a  stroke  of  a  chisel  applied  under  the  edge. 

27.  Ferromanganese.-- A  notice  of  the  splendid  exhibition  in  the  Res. 
chitza  pavilion  would  be  incomplete  without  more  than  a  passing  reference  I 
to  the  samples  of  ferro  manganese,  or  mangan  iron,  of  three  grades,  con¬ 
taining  from  25  per  cent,  to  35  per  cent,  of  manganese.  This  alloy  is  very 
important  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  and  with  the  growth  of  the  in-  I 
d  us  try  of  steel  in  all  parts  of  the  world  it  assumes  a  constautly-increas-  I 
iug  importance.  The  home-production  of  ferro-mauganese  is  greatly  j 
needed  in  the  United  States,  where  it  certainly  might  be  made  with  our  ; 
mauganiferous  ores  and  abundant  fuel  at  a  moderate  cost.  The  process 
of  manufacture,  it  will  presently  be  shown,  is  very  simple,  attention  how-  • 
ever,  being  requisite  to  some  important  points,  which  might  be  over¬ 
looked  and  prevent  success.  At  present  the  foreign  metal  is  thrown  into  ; 


Vertical  sections  of  blast-furnace  at  Mariazell,  Styria. 


Fig.  43. 


Fig.  44. 


22  '23ylusfaian  Feel 


/ 


RESCHITZA  STATE  RAILWAY. 


47 


the  market  at  constantly  decreasing  prices.  This,  and  in  general  the 
comparatively  small  quantity  required  by  our  steel-establishments  sep- 
j  arately,  appear  to  have  discouraged  the  investment  of  capital  in  a  special 
undertaking  for  the  manufacture  of  ferro-maugauese  upon  a  large  scale 

(for  the  supply  of  the  home  demand. 

28.  At  Eeschitza,  and  probably  at  Laibach  also,  (the  Krctinische  Indus¬ 
trie- Oesellschaft,)  ferro- manganese  is  made  in  a  blast-furnace,  with  char¬ 
coal  as  fuel  and  limestone  as  the  flux.  The  ore  is  a  ferruginous  mixture, 
containing  about  37  per  cent,  of  sesquioxide  of  manganese.  It  is  sili¬ 
ceous,  and  somewhat  resembles  in  appearance  the  hard  manganese  ore 
from  Red  Island,  in  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  California.  It  contains 
about  29  per  cent,  of  silica  and  some  alumina,  as  shown  by  the  sub¬ 
joined  analysis : 

Analysis  of  ore  used  at  Eeschitza  for  ferro-manganese 

Silica . Si  03 .  . 

Alumina . Al2  03 . . 

T  (  Protoxide . . Fe  O . 

(Sesquioxide..  . .  ..  .  .F203 . 

Sesquioxide  of  manganese . Mn2  03  . 

Lime . Ca  O . 

Magnesia  .....  . Mg  u .  0.  261 

Water . HO .  3.361 


28.613 
8.  073 
0.  367 
19. 031 
37.  224 


This  ore  in  the  furnace  requires  a  large  amount  of  limestone  to  be 
added  as  flux.  The  larger  the  quantity  of  limestone  used,  or  the  more 
highly  basic  the  charge  is  made,  the  larger  is  the  percentage  of  man- 
ganese  in  the  product.  Thus,  by  using  15  per  cent,  of  limestone  and  85 
per  ceut.  of  ore,  the  product  contains  about  25  per  cent  of  manganese. 
Doubling  the  amount  of  limestone,  about  5  percent,  additional  of  man¬ 
ganese  is  gained,  giving,  say,  30  per  cent,  of  manganese;  trebling  the 
quantity  of  limestone,  the  metal  containing  35  per  cent,  of  manganese. 
Thus,  to  recapitulate  results  which  have  been  obtained,  we  have: 


15  limestone . 

85  manganese- ore  . . 

100 

28.  6  limestone  .... 
71.  4  manganese-ore 

100 

42  limestone . . 

58  manganese-ore . . 


=  25  per  cent,  manganese. 


|  =29  per  cent,  manganese. 


|  =  35  per  cent,  manganese. 


100 

In  a  trial  with  the  ore  of  which  the  analysis  is  given,  43  per  ceut.  of 
limestone  was  added,  so  that  the  oxygen  ratio  of  the  bases  to  that  of 


48 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


the  acid  was  as  15.88  to  10. 6S  =  1.48  to  1,  or  nearly  as  14  to  1.  This  for 
charcoal  is  a  highly  basic  charge,  but  it  is  a  most  important  condition 
in  the  manufacture  of  maugan  iron. 

To  prevent  the  slagging-up  of  the  furnace,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
high  pressure  of  blast,  much  greater  than  is  generally  used  in  charcoal- 
furnaces,  and  as  high  as  90  to  100  millimeters  of  quicksilver.  The  blast, 
moreover,  must  be  highly  heated.  In  this  instance  it  was  carried  to  250° 
Celsius  =  482°  Fahrenheit,  the  highest  point  attainable  with  the  heating- 
apparatus  of  the  Reschitza  works  at  that  time.  With  a  higher  temper¬ 
ature  of  blast  and  still  more  limestone,  an  alloy  containing  at  least  50 
per  cent,  of  manganese  could  be  produced.  The  furnace  must  be  kept 
very  hot,  and  the  limestone  always  in  excess. 

The  quantity  of  materials  used  and  the  costs  of  production  can  only  be 
stated  approximately.  At  Reschitza  it  was  approximately  as  follows  : 

Fl.  kr. 


1,400  kilograms  of  ore . .  2  94 

5  hectoliters  charcoal . .• .  2  00 

GOO  kilograms  limestone .  21 

Lalior,  &c . . . .  1  00 


Total  in  Austrian  florins . . .  6  15 


Tiie  product  being  50  kilograms  of  ferro-manganese,  containing  35 
per  cent,  of  manganese.  This  sum  is  equivalent  to,  say,  $3.10  for  100 
pounds  of  ferro  manganese,  being  at  this  rate  over  $60  per  ton. 

Mixtures  of  iron  and  Bessemer  steel. — There  were  some  very 
interesting  specimens  illustrative  of  the  effects  produced  upon  soft  gray 
pig-iron  by  adding  Bessemer  steel  in  increasing  quantities.  The  speci¬ 
mens  present  a  regular  gradation  in  fracture  from  soft  gray  pig  to  hard 
white  metal.  Some  large  rolls  for  rolling  iron  were  shown  to  which  12  per 
cent,  of  Bessemer  steel  had  been  added. 

29.  The  Krainische  Industrie- Gesellscha ft  of  Laibach,  Tyrol,  exhibit  an 
interesting  series  of  specimens  of  spiegel  iron  and  ferromanganese,  rang¬ 
ing  from  8  to  35  percent,  of  manganese.  The  alloy  containing  the  high 
percentage  of  manganese  is  in  blocks  9  inches  thick,  and  breaks  with  a 
finely-bladed  or  columnar  fracture,  not  exhibiting  brilliant  crystalline 
plates,  but  rather  a  fibrous  structure.  The  ores  are  also  shown,  together 
with  manganese  and  bauxite. 

30.  Rositzer  Mining-  Company. — The  Rositzer  Bergbau-  Gesellscha  ft 
make  a  very  attractive  installation  illustrating  their  works  and  products. 
The  whole  does  not  occupy  more  than  ten  feet  square  at  the  base,  but 
is  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid,  rising  about  ten  feet  high,  and  formed  of 
sections  of  rolled  girders  of  different  sizes,  the  largest  at  the  base,  and 
upon  them  samples  of  the  pig-iron  and  of  steel  proof-ingots  broken 
asunder,  of  bars  and  shafts  broken  across,  and  sections  of  rails  and 
angle-iron.  The  ores  (slags,  fluxes’,  &c.)  are  also  shown  in  an  attractive 


JUDENBURGER  IRON-WORKS. 


49 


way.  We  also  find  castings,  hoop  and  rod  iron,  model  of  workmen’s 
i houses,  model  «f  the  machinery  at  the  shaft;  the  hoisting-gear;  a  large 
cage,  for  two  wagons  side  by  side,  fitted  with  a  hood,  eccentric  safety- 
clutches,  and  a  spiral  spring. 

The  fire-brick  used  are  also  shown.  Some  of  them  are  of  great  size, 
a  yard  or  more  in  length  and  9  inches  thick,  remarkable  for  their  sharp¬ 
ness  and  excellence.  Specimens  of  coal-fossils,  photographs,  and  blocks 
of  coal  on  the  top  of  the  pyramid,  complete  this  compact  and  well-made 
exhibit. 

31.  J UDENBURGrER  Iron-Works.— The  joint-stock  company  “  Juden- 
burger  Eisenwerke,”  of  Vienna,  exhibited  a  number  of  boiler-plates  of 
large  size,  a  plan  of  the  works  at  Judenburg,  and  a  graphic  chart  of 
production  and  prices  for  the  last  eight  years.  The  dimensions  of  some 
of  the  plates  were — 

Locomotive  frame-plate,  8,015  x  765  x  9  millimeters,  weighing  426 
kilograms.  Annual  production,  1,600  to  2,000  pieces. 

Tender  frame-plate,  5,070  x  770  x  9  millimeters,  weighing  264  kilo¬ 
grams.  Annual  production,  1,600  to  2,000  pieces. 

Boiler-plate,  2,180  x  1,505  x  15  millimeters,  weighing  393  kilograms. 
Annual  production,  3,000  to  3,500  pieces. 

Plate,  2,000  x  290  x  28  millimeters,  weighing  126  kilograms. 

Plate,  2,709  x  1,500  x  2  millimeters,  weighing  71.5  kilograms. 
Annual  production,  7,000  to  8,000  pieces. 

Plate,  12,008  x  1,290  x  9.35  millimeters,  weighing  1,071.23  kilo¬ 
grams. 

Plate,  4,346  x  1,948  x  8.80  millimeters,  weighing  546.10  kilograms. 

Plate,  3,265  x  1,580  x  0.616  millimeters,  weighing  24.5  kilograms. 

Plate,  2,249  x  1,602  x  0.244  millimeters,  weighing  6.47  kilograms. 

Plate,  2,344  x  1,356  x  0.183  millimeters,  weighing  4.5  kilograms. 

The  principal  market  for  these  plates  is  in  Vienna,  for  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  locomotive-boilers,  for  steamboat-boilers,  on  the  Danube,  and  at 
Prague,  Briinn,  and  Pesth.  Plate  was  supplied  last  year  for  over 
400  locomotive  boilers.  The  following  is  a  tabular  statement  of  the 
production  aud  price  per  zoll-centner  for  the  last  eight  years  : 


Year. 

Boiler-plate  in 
zoll-centners. 

Average  price. 

Total  value. 

1864  . 

1865  . . . . . . . . . 

22,  232.  03 
25,  075.  69 
48,  275.  24 
70,  922.  63 
90,  603.  42 

Fl.  for. 

8  79.  4 

7  94.  7 

Fl.  kr. 
195,  525  78 
199,  290  31 
342,  923  80 
515,  161  00 
753,  098  53 
811.646  29 
932,  144  73 
1,  073,  311  20 
1,  296,  777  16 

1866  . . . . . . . . 

7  10.  3 

1867  . . . . . . . . . . ............ 

7  25.  6 

1868  . 

8  31.  2 

1869  . 

90,'  451.  94 
103,  057. 11 

8  97.  3 

1870  . 

9  04.  5 

1871 . 

lie;  465.  91 
125,  321.  81 

9  21.  6 

1872  . 

10  34.  8 

The  property  of  the  Judenburger  Company  consists  of  puddling 
aud  rolling  mills  at  Judenburg;  coal-mines  at  Zeltweg,  Styria;  iron- 
4  i 


50 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


mine  and  blast-furnace  at  Olsa,  Oarinthia ;  rolling-mills  in  Hetzendorf,  I 
Styria.  • 

At  the  rolling-mills  of  Judenburg  there  are  3  turbine  wheels’of  20 
horse-power,  one  of  90  horse-power,  and  a  water-wheel  of  100  effective 
horse-power  for  a  line  of  plate-rolls;  three  trip-hammers,  one  of  which 
has  a  falling-weight  of  24  and  the  other  two  of  20  centners;  a  large 
steam-engine  of  200  horse-power  for  a  line  of  plate-rolls. 

There  are,  in  addition,  one  large  steam-hammer,  with  a  falling-weight 
equal  to  300  centners  through  one  inch,  and  a  five-foot  stroke;  2  large 
steam-shears,  with  seven  feet  cutting-length,  to  cut  18  lines  thick,  cold ; 

10  puddling-furnaces ;  2  Siemens  heating-ovens ;  10  heating-ovens  of 
other  construction ;  and  a  variety  of  other  accessories  to  the  rnanu- 
facture. 

This  is  the  largest  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  boiler-plate 
in  Austria.  The  first  Siemens  welding-furnace  was  set  up  in  1869. 
The  product  of  one  furnace  in  twelve  hours  is  usually  over  3,000  kilo¬ 
grams,  and  sometimes  rises  to  5,000  kilograms.  Over  300  workmen 
are  employed.  The  pig-iron  is  obtained  partly  from  the  company’s  fur¬ 
nace  at  Olsa  and  partly  from  the  blast-furnace  at  Treibach,  from  Vor- 
dernberg,  and  from  Eisenerz.  The  coal  comes  chiefly  from  the  com-  jj 
pany’s  mines  at  Zeltweg. 

The  works  at  Hetzendorf  are  intended  chiefly  for  the  manufacture 
of  loqg  sheets  of  plate-iron  and  plate  of  superior  quality.  The  power  1 
is  derived  from  a  turbine  wheel  of  120  horse-power  for  a  set  of  universal  S 
rolls ;  one  turbine,  of  60  horse-power,  for  a  set  of  bloom-rolls ;  one 
turbine,  of  20  horse-power,  for  the  accessory  work.  There  is  one  steam- 
hammer  with  a  falling-weight  of  100  centners,  6  feet  stroke  ;  one  of  60 
centners,  5  feet  stroke ;  two  Siemens  weldiug-furnaces ;  seven  puddling- 
furnaces;  four  heating-ovens  for  plate;  and  the  corresponding  shears 
and  accessory  machinery. 

32.  Rotary  puddler. — A  model  of  a  rotary  puddling-furnace  plant, 
with  regenerative  furnaces,  according  to  Dr.  Siemens’s  plan,  is  shown  by  J 
Joh.  Willroider,  of  Villach,  in  the  Carinthia  building.  The  gearing 
is  applied  below ;  it  is  sustained  upon  plane-faced  wheels.  The  opening  j 
at  the  back  is  closed  by  a  square  sliding  door,  and  the  puddled  ball  is  I 
to  be  withdrawn  through  this  opening  and  to  drop  through  a  chute 
below  into  a  car  in  the  pit  under  the  rotating  vessel.  The  flame  enters 
and  returns  on  opposite  sides  of  a  vertical  wall,  while  iu  the  Sellers  i 
puddler  in  the  United  States  section  the  division  is  horizontal. 

33.  Ehrenwekth’s  puddler. — We  have  in  the  same  building  a 
model  of  a  new  form  of  rotary  puddler,  designed  by  Joseph  v.  Ehren- 
werth,  of  the  E.  K.  Bergakademie  zu  Pribram,  Bohemia.  The  two  ver¬ 
tical  sections  annexed  will  serve  to  show  its  construction  and  method 
of  working. 

The  horizontal  pan-shaped  hearth  A  (Figs.  45  and  46)  is  supported 
upon  a  pivot,  W,  to  which  motion  is  imparted  by  bevel-gearing.  An 


ehrenwerth’s  rotary  puddling-furnace. 


51 


Fig.  45. — Longitudinal  section. 


Fig.  46. — Transverse  section. 


EHRENWERTH’S  ROTARY  PUDDLING-FURNACE. 


52 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


annular  trough  filled  with  water  below  the  rim  of  the  hearth  serves  to 
form  an  air-tight  joint,  keeping  the  flame  from  the  gearing  and  supports 
below.  The  rabble  is  fixed  at  one  side.  The  cost  is  stated  at  about 
$2,000.  Its  value  for  the  intended  object  remains  to  be  shown  by  use. 

The  annexed  additional  description  is  translated  from  the  inventor’s 
circular  stating  the  advantages  of  this  form  of  puddler. 

The  puddling-furnace  with  rotating  hearth  differs  from  the  ordinary 
puddling-furnace  only  in  the  fact  that  the  hearth,  which  is  fastened  to 
a  vertical  shaft,  can  be  set  in  rotation. 

Any  method  of  heating  desired  can  be  used.  The  model  represents 
a  furnace  with  gas-heating  apparatus  with  Siemens  regenerators,  and 
the  drawing  such  a  furnace  with  inclined  grate. 

In  the  drawing,  F  is  the  foot-journal  and  L  the  neck-journal,  W  the 
vertical  shaft,  A  the  hearth,  which  is  fastened  to  the  rosette  r. 

The  hearth  consists  of  the  bed  plate  and  the  hearth- wall.  Both  are 
formed  of  many  pieces  of  cast  iron,  as  indicated  in  the  model.  The 
hearth-wall  can  be  coated  on  the  inside  with  any  suitable  refractory 
material. 

In  order  to  exclude  the  air  from  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  a  cylinder 
of  plate  is  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  or  to  the  wall  of  the 
same,  which  dips  in  water  contained  in  the  annular  basin  B,  having 
constant  inflow  and  exit.  The  annular  basin  is  attached,  air-tight,  to 
the  furnace-wall. 

In  order  to  cool  the  bottom,  jets,  with  roses  attached,  are  introduced, 
which  sprinkle  water  against  it.  The  cooling  of  the  side-walls  is  ef¬ 
fected  in  different  ways  according  as  the  cylinder  of  plate,  necessary 
for  the  exclusion  of  the  air,  is  attached  to  the  bottom  or  to  the  rim  of 
the  hearth.  In  the  first  case  the  parts  of  the  wall  are  hollow,  as  shown 
in  the  model,  and  the  cooling-water  is  conducted  through  pipes  r  under 
pressure  into  the  hollows.  The  escaping  water  falls  over  the  lower  edge 
into  the  basiu,  (model.)  In  the  latter  case,  which  is  to  be  more  recom¬ 
mended,  the  cooling- water  is  conducted  against  the  hearth-wall  through 
jets  fixed  in  a  circle,  and  then  drops  into  the  basiu.  In  this  case  the 
hearth-walls  may  be  made  solid. 

The  motion  of  the  hearth  is  imparted  to  it  by  means  of  toothed  gear¬ 
ing,  from  the  driving-shaft  W2,  which  is  set  in  motion  by  means  of  a 
belt  from  a  main  shaft.  For  large  works  it  is  advantageous  to  have  one 
subterranean  main-shaft  common  to  all  the  furnaces. 

The  operation  of  the  hearth  is  as  follows:  After  the  charging  is  fin¬ 
ished  the  hearth  is  set  in  rotation.  If  it  is  intended  to  stir  the  bath 
after  complete  melting,  then  rabbles  provided  with  broad  blades  placed 
obliquely  are  introduced  through  the  balls  A-  inserted  in  the  furnace- 
doors,  and  the  puddling  is  performed  either  by  hand  or  machine,  from 
the  edge  of  the  hearth  toward  the  ceuter.  If  the  rabbles  are  placed 
obliquely  from  opposite  sides,  and  one  worked  toward  the  center  and 
the  other  toward  the  outside,  the  best  possible  puddling  is  obtained  by 
means  of  this  double  motion  of  the  hearth  and  rabbles. 


HYDRAULIC  FORGING - WIRE-ROPE  TRACES. 


53 


The  blooming  is  done  by  hand  as  ordinarily  in  the  furnace  with  fixed 
hearth,  and  during  this  time  the  hearth  is  intermittently  in  motion,  in 
order,  after  completion  of  a  bloom,  to  bring  another  mass  of  iron  again 
before  the  door. 

After  the  blooming  the  hearth  is  again  set  in  rotation,  in  order  to  ex¬ 
pose  the  blooms  to  as  uniform  a  heat  as  possible.  The  blooms  are  after¬ 
ward  taken  out  and  drawn  in  the  usual  way. 

The  excess  of  slag,  formed  by  each  new  charge,  is  taken  out  at  the 
end  of  the  process  by  means  of  a  ladle.  (It  can,  however,  be  allowed 
to  flow  off,  during  the  working,  over  two  places  in  the  hearth-wall,  which 
are  lower  than  the  rest.) 

The  charge  for  a  furnace  with  two  working-doors  is  15  to  20  centners. 
To  work  such  a  furnace,  when  the  puddling  is  not  done  by  machinery, 
four  men  are  generally  necessary,  two  or  three  workmen,  and  a  fireman. 
The  power  required  is  about  \  to  f  horse-power.  The  most  advanta¬ 
geous  number  of  revolutions  during  the  puddling  is  about  20  to  24  per 
minute.  The  advantages  which  the  puddling-furnace  with  rotating 
hearth  offers  are  based  upon  the  facts  that  the  working  is  done  either 
partially  or  wholly  by  machinery,  and  in  consequence  of  the  rotation  of 
the  hearth  all  parts  of  the  iron  pass  through  the  same  phases  of  heat, 
and  are  also  entirely  and  uniformly  heated.  The  advantages  over  the 
ordinary  puddling-furnace  are  especially  the  following : 

1.  Cheaper  production,  in  consequence  of  the  saving  of  fuel  and  hand- 
labor. 

2.  Increased  production' with  an  equal  outlay  of  capital. 

3.  Independence  of  the  ordinary  puddler.  Even  with  the  fixed  rabble 
the  work  is  accomplished . 

4.  Uniformity  of  product,  in  consequence  of  thorough  puddling  and 
uniform  heating. 

5.  Easy  regulation  and  control  of  the  running. 

6.  Saving  in  health  and  comfort  to  puddlers. 

This  rotating-hearth  puddler  is  claimed  also  to  be  especially  well 
suited  to  steel-puddling,  and  to  offer  greater  advantages  to  this  than  for 
iron-puddling. 

34.  Hydraulic  forging. — A  suit  of  parts  of  railway  running-gear 
and  of  parts  of  locomotives  is  shown  by  Mr.  Haswell,  of  the  Imperial 
State  Railway  Works,  near  the  depot  of  the  Southern  Railroad,  Vienna. 
These  objects  are  extremely  interesting,  not  only  to  manufacturers  of 
locomotives,  car-wheels,  &c.,  but  to  industry  in  general,  as  illustrations 
of  what  may  be  accomplished  by  Haswell’s  method  of  forging  iron  or 
steel  by  direct  pressure,  slowly  applied  to  the  metal  while  hot.  The 
description  of  this  method  forms  a  separate  chapter  of  this  report. 

35.  Wire-rope  traces. — The  St.  Egydy  and  Kindberger  Iron  and 
Steel  Industry  Company,  formerly  Anton  Fischer,  of  Vienna,  exhibited 
a  large  number  of  wire-rope  traces  adapted  to  farming  purposes, 
wagons,  and  wherever  leather  traces  or  chains  are  used  for  draught. 


54 


VIENNA  INTEKNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


These  traces  have  the  advantages  of  great  strength,  lightness,  pliability, 
and  durability,  and,  besides,  are  cheap,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed 
table  of  sizes  and  prices.  The  lengths  are  stated  in  Austrian  feet,  and 
the  price  in  florins  and  kreutzer.* 


Sizes  and  prices  of  iron  traces. 
[Length  in  Austrian  feet.] 


S  a} 
g  o 

5 

i 

© 

5 

d  Hit! 

* 

—  © 

6  5 

f£ 

o 

Over  0J  to  7. 

Over  7  to  7J. 

Over  7J  to  8. 

Ft.  kr. 

Fi.  kr. 

Ft.  kr.  FI.  kr. 

Ft.  kr. 

FI.  kr. 

FI.  kr. 

FI.  kr. 

FI.  kr. 

2* 

1  >J0 

1  95 

2  00  2  05 

2  10 

2  15 

2  20 

2  25 

2  25 

3 

2  05 

2  10 

2  15  2  20 

2  25 

2  30 

2  35 

2  10 

2  55 

34 

2  25 

2  30 

2  35  2  15 

2  50 

2  00 

2  65 

2  75 

2  90 

The  form  of  these  traces  and  the  arrangement  of  loops  and  links  at 
the  end  are  shown  in  the  figure. 


Galvanized  iron-wire  traces. 


The  loops  at  the  ends  are  fitted  with  metal  guards  to  receive  the  wear. 
The  rings  are  made  of  wrought  iron.  The  lengths  stated  are  from  a  to 
b.  The  rings  add  from  four  and  a  half  to  six  inches.  The  whole  sur¬ 
face  is  galvanized  or  zinked  to  prevent  rusting. 

*  The  Austrian  foot  =  1.0371  feet;  Austrian  Uoriu =50  cents,  approximately  ;  and 
the  kreutzer  half  a  cent. 


CHAPTER  II. 


GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

Extent  and  arrangement  of  the  iron  and  steel  display  ;  Extent  of  the 
production  ;  Chief  localities  ;  Rapid  growth  of  the  industry  ;  Develop¬ 
ment  of  steel-manufacture;  Cast  steel;  Graphic  illustrations  of  produc¬ 
tion  ;  Imports  and  exports  ;  Number  of  exhibitors  ;  Borsig’s  display  of 

LARGE  BOILER-PLATE  ;  DlLLINGER  SHEET-IRON  ;  STYRUM  COMPANY  ;  IRON  SHOES  FOR 
RAILWAY-BRAKES  ;  KONIGS  AND  LAURAHUTTE  ;  IRON  GIRDERS  AND  COLUMNS,  BUR- 

bach  Works  and  Phcenix  Iron-Works  ;  Iron  railway-ties,  Burbach,  Schalten- 
BRAND,  AND  OTHERS  ;  KltUPP’S  DISPLAY  ;  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  WORKS  AND  PRODUCTS 
shown  ;  The  fifty-two-ton  ingot  of  crucible  steel  ;  Artillery  material  of 

CRUCIBLE  STEEL ;.  BUTTGENBACH’S  BLAST-FURNACE  ;  OSNABRUCK  IRON  AND  STEEL 

Works  ;  Gleinitz  furnace  ;  Dimensions  of  furnaces  at  different  periods. 

36.  The  exhibition  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  of  the  German  Em¬ 
pire  is  magnificent  and  highly  instructive.  It  is  arranged  with  the 
other  mining  and  metallurgical  products  chiefly  in  a  special  building, 
between  the  Industry  Palace  and  the  Machinery  Hall,  while  Krupp’s 
unrivaled  display  occupies  another  structure  alongside. 

37.  The  total  values  of  the  ores  raised  in  the  empire,  exclusive  of 
Elsace  and  Lothringen,  in  the  year  1870,  amounted  to  7,116,828  thalers, 
as  shown  by  the  statistics  presented  at  the  exhibition,  from  which  the 
annexed  statement  of  the  number  of  establishments,  men  employed, 
and  the  aggregate  production  in  the  year  1871,  is  compiled  : 


Number  of 
works. 

Number  of 
men. 

Production. 

V  alue. 

1,258 

631 

354 

216 

24,  973 
39,  525 
43,  849 
12,  892 

Gwt. 

58,  550,  539 
29,  942, 264 
17,  437,  766 
3,  399,  027 

Thaler. 

7, 116,  828 
49,  251,  650 
57,  4d0,  264 
22,  747,  626 

Cast  iror» . 

Steel.  “ . 

38.  The  chief  seats  of  the  German  iron-industry  are  the  Silesian 
provinces,  Westphalia,  and  the  Rhenish  provinces  of  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia.  The  great  increase  of  the  development  of  this  industry  of 
late  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  production  of  pig-iron,  which  in  the 
year  1825  did  not  exceed  1,004,162  centners,  amounted  to  nearly 
30,000,000  centners  in  tbe  year  1871.  According  to  the  returns  of  the 
united  German  customs,  there  were  in  1861  469  cupola-furnaces, 
(Prussia,  310;)  207  iron-wire  works, '(Prussia,  166,  of  which  146  were  in 
the  province  of  Westphalia ;)  296  steel-works,  including  stebl-rolling 
and  steel-wire  works,  (Prussia,  275;)  982  iron  and  tin  ware  works,  in¬ 
cluding  scythe,  chain,  anchor,  nail,  and  other  works,  with  13,336 
workmen,  (Prussia,  794;  Bavaria,  66;  Wtirtemberg,  42;)  548  steel- 
ware  and  edge-tool  works,  with  3,081  workmen,  (Prussia,  460,  of  which 
427  were  in  the  Rhine  provinces;)  421  iron-railing  works,  heating  and 
cooking  apparatus  works,  witb  12,077  workmen,  (Prussia,  242;  Sax- 


56 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ony,  43 ;)  50  manufactories  of  arms,  with.  4,188  workmen,  (Prussia, 
35  ;)  65  uail-works,  with  3,729  workmen,  (Prussia,  34 ;  Bavaria,  30.) 

39.  In  the  year  1871,  Prussia  alone  produced  5,689,944  centners  of 
cast-iron  ware  in  492  works,  with  24,600  workmen ;  1,840,159  centners 
of  sheet-iron  in  59  works,  with  4,536  workmen  ;  157,443  centners  of  tin¬ 
plate  in  6  establishments,  with  826  workmen  ;  1,091,042  centners  of  iron 
wire  in  43  works,  with  3,185  workmen  ;  3,664,064  centners  of  steel  in 
78  establishments,  with  15,290  workmen,  of  which  2,963,313  were  cast 
steel  in  34  works,  with  13,656  workmen. 

40.  The  development  of  the  Prussian  steel-industry  is  extremely  inter¬ 
esting.  In  the  year  1825,  the  production  did  not  exceed  62,065  centners. 
In  1832,  a  small  quantity,  94  centners,  of  cast  steel  was  made,  but  the 
quantity  of  steel  increased  rapidly  to  723,297  centners  in  1862,  including 
274,662  centners  of  cast  steel.  Upon  the  general  introduction  of  the 
Bessemer  process  in  1863,579,508  centners  of  cast  steel  were  made,  while 
the  total  steel-product  rose  to  952,767  centners.  The  percentage  of 
cast  steel  in  the  total  manufacture  amounted  in  the  year  1832  to  less 
than  6  percent.,  in  1850  14  per  cent.,  in  1855  to  about  29  per  cent.,  1S62, 
about  38  per  cent.,  in  1863,  nearly  60  per  cent.,  and  in  1871  to  about  71 
per  cent. 

Prussian  ores. 


1873. 


1372. 


To  tit. 


Tan*. 


Bog  iron-ore . 

Brown  hematite . 

Spathic  carbonate..'. 

Clay  ironstone . 

Black  band . . 

Hematite . 

Magnetic  iron-ore  ... 
Limonite,  (bohnerj!) 
Specular  iron-ore _ 


25,685 
1.  574,  657 
742,  900 
55, 396 
223,467 
698.  148 
10.  415 
223,  986 
353 


29, 012 
1,651,550 
771,  465 
26,  767 
275,  420 
657,  isl 
9,277 
240,  692 


Total 


3,  555,  005  3,  671,  264 


Increase. 


Tons. 


28,  629 


40,  967 
1,  138 


353 


Decrease. 


Tons. 

3,  327 
86,  893 
28,565 


51,953 


16,  706 


»  116,359 


41.  The  above  table  shows  the  nature  of  the  ores  and  the  quantity 
raised  in  Prussia,  during  the  years  1872  and  1873,  with  theiucrease  and 
decrease.  The  total  product  of  iron-ores  during  the  year  1874  is  given 
at  2,090,133  metrical  tons,  valued  at  about  £893,461,  a  diminution  of  no 
less  than  1,464,872  tons  iu  quantity,  (£776,384  in  value,)  as  compared 
with  the  production  iu  1S73. 

The  following  data  show  the  production,  estimated  value,  aud  number 
of  hands  employed  iu  the  different  government  iron-works  iu  Prussia 
in  1874 : 


Production  in  centners. 

Value  in  thaler. 

Workmen. 

1874. 

1373. 

1874. 

1873. 

1874. 

1873. 

1,  203,  324 

3 68.  276 

2,  286,  315 
324.  974 

187,  049 

410, 152 

531 

818 

573,  213 
70-3,  330 

760,  651 

1, 128.  745 
420, 169 
15,  789 

273 

267 

173,086 

29,523 

1.  174 

226,  994 
41,  250 
890 

796 

937 

348!  935 
19,  244 

366 

303 

16 

17 

PRUSSIAN  IRON  AND  STEEL  PRODUCTION. 


57 


42.  The  rapid  increase  in  the  production  of  iron  and  steel  for  the  last 
forty  years  is  well  illustrated  by  a  series  of  graphic  charts  on  a  large 
scale  hung  upon  the  walls  of  the  entrance  to  the  German  building  for 
mining  industry.  These  charts  show  in  colors  the  relative  product  of 
each  year  from  1837  to  1871  in  millions  of  kilograms. 


Fig.  47. — Production  of  pig-iron,  Prussia,  1837  to  1871. 

The  chart  for  pig-iron  shows  a  gradual  increase  through  each  decade, 
but  tho  chart  of  steel-production  shows  a  very  rapid  augmentation  of 
product  since  1860. 


Fig.  48. — Production  of  steel,  Prussia,  1837  to  1871. 


58 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Each  of  these  diagrams  shows  a  very  considerable  fluctuation  of  pro 
Auction  from  year  to  year,  but,  on  the  average,  a  constant  increase 
highly  encouraging  to  the  industry  of  iron. 


Fig.  49. — Production  of  bar-iron,  Prussia,  1837  to  1871. 


borsig’s  exhibit. 


59 

43.  The  German  trade  in  iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  from  them, 


s  very  considerable,  as  shown  by  the  customs  returns  for  the  year  1871, 
giving,  as  below,  the  imports  and  the  exports: 

Imported. 

Exported. 

Owt. 

11,  849,  410 

1,  418,  809 
2,017,511 
93,  731 
36,  360 
765,  981 
138,011 
437,  505 
597,  840 
70. 105 
12,  160 
76,  134 

Gwt. 

4,  137,  844 

1,  212,  885 

2,  553,  908 
161,  349 
161, 127 

1,  225, 188 
119,  432 
496,  231 
323,  557 
58,  289 
22,  558 
22,  477 

Sheet-iron  and  steel-plate . 

Tin-plate . „ . „ . • . 

Fine  iron  ware . . . 

Nails,  needles,  steel  pens,  &e . * . . 

Total . 

5,664,747 

6,  357,  001 

44  The  number  of  exhibitors  in  Group  1  alone  is  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  seventy-two,  most  of  them  being  iron  and  steel  works  of 
considerable  magnitude,  but  this  number  includes  also  exhibits  of  coal, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  &c.  There  are,  besides,  in  the  section  of  Group  YII 
(Metal  Industry)  devoted  to  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  no  less  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  exhibitors,  but  these  include  many  manufactures 
not  ordinarily  classed  with  iron  and  steel  products. 

Only  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  exhibits,  in  regard  to  which  notes 
were  made,  can  here  be  noticed. 

45.  A.  Borsig,  Upper  Silesia. — This  firm,  with  large  establish¬ 
ments  in  Silesia,  and  also  near  Berlin,  makes  a  fine  display  of  cast-steel 
ingots,  sections  of  girders,  piston-lieads,  boxes,  and  various  parts  of 
machinery.  There  are  some  large  and  well-forged  cranks  and  connect¬ 
ing-rods,  large  boiler  heads  and  plates,  in  cast  steel,  one  weighiug  480 
kilograms ;  another  5,300  by  1^500  by  13  millimeters,  weighing  950  kilo¬ 
grams.  Among  the  large  boiler-plates,  (presumably  of  iron,)  two  may 
be  cited  for  their  great  size  and  perfection.  The  first,  6,400  by  2,200  by 
5  millimeters,  weight  550  kilograms ;  the  second,  8,000  by  2,100  by  13 
millimeters,  weighing  1,700  kilograms.  Two  sheets  of  locomotive-boiler 
plate,  respectively,  7,400  by  1,010  by  30  millimeters,  weight  967.5  kilo¬ 
grams,  7,500  by  1,170  by  40  millimeters,  weight  2,730  kilograms,  received 
the  Progress  Medal.  The  central  portion  of  this  fine  display  consists 
of  a  glass  case  containing  the  smaller  objects  surmounted  by  a  stack 
of  ore.  There  is  a  monumental  pyramid  of  coal,  with  a  bust  of  Borsig  (?) 
at  the  top.  Progress  Medal. 

These  works  were  established  in  1863.  There  are  now  (1873)  4 
blast-furnaces,  40  puddling-ovens,  21  heating-ovens,  3  annealing-ovens, 
3  steel  melting-ovens,  and  2  heating-ovens.  They  produced  in  1872,  with 
1.542  workmen,  400,000  hundred-weight  of  pig-iron,  26,000  hundred¬ 
weight  castings  for  the  use  of  the  works,  300,000  hundred-weight  of 
rolled  iron,  26,600  hundred-weight  steel  for  the  German  market.  Open- 
hearth  steel  by  Martin’s  process  is  a  specialty  of  these  works. 


60 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


46.  Dillinger  Company. — The  Dillinger  Stock  Company  makes  a 
fine  display  of  rolled  plates,  of  large  size  and  of  all  thicknesses,  manufac¬ 
tured  of  superior  charcoal-iron.  These  sheets  of  iron  comprise  reservoir- 
iron,  bridge-sheets,  locomotive-boiler  plate,  and  ordinary  sheet-iron  and 
tin-plate.  One  sheet  of  reservoir-iron  weighs  2,130  pounds,  and  measures 
6,500  by  1,900  by  11  millimeters ;  a  bridge-plate  measures  150,000  by  1,000 
by  9  millimeters,  and  weighs  2,100  pounds.  A  locomotive-plate  4,100  by 
1,900 by  19  millimeters.  Button-iron  is  shown  in  sheets  456  by305  by  0-26 
millimeters.  Some  of  the  sheet-iron  is  so  thin  that  3S4  sheets  are  re¬ 
quired  to  make  a  thickness  equal  to  one  millimeter.  Buckled  plates 
and  corrugated  iron  are  shown  in  great  variety,  and  apparently  of  un¬ 
usually  good  quality. 

This  establishment  was  founded  iu  1763.  In  1872  the  production  was 
about  400,000  hundred-weight  of  sheet-iron,  including  the  tinned  and 
zinked  iron.  About  2,000  men  are  employed. 

47.  Styrum  Company,  Oberhausen. — The  stock  company  at  Sty- 
rum,  in  Oberhausen,  Rhenish  Prussia,  seud  some  very  large  rectangular 
and  circular  boiler-plates,  with  bar  and  augle  iron  of  all  forms.  One 
boiler-plate  measures  3,770  by  2,305  by  13  millimeters,  and  weighs  1,025 
kilograms.  The  circular  boiler-head  is  2,550  millimeters  in  diameter 
and  15  millimeters  thick,  and  weighs  625  kilograms. 

These  works  were  established  in  1857.  In  1872  the  production,  with 
650  workmen,  was  about  300,000  hundred-weight.  There  are  40  pud¬ 
dling-ovens,  20  heating-ovens,  and  11  rolls. 

4S.  Iron  snoES  for  railway-brakes. — The  brothers  Glockuer,  of 
Tschirndorf,  near  Halban,  in  Silesia,  send  a  variety  of  forms  and  sizes 
of  brake-irons  for  the  use  of  railways.  They  have  agents  in  England, 
Russia,  Bavaria,  Austria,  and  Hungary.  This  concern  makes  a  specialty 
of  steel  castings,  and  produced  iu  1S72  7,000  hundred-weight  with  95 
workmen  and  two  cupola-furuaces. 

49.  United  Konigs  and  Laurahutte. — The  furnaces  and  rolling- 
mills  of  this  company  were  represented  by  a  conspicuous  stack  of  bar- 
iron,  rails,  rods,  and  sheet-irou  tastefully  arranged  upon  a  pedestal  sur¬ 
mounted  with  an  irou  crown,  and  bouud  around  with  a  sheet-iron  baud, 
tied  iu  a  bow-knot.  This  was  placed  in  the  rotunda.  The  bars  and 
rods  were  variously  twisted  and  tied  into  knots  to  show  their  toughness 
and  strength. 

There  are  7  blast-furnaces  at  Konigshiitte,  and  a  rolling-mill,  be¬ 
sides  works  for  Bessemer  steel.  At  Laurakiitte  there  are  eight  furnaces, 
six  of  which  produced  35,000  tons  of  pig-iron  in  1872. 

IRON-WIRE  INDUSTRY  in  WESTPHALIA. 

50.  The  Westphalian  Union  Joint-Stock  Company  in  Hamm,  on  the 
Lippe,  ( Westfalische  Union  Action- Gesellschaft  fur  Bergbau ,  Eisen,  und 
Draht-Industrie,)  is  a  recent  incorporation  representing  several  distinct 
establishments,  which,  as  united,  is  claimed  to  be  the  largest  uudertak- 


IRON  WIRE  FROM  WESTPHALIA. 


61 


ing  in  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  wire.  Over  2,800 
men  are  employed,  and  the  total  annual  production  of  manufactured 
ware,  exclusive  of  pig-iron,  is  about  84,000,000  pounds,  and  is  in¬ 
creasing. 

Until  recently  this  great  industry  was  in  the  hands  of  a  few  private 
firms.  The  chief  market  for  their  production  was  in  the  cities  of  Iser- 
iohn  and  Altena,  and  their  vicinity,  for  the  manufacture  of  needles.  A 
number  of  small  mountain-streams  supplied  the  power  for  grinding  and 
polishing  the  needles.  But  the  rapid  spread  of  the  electric  telegraph 
and  the  substitution  of  iron  for  copper  wire  in  its  construction  com¬ 
pletely  changed  the  market  and  revolutionized  the  wire-industry  of  this 
region. 

Another  very  considerable  demand  for  iron  and  steel  wire  grew  out 
of  the  use  of  wire-ropes  in  mining-operations  and  the  greatly  extended 
consumption  of  wire-nails.  Wire-nails  for  many  years  were  of  small 
size,  not  much  larger  than  carpet  tacks  or  brads,  but  now  they  are 
made  of  almost  all  dimensions,  up  to  one-quarter  of  a  meter  in  length 
and  three-quarters  of  a  centimeter  in  diameter.  They  are  largely  used 
in  building,  are  made  by  machinery,  and  are  very  cheap.  They  have 
driven  wrought  nails,  excepting  only  horseshoe-nails,  from  the  market. 

Another  important  consumption  of  the  wire  made  in  the  works  of  the 
Westphalia  Union  is  in  the  manufacture  of  rivets,  screws,  springs,  and 
of  wire-cloth  and  lattice-work.  It  is  largely  used  also  for  wire-cordage 
for  ships’  rigging,  for  teledynamic  cables,  and  for  suspension-bridges. 

These  are  some  of  the  many  uses  of  wire  cited  by  the  company  in  the 
brochure  which  they  print  in  German  descriptive  of  their  works  and 
production.  They  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  quality  of  wire  is 
not  of  so  much  importance  iu  their  estimation  in  the  manufacture  of 
nails  and  screws  as  in  the  manufacture  of  needles,  rivets,  and  wire- 
rope,  and  sometimes,  also,  of  telegraph-wire.  These  latter  require  con¬ 
siderable  hardness  and  tensile  strength  in  the  wire.  For  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  wire-rope,  and  also  telegraph-wire,  it  is  important  that  the  wire 
be  in  as  long  pieces  as  possible.  The  company  claims  for  its  products  a 
world-wide  reputation,  and  gives  a  statement  iu  some  detail  of  their 
distribution  and  uses  in  several  countries,  from  which  the  following  is 
condensed. 

51.  The  high  reputation  which  the  Westphalia  wire-industry  has  ob¬ 
tained  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  different  works  have  made  the 
manufacture  of  wire  a  specialty,  and  by  long  experience  have  been 
able  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  needle-trade  as  regards  quality. 

The  Westphalia  wire  industry  had  also  better  opportunity  for  the 
selection  of  suitable  raw  material  than  other  localities,  and  the  works 
could  produce  blooms  directly  from  the  pig,  which  could  be  rolled  into 
wire  in  a  second  manipulation  without  the  manufacture  of  a  costly  in¬ 
termediate  product.  The  importance  of  these  advantages  over  other 
localities,  and  the  care  exercised  iu  the  manufacture,  enabled  the  West- 


62 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


pkalia  wire-industry  to  overcome  the  competition  of  the  English  and 
French.  Westphalia  telegraph-wire  is  used  in  various  submarine  cables ; 
stretches  over  the  great  Bussian  Empire ;  withstood  competition  with 
the  English  wire  used  by  the  English  government  in  the  East  Indies, 
for  which  tests  were  required  which  other  manufacturers  considered 
unattainable.  It  is  used  by  the  Brazilian  government ;  it  was  well 
known  in  the  Parisian  market  before  the  French  war,  and  obtained  this 
market  afterward,  and  is  used  by  the  Prussian  and  German  govern-  i 
ment  telegraphs.  In  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of  1870-71,  the  great 
demand  for  field-telegraph  wife  was  supplied  by  the  firm  of  Cosack  & 
Co.,  now  the  Hamm  division  of  the  Union.  It  is  not  strange,  there¬ 
fore,  that  this  wire-industry,  which  was  previously  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  firms,  drew  the  attention  of  capitalists,  and  a  joint-stock  company 
was  formed,  in  order  to  secure  more  capital  and  a  consolidation  of  in-  I 
terests  against  competition.  Four  of  the  most  important  works  of  the 
Westphalia  wire-industry  now  united  under  this  firm  will  be  noticed  in 
succession. 

52.  Hamm  Division,  (formerly  Cosack  &  Co.) — Annual  production, 
about  28,000,000  pounds  of  rolled  wares.  The  works  are  situated  on 
and  connected  with  three  principal  railways,  with  an  area  of  about 
thirty  acres.  The  manufactures  consist  of  the  following  chief  products:  l 
Bar-iron  and  rolled  wire,  drawn  wire,  especially  telegraph-wire,  wire  for 
wire-ropes,  &c.;  wire-tacks,  springs,  boiler  and  bridge  rivets,  and  car-  j 
riage-axles.  The  plant  of  these  works  consists  of  30  puddling-furnaces, 
including  2  u  Schrott  ovens,”  9  heating-ovens  with  blast,  38  steam-  | 
boilers,  3  steam-hammers,  1  lift-hammer,  and  6  lines  of  rolls,  2  of  which  I 
are  for  bloom-iron,  2  for  bar-iron,  and  2  for  rolled  wire,  besides  the  ordi-  [ 
nary  shears  and  saws.  There  are  II  driving-engines,  besides  the  neces-  I 
sary  accessory  engines,  giving  altogether  about  450  horse-power,  with 
water-pumps,  steam-pumps,  &c.  The  rolled  wire  produced  is  for  the  I 
most  part  further  worked  in  2  drawing-mills  and  a  tack-shop.  In  a 
rivet-shop,  boiler  and  bridge  rivets  are  made  in  7  machines  ;  6  hammers  ! 
and  20  lathes  and  drills  serve  for  the  manufacture  of  axles.  The  estab-  I 
lishment  possesses  1  iron-foundery  with  3  cupola-furnaces  and  1  rever¬ 
beratory  furnace,  1  machine  shop,  1  apparatus  for  zinking  fourteen  wires  . 
at  the  same  time,  1  factory  for  green  vitriol,  (sulphate  of  iron,)  1  factory 
for  fire-brick,  and  4  limekilns. 

53.  Nachrodt  division,  (formerly  Ed.  Schmidt.) — This  has  an  area 
of  about  150  acres  and  railway  connection  with  the  “  Bergisch-Markisch” 
Railroad,  with  a  solid  bridge  over  the  Linne.  Annual  production,  about 
24,000,000  pounds  of  finished  goods.  These  works  have  the  advantage  j 
of  a  very  important  water-power  of  the  Linne  at  their  disposal,  and,  in-  ( 
deed,  the  works  are  run  by  the  following :  1  water-wheel  of  100  horse-  I 
power,  1  water-wheel  of  60  horse  power,  1  Kochlin  turbine  of  135  i 
horse-power,  1  second  turbine  of  100  horse-power,  1  third  turbine,  for 
running  the  drawing-shop,  of  10  horse-power,  making  a  total  of  405 


IRON-WIRE  PRODUCTION - WESTPHALIA. 


63 


horse-power.  Such  an  available  water-power  represents  a  considerable 
capital  in  comparison  with  the  cost  of  steam-engines  and  boilers,  with 
expenses  for  repairs,  and  the  consumption  of  coal.  These  works  were, 
therefore,  in  a  situation,  being  alongside  the  rolling-mill,  which,  by  the 
waste  heat,  afforded  enough  steam  for  the  finishing  of  the  product,  to 
take  up  some  manufacture  which  required  greater  power  than  the  heat 
from  the  gas-furnaces  produced,  as  is  the  case  with  the  manufacture  of 
thin  plate.  Although  the  manufacture  of  rolled  wire  is  the  most  impor¬ 
tant,  these  works  also  produce  a  considerable  quantity  of  tin-plate  as 
well  as  sheet-iron,  button-plate,  and  brass-plate.  The  plant  consists  of 
21  puddling-furnaces,  7  heating-ovens,  22  steam-boilers,  3  steam-ham¬ 
mers,  6  steam-engines,  3  bar  and  bloom  rolls,  2  refined  iron  lines  of  rolls, 
1  wire  line  of  rolls,  4  pairs  of  plate-rolls  for  tinned  plate,  sheet-iron,  and 
button-plate,  and  also  2  pairs  of  rolls  for  brass-plate.  The  manufacture 
of  rivets,  nuts,  and  screws  is  considerable,  and  during  the  last  working 
year  reached  about  two  and  one-third  million  pounds,  which  yielded  a 
very  good  profit.  The  works  possess  a  foundery,  draw-shop,  blacksmith- 
shop,  repair-shop,  and  all  the  necessary  accessories.  There  are  also  in 
process  of  building,  4  puddling-furnaces  for  utilizing  fine  wire  and  plate- 
waste,  1  bloom-roll,  and  1  steam-hammer. 

54.  Lippstadt  Division,  (formerly  A.  &Th.  Linhoff.) — Annual  pro¬ 
duction,  about  13,000,000  pounds  of  finished  goods.  The  puddling  and 
rolling  mill  at  Lippstadt  produces  chiefly  wire  and  wire  fabrics,  and  also 
merchant  iron.  The  works  are  connected  with  the  Westphalia  Railway, 
and  possess  about  twenty-eight  acres  of  territory  in  the  immediate  neigh¬ 
borhood  of  the  station.  The  puddling  and  rolling  mill  contains  12  pud¬ 
dling-furnaces  and  3  heating-ovens,  each  oven  being  provided  with  a 
boiler.  The  works  have  3  sets  of  rolls  and  1  bloom-roll,  1  bar-roll,  and  1 
quick  roll  for  wire;  2  steam-hammers,  and  2  small  lift-hammers  for  the 
manufacture  of  beaten  iron;  finally,  1  drawing-mill,  with  12  large-sized 
and  68  medium  and  fine  sized  rolls.  The  drawing-mill  and  tack-factory  at 
Belecke,  belonging  to  Messrs.  Linhoff’,  have  also  been  added  to  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  the  company.  This  has  an  area  of  about  forty  acres,  besides  water 
and  steam  power.  The  factory  contains  46  wire-tack  machines,  16  large- 
size  rolls,  8  fine  size,  and  8  medium  size  in  process  of  erection.  All  the 
shops  possess  the  necessary  repair-shops,  with  lathes,  drills,  planing 
machines,  &c.  The  charcoal-furnace  at  Bericherhiitte,  in  Fiirstenthurm, 
Waldeck,  also  belongs  to  the  Linhoff  Works.  This  furnace  has  a  daily 
production  of  about  40  centners  of  the  best  charcoal-iron,  of  unusual 
strength,  which  is  especially  suited  for  piano-wire  and  scraper- wire,  but 
is  employed  mostly  for  hard  castings,  parts  of  rolling-machines,  square 
and  corrugated  rolls,  puddling-furnace  canals,  crucibles,  &c.  This  fur¬ 
nace  has  the  right  of  pre-emption  for  charcoal  in  the  Fiirstenthurm, 
Waldeck,  and  possesses  57  shares  (out  of  128)  in  a  mining  concession  of 
521,750  square  “lachter”  (fathoms)  of  a  very  valuable  iron-ore.  A  rail¬ 
way  now  built  is  intended  to  bring  the  mine  into  communication  with 


64 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


the  station  Bredlar.  This  railway  is  conducted  by  the  mine-owners,  and 
was  to  begin  operation  in  July,  1873. 

55.  Werdohl  Division,  (formerly  Friedrich  Thorn£e.) — Annual 
production,  about  19,000,000  pounds  of  manufactured  products,  such  as 
rolled  wire,  drawu  wire,  and  springs.  To  this  division  belong: 

a.  The  puddling  and  rolling  mill  in  Werdohl ,  with  14,000,000  pounds’ 
production,  situated  immediately  by  the  statiou,  and  connected  by  a 
side-track  with  the  “Bergisch-Markisch”  Railway.  These  works  have 
16  puddling-furnaces,  3  heating-ovens,  16  steam-boilers,  2  bloom-ham¬ 
mers,  1  bloom-roll,  2  wire-rolls,  and  a  repair-shop  with  roll-drawing 
apparatus. 

h.  The  works  in  Uetterlingsen ,  (wire-drawing  mill.) — These  are  situated 
on  the  Liune,  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  statiou  Werdohl,  and  have 
a  water-privilege  of  about  250  horse  power  and  1  steam-engine,  driving 
48  large-size,  22  medium-size,  and  130  band  and  scraper  rolls.  There 
are  also  machines  for  drawing  spring-wire.  There  are  about  2,500,000 
pounds  of  products. 

c.  The  puddling  and  rolling  mill  at  Einsal ,  with  about  5,000,000 
pounds’  production,  situated  half  a  mile  from  the  station  Alteua. 
These  works  have  about  the  same  water-power  as  those  at  Uetterliug- 
sen,  with  5  puddling-furnaces,  1  heating-oven,  1  lift-hammer,  1  bloom- 
roll,  and  1  wire-roll. 


IRON  GIRDERS  AND  COLUMNS. 

56. — The  finest  display  of  rolled  girders  and  augle-iron  of  large  sizes 
is  made  by  the  Burbach  Furnace  Company,  ( Luxemburger  Bergwerks 
und  Saarhriicker  Msenhiitten-Actien-Qesellschaft  zu  Burbach ,)  which  sends 
a  variety  of  girders  of  full  length,  and  elegantly  supported  upon  a  pyra¬ 
midal  iron  frame,  sustained  by  a  special  stone  foundation  independent 
of  the  floor  of  the  building.  The  girders  rest  upon  ornamental  brack¬ 
ets,  in  the  form  of  lions’  heads.  The  following  sizes  of  girders  are  noted  : 

18,000x355x142x13  millimeters. 

1S,000x262x  96x  9  millimeters. 

18,000 x 200 x  100 x  9  millimeters. 

18,000xl25x  75x  6  millimeters. 

I  16,500x400x140x10  millimeters. 

I  16,500x250x140x10  millimeters. 
j_  16,500x200  120x  8  millimeters. 
j  16,500xl53x  5Sx  7  millimeters. 

The  same  establishmeut  sends  several  hollow  wrought-iron  columns, 
composite,  made  by  riveting  together  flanged  plates  of  the  proper  form  ; 
in  short,  the  well-known  Americau  Phoenix  wrought-iron  column,  in¬ 
vented  and  patented  by  Samuel  J.  Reeves,  president  of  the  Phoenix 
Iron  Company,  June  17,  1862.*  The  specimens  here  shown  are  highly 

*  Works  at  Phcenixville,  Pa.,  John  Griffen,  superintendent. 


B URBACH  WORKS. 


65 


(creditable  to  the  works,  being  of  large  size  and  well  made.  The  largest 
(a)  is  square  in  section,  and  12  inches  iuterual  diameter  ;  another  (b)  is 
the  same  in  form,  but  smaller  and  longer;  and  a  third  (c)  is  simply  a 
flanged  girder  X-  The  exact  dimensions  are  below  : 

a.  19,200x280  x§6xl8  millimeters. 

b.  20,000x1631x^0x13  millimeters. 

c.  26,000x157  x96x!2  millimeters. 

A  long  round  column  of  similar  construction,  and  very  perfect,  and 
remarkable  also,  as  all  such  columns  are,  for  rigidity,  lightness,  and 
strength,  is  shown  in  the  Belgian  section. 

Columns  of  this  construction  and  of  greater  dimensions  than  these 
are  no  novelty  in  the  United  States,  for  the  Phoenix  Iron-Works  make  a 
great  variety  of  sizes  and  forms,  and  can  fill  orders  on  demand  for 
columns  100  feet  long,  and  from  3  inches  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  composed 
of  segmental  pieces,  varying  from  £  of  an  inch  to  2  inches  in  thickness. 

For  more  than  ten  years  this  description  of  column,  or  post,  has  been 
largely  manufactured  at  the  Phoenix  Iron-Works,  and  many  thousand 
tons  of  them  have  gone  into  the  construction  of  wrought-irou  bridges, 
viaducts,  depots,  warehouses,  and  other  structures  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States,  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  South  and  Central 
America.  All  the  top  chords  and  posts  of  the  trusses  in  the  interna¬ 
tional  bridge  over  the  Niagara  River,  near  Buffalo,  are  made  of  Phoenix 
columns.  The  same  can  be  said  of  the  intercolonial  and  all  the  new 
bridges  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  in  Canada,  the  Augusta  bridge,  in 
Maine,  the  Girard  Avenue  bridge,  over  the  Schuylkill,  the  New  River  and 
Greenbrier  bridges,  in  Virginia,  the  three  wrought-iron  bridges  at 
Rock  Island,  Ill.,  and  scores  of  others.  Many  important  viaducts  are 
composed  almost  entirely  of  those  columns,  as  the  Lyman  and  Rapallo 
viaducts  in  Connecticut;  the  Lyon  Brook,  Deep  Gorge,  and  Block¬ 
house,  in  New  York ;  Bullock  Run  and  Bank  Lick,  in  Kentucky;  the 
Agua  Venagas,  in  Peru.  Many  of  these  structures  are  of  great  length  and 
depth,  the  last-mentioned  being  580  feet  long,  and  crossing  a  gorge  252  feet 
deep,  over  which  the  Lima  and  Arroya  Railroad  is  carried.  The  over¬ 
head  Greenwich  Street  Railway,  in  New  York  City,  rests  on  a  continu¬ 
ous  line  of  these  columns,  though  not  by  any  means  a  good  type,  owing 
to  their  flaring  tops  and  bottoms,  made  to  suit  the  peculiar  notions  of 
the  contractor  of  the  railway. 

57.  The  Burbach  Works  were  established  in  1816,  with  four  high 
furnaces.  In  1872  there  were  about  1,550  workmen,  and  the  produc¬ 
tion  was  over  1,000,000  hundred-weight  of  pig-iron,  418,000  hundred¬ 
weight  rails,  and  422,000  hundred- weight  of  shape-iron.  Since  1867 
the  daily  product  of  the  furnaces  has  increased  from  100  to  350  hun¬ 
dred-weight.  Double-T  girders  are  the  specialty  of  the  works.  They 
also  manufacture  and  exhibit  wrought  hoops,  flanged  inward,  for  lining 
circular  mining-shafts.  Some  of  these  are  from  10  to  12  feet  in  diam¬ 
eter,  and  5  feet  high.  One  hoop  or  ring  is  desigued  to  set  upon  another, 
and  in  this  way  a  high  column  may  be  built  up. 


66 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


IRON  RAILWAY- TIES. 

The  Burbacli  Company  also  make  an  interesting  exhibition  of  the 
different  forms  of  iron  they  are  manufacturing  for  “  permanent  way  ” 
for  railroads  by  substituting  iron  for  wooden  ties.  As  this  method,  if  | 
extensively  adopted,  will  lead  to  a  greatly-increased  demand  for  iron,  it 
is  specially  interesting  to  iron-manufactures,  as  well  as  to  railroad  men,  j 
and  merits  a  special  notice.  The  simplest  form  is  a  cross-tie,  rolled  j 
with  a  raised  ceuter  and  broad  flanges,  so  as  to  have  a  firm  bearing  on 
the  ground. 


Fig.  50. — Iron  railway-tie. 

They  are  about  a  foot  in  width  and  half  an  inch  thick,  and  appear  to  I 
be  intended  to  be  firmly  bedded  in  the  earth  without  any  special  kind 
of  filling.  The  rails  with  a  suitable  chair  are  bolted  to  the  top. 

Another  form  of  “  permanent  way  ”  consists  in  placing  the  iron  sleep-  > 
ers  on  ties  longitudinally  under  the  rails,  not  across  the  track,  but  I 
with  it,  in  lengths  of  about  twenty  feet  each,  the  parallelism  and  the 
uniform  distance  of  the  rails  being  maintained  by  tie-rods  at  intervals. 
The  form  of  this  iron  bed-plate  differs  from  the  simple  cross-tie  above  I 
mentioned.  It  is  wider,  and  is  provided  with  sharp  llanges  projecting 


9o  *  oo 


downward  so  as  to  penetrate  the  ground  and  hold  it  securely  against  ] 
side-thrusts.  The  breadth  is  300  millimeters;  depth,  GO  millimeters  | 
from  the  top  to  the  edge  of  the  flange,  equivalent  to  about  12  inches  | 
wide  and  4  iuches  deep. 

5S.  Schaltenbrand’s  iron  cross-tie. — O.  Schaltenbrand,  of  Ber-  I 
lin,  exhibits  his  proposed  iron  railway-tie,  a  hollow  sleeper,  filled  in 
with  sand  or  concrete,  and  to  which  the  rail  is  attached  by  bolts.  As  i| 
early  as  1870  Schaltenbrand  described  his  method  of  making  a  railway 
entirely  of  iron,  in  a  lecture  at  Cologne,  and  endeavored  to  prove  that  j 
the  wooden  ties  so  universally  used  in  railway-construction  can  be  re¬ 
placed  by  iron  ties  with  profit.  He  stated  eleveu  conditions  essential  ! 
to  first-class  construction  which  are  realized  in  sleepers  made  wholly  of  > 
wrought  iron.  He  theu  thought,  and  still  thinks,  that  iron  ties  are  des¬ 
tined  to  replace  wooden  ones  at  no  distant  day,  particularly  where  wood 
is  growing  scarce  and  dear  and  iron  more  abuudaut  and  cheaper.  The 
relative  economy  can  be  easily^ascertaiued  by  trial  of  the  iron  ties  along¬ 
side  of  the  ordinary  woodeu  ones. 


RAILWAY  TIES. 


67 


The  ties,  as  exhibited,  consist  of  plate-iron  rolled  or  bent  into  the 
form  indicated  by  the  cross-section  annexed,  with  a  bottom-plate  bent 
upward  at  the  edges  so  as  to  catch  and  hold  the  edges  of  the  upper  plate. 


A  flat  piece  of  iron  is  rolled  or  welded  upon  the  top,  and  the  rail  rests 
upon  this.  The  method  of  attaching  the  rail  is  in  this  instance  by 
clamps  pressed  firmly  upon  the  foot  of  the  rail  on  each  side  by  bolts,  as 
shown  in  the  cross-section  of  the  rail  appended,  but  this  is  unimportant, 
as  other  methods  of  securing  the  rail  to  the  tie  may  be  adopted. 


Fig.  54. — Cross-section  of  the  foot  of  rail  and  the  clamps. 

The  total  breadth  of  the  tie  is  about  10  inches ;  the  height  to  the 
bottom  of  the  rail  5  inches,  and  the  thickness  of  the  iron  plate  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  inch  at  the  sides  and  a  triflo  thicker  at  the  top.  The 
dimensions  in  millimeters  are:  breadth,  140  millimeters;  height,  120 
millimeters  +  10  millimeters ;  thickness,  4  millimeters  and  5  millime¬ 
ter.  The  extreme  length  of  the  tie  is  2,500  millimeters  and  the  width 
of  track  1,435  millimeters. 

The  tie  is  laid  down  before  being  filled  in.  The  inventor  proposes  for 
filling  either  sand,  loam,  or  sand  into  which  small  stones  are  crowded  to 
make  the  filling  firmer,  or  beton.  These  materials  are  to  be  rammed  in 
from  the  ends,  and  the  openings  are  closed  finally  by  a  tile  of  the  proper 
form.  It  is  also  suggested  that  tiles  or  “  shape-bricks”  may  be  made 
to  answer  for  the  filling. 


68 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  bearing-surface  or  foundation  of  this  tie  is  25  x  .25  =  .625  square 
meter.  Timber  ties,  it  is  observed  by  Schaltenbrand,  iu  making  the 
comparison  between  iron  and  wood,  often  measure  only  2.5  x  .2  =.5 
square  meter;  so  that  the  iron  tie  of  the  dimensions  given  maybe 
assumed  to  have  as  broad  a  bearing  upon  the  ground  as  the  average 
wooden  tie  of  Europe. 

Before  being  laid,  these  ties  are  plunged  into  a  bath  of  purified  coal- 
tar,  in  order  to  fill  the  pores  and  prevent  oxidation.  The  strength  of 
the  tie  is  increased  by  shrinking  on  the  lower  plate,  by  which  the  two 
parts  become  as  one.  The  inventor  states  the  strength  of  the  tie  at 
the  weakest  part,  where  pierced  by  the  holes  for  the  rail-bolts,  at  50,400 
centimeter-kilograms,  and  of  the  upper  portion  by  itself  at  32.200  cen¬ 
timeter-kilograms,  while  wooden  ties,  after  five  years1  use,  have  only 
15,000  centimeter -kilograms,  and  that  half  of  the  upper  part  of  an  iron 
tie  may  be  rusted  away  and  yet  it  will  be  as  strong  as  such  a  wooden 
tie.  He  affirms  that  the  sleeper  itself  is  stronger  than  timber,  and 
that,  being  uniform  in  size,  the  spaces  are  more  even,  and  that  the  rail 
is  more  securely  and  conveniently  attached  than  it  can  be  upon  wood, 
lie  claims  that  the  iron  ties,  being  heavier,  and  having  greater  bear¬ 
ing-surfaces,  are  not  as  easily  displaced  by  moving  trains  as  timbers, 
aud  that  rails  may  be  taken  up  and  reset  quicker  and  cheaper  than  when 
attached  to  timber  ties.  When  the  bed  of  the  road  is  once  packed, 
the  sleeper  can  remain  in  its  place  as  long  as  it  lasts,  as  no  jarring 
takes  place.  Irregularities  in  the  level  of  the  rails  are  easily  corrected 
by  putting  little  iron  wedges  under  the  rail  upon  the  sleeper.  After  a 
short  time  there  will  not  be  any  expense  iu  packing  the  sand  around  the 
ties,  and  then  their  great  durability  will  make  all  amends  for  the  dif¬ 
ference  iu  cost  over  timber.  The  rusting  iron  with  the  surrounding 
bed-material  and  the  inner  filling-material  will  finally  form  a  compact 
ferruginous  mass,  so  that  it  will  lie  very  firmly  as  long  as  it  lasts. 

The  weight  of  the  materials  is  as  follows: 

Kilograms. 

a.  The  upper  part,  cross  section,  16,116  square  centimeters, 

weight . 31.30 

b.  The  lower  part,  cross-section,  S,400  square  centimeters, 

weight .  16.34 

c.  2  bed  plates,  per  piece,  .63  kilogram  . .  1  .26 

d.  4  clamp-plates,  per  piece,  .IS  kilogram . .72 

e.  4  screws,  per  piece,  .17  kilogram . .68 

f.  1  connecting-link,  .03  kilogram .  .03 


50.33 

Or  about  50  kilograms,  say  100  pouuds.  The  cost  of  one  tie  now  is 
about  74  thaler,  but  when  iron  is  lower  the  same  weight  of  tie  would 
not  exceed  5  thaler.  Iu  comparison,  oak  ties,  with  four  spikes,  are  reck¬ 
oned  at  3  thaler. 


KRUPP’S  WORKS— -ESSEN.  6  iT 

KRUPP’S  DISPLAY. 

59.  The  celebrated  establishment  of  Krupp  at  Essen,  Rhenish  Prussia, 
fully  sustains  the  prestige  it  has  earned  by  its  liberal  participation  in 
former  exhibitions.  In  the  magnitude,  completeness,  and  excellence  of 
the  exhibition  here  made  it  shows  that  the  spirit  of  enterprise  which 
has  characterized  it  in  the  past  has  kept  pace  with  the  rapidly-expand¬ 
ing  proportions  of  the  industry  of  iron  and  steel,  and  that  the  magni¬ 
tude  of  its  operations  has  been  correspondingly  increased.  He  makes 
a  princely  exhibition  in  a  large  building  constructed  at  his  own  expense, 
in  which  the  various  costly  objects  are  tastefully  grouped,  and  so  ar¬ 
ranged  that  the  visitor  can  have  a  general  view  of  them  from  a  raised 
platform  at  the  entrance. 

The  following  statistical  data  concerning  the  works,  and  the  mines 
and  smelting-works  appertaining  to  them,  and  the  notices  of  the  objects 
exhibited  are  translated  from  the  brochure  printed  at  the  printing-office 
of  the  works  at  Essen  in  1S73. 

The  cast-steel  manufactory  near  Essen  was  established  in  the  year 
1S10.  It  was  conducted  by  Alfred  Krupp  from  the  year  1826,  and  taken 
by  him  on  his  own  account  in  1848. 

The  works  have  been  gradually  developed.  At  this  present  moment 
(January,  1873)  the  works  cover  a  continuous  area  of  more  than  4,784,- 
000  square  yards,  of  which  about  900,000  square  yards  are  covered  in, 
and  employ  more  than  12,000  workmen,  independently  of  about  2,000 
who  are  supplied  by  building-contractors. 

In  the  mines  and  smelting-works  belonging  to  the  Arm,  there  are  ern 
ployed  a  further  number  of  about  5,000  workmen.  Therefore,  the  total 
number  amounts  to  about  17,000  men. 

The  number  of  officers  and  fixed  employes  is  at  present  739. 

The  quantity  of  cast  steel  produced  in  the  year  1872  exceeded  125,000 
tons.  ./ 

The  articles  manufactured  from  this  cast  steel  were  axles,  tires, 
wheels  and  crossings  for  railways  ;  rails  and  springs  for  railways  and 
mines ;  shafts  for  steamers ;  different  pieces  of  machinery,  boiler-plates, 
rolls,  spring-steel,  tool-steel,  guns,  gun-carriages,  shot,  &c. 

There  are  now  in  operation  250  smelting-furnaces;  390  annealing- 
furnaces;  161  heating-furnaces;  115  welding  and  puddling  furnaces; 
14  cupola  and  reverberatory  furnaces  ;  160  furnaces  of  other  kinds  ;  275 
cokp-ovens ;  264 smiths’  forges;  240  steam-boilers,  (besides  70  more  now 
in  course  of  construction.) 

71  steam-hammers,  viz : 

Number  2  1 

(each)  cwt.  2,  3,  4,  7,  S,  10,  12,  15,  20,  30,  60,  65,  70,  75, 

Number  3  4  1111  1 

(each)  cwt,  100,  110,  140,  150,  200,  400,  1000. 


70 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

2SC  steam-engines,  viz : 

Number  57  40  10  17  0  1  4  38  4  21  10  3  22  5 

(each)  H.P.  2,  4,  0,  8,  10,  12^  13,  14,  Ifl,  18,  20,  23,  25,  30,  35, 

Number  24423  1  5  1  13  1 

(each)B.r.  40,  45,  00,  80,  100,  120,  150,  200,  500,  8Mb  100<b 
(representing  altogether  nearly  10,000  PI.  P.) 

1050  machine-tools,  viz :  302  turning-lathes;  S2  shaping-machines; 
195  boring-machines;  107  planing-machines;  42  punching  and  groov¬ 
ing  machines;  32  pressing-machines;  03  griiuling-machiues;  31  glazing 
and  polishing  machines ;  142  machines  of  different  kinds. 

In  the  year  1872  there  were  consumed  : 

Coals,  500,000  tons ;  coke,  125,000  tons ;  water,  113,000,000  cubic  feet,; 
supplied  from  several  water  works;  gas,  155,000,000  cubic  feet,  supplied 
by  the  gas-works  of  the  establishment  for  10,500  burners. 

The  works  are  in  railway -connection  with  the  Cologne-Miiuleu,| 
Bergiscli-Miirkiscli,  and  Ehenish  lines. 

To  facilitate  the  traffic  on  the  works  there  are — 

a.  About  twenty-four  miles  railways  of  usual  gauge,  with  ISO  sidingsl 
ifud  39  turn  tables,  on  which  run  12  tank-locomotives  of  about  10  iuchesw 
cylinder-diameter,  and  530  wagons.  Six  more  locomotives  are  now  in 
course  of  construction. 

b.  About  ten  miles  of  small-gauge  railways,  of  30  inch  gauge,  with 
147  sidings  and  05  turn-tables.  The  traffic  on  these  railways  is  carried 
ou  by  means  of  horses,  and  of  3  locomotives  of  0  inches  cylinder-diame¬ 
ter,  and  270  wagons.  Four  other  locomotives  are  now  being  constructed. ! 

The  carriage  department  comprises,  besides,  272  wagons,  and  alto¬ 
gether  191  horses,  of  which  00  to  SO,  are  supplied  by  contractors. 

To  facilitate  the  communication  betweeu  the  several  workshops,  there: 
are  30  telegraph  stations. 

A  permanent  fire-brigade,  consisting  of  70  men,  has  also  been  insti¬ 
tuted,  who  perform  at  the  same  time  police-duty.  There  are  100  watch¬ 
men  besides. 

The  general  supply  stores,  under  control  of  the  firm,  sell  to  voluntary  || 
purchasers,  (i.  e.  to  those  belonging  to  the  works,)  for  ready  cash,  pro- 1 
visions,  clothing,  drapery,  boots,  &c.,  at  cost-prices.  The  receipts  at 
the  different  stores  amount  at  preseut  to  about  £11,000  monthly,  and 
are  continually  increasing. 

Under  this  head  may  also  be  named  1  hotel,  3  beer-houses,  1  seltzer.}! 
water  manufactory,  1  flour-mill,  and  1  bakery  with  2  steam-engines,  li 
producing  at  an  average  85  tons  of  bread  monthly. 

Of  the  dwellings  for  the  officers  and  workmen,  there  are  for  the  former } 
206,  for  the  latter  2,948,  either  inhabited  or  in  course  of  construction.  If 
At  the  present  moment  there  are  living  in  these  houses,  the  number  of 
which  is  being  rapidly  increased,  already  more  than  8,000  individuals. 
The  existing  boarding-houses  offer  board  and  lodging  to  2,500  unmar¬ 
ried  workmen,  and  other  houses  of  the  same  description  are  now  being 
built  for  the  accommodation  of  1,600  more. 


KRUPP’S  WORKS - ESSEN. 


71 


The  arrangements  for  tire  accommodation  of  the  sick  consist  of  1 
hospital  containing  100  beds,  and  1  epidemic  hospital  with  120  beds, 
all  under  the  supervision  of  physicians  especially  engaged  for  the  pur¬ 
pose. 

A  sick,  burial,  and  pension  fund  has  also  been  instituted  for  the  work¬ 
men,  i.  e.  for  all  those  who  receive  wages  from  the  firm.  The  latter  con¬ 
tributes  to  this  fund  half  the  amount  of  the  contributions  paid  in  by 
the  members,  being,  in  addition,  at  the  expense  of  providing  pensions 
and  support  for  those  who  have  beeu  rendered  unfit  for  work  in  their 
service,  and  for  the  widows  of  their  workmen.  The  total  receipts  in  the 
year  1872  amounted  to  £16,000,  the  expenditure  to  £12,500,  and  capital 
in  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  year  (1873)  to  £19,348. 

From  another  fund,  members  receive  for  their  families  free  medical 
treatment  against  an  annual  payment  of  3  English  shillings. 

Finally,  the  firm  has  organized  a  chemical  laboratory,  a  photographic 
and  a  lithographic  atelier,  as  well  as  a  printing  and  book-binding  estab¬ 
lishment.  In  the  printing-office  there  are  2  steam  and  4  hand  presses  in 
operation. 

Besides  the  cast-steel  works  near  Essen,  the  firm  possesses  considera¬ 
ble  mining  and  smelting  works,  which  render  the  chief  works  independ¬ 
ent  of  fluctuations  in  prices,  and  secure  to  it  a  regular  and  uniform 
supply  of  the  best  raw  material.  This  head  comprises  ; 

1.  Administration  of  Krupp’s  Mines  : 

a.  Coal-pits :  1.  Pit  “  Graf  Beust 2.  Pit  “  Ernestine  ;”  3.  Pit  “  Fried¬ 
rich  Ernestine 4.  Pit  “  Hanover as  well  as  one-third  in  the  Con¬ 
cessions  “  Humboldt ”  and  “  Diergardt  ”  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine. 

b.  Iron-ore  mines:  1.  In  the  mining-districts  “Kirchen,”  “  Daaden,” 
“  Siegburg,”  “Hamm,”  “  Neuwied,”  together  64  mines,  (No.  1  to  64;)  2. 
In  the  mining-districts  “  Wetzlar,”  “  Weilburg,”  “  Dietz,”  “  Oberhes- 
sen,”  “  Rheinhesseu,”  and  “  Dilleuburg,”  together  294  mines,  (No.  65  to 
358 ;)  3.  In  the  mining-districts  “  Hamm  a.  d.  Sieg,”  “  Wied,”  “  link  el,” 
“  Coblenz,”  “  Riinderoth,”  together  56  mines,  (No.  359  to  414.)  Total 
number  of  mines  414,  with  an  area  of  more  than  239,200,000 
square  yards. 

The  firm  F.  Krupp  possesses,  finally,  important  concessions  of  ex¬ 
cellent  iron-ore  beds  in  North  Spain,  whence  it  is  intended  to  import 
annually  up  to  300,000  tons  of  ore  for  the  production  of  cast  steel.  To 
facilitate  the  importation,  a  railway  in  Spain  nearly  eight  miles  long,  as 
well  as  several  steamers,  is  already  in  course  of  construction. 

2.  The  administration  of  Krupp’s  Smelting- Works  comprises: 

a.  The  Sayner  and  Oberhammer  Smelting-Works,  containing  two 
blast-furnaces,  one  of  them  fed  with  charcoal.  Both  of  them  pro¬ 
duce  daily  about  twenty  tons  of  “  spiegeleisen”  and  “charcoal  spiegelei- 
seu.”  An  iron-fouudery  and  a  machine-manufactory  are  connected  with 
the  Sayner  Works. 

b.  The  Miilhofer  Smelting-Works  on  the  Rhine,  connected  by  a 


72 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


branch  line  with  the  Ehenish  Railway,  terminating  at  the  Engers  Sta¬ 
tion,  and  containing  4  blast-furnaces  (3  of  them  the  latest  Scotch  con¬ 
struction)  with  pneumatic  lifts.  Each  of  them  produces  daily  about  45 
tons  of  spiegel,  Bessemer,  and  fine  iron. 

c.  The  Hermanns  Smelting-Works  on  the  Rhine,  near  Eeuwied,  also 
connected  by  a  branch  line  with  the  Rhenish  Railway,  has  at  present 
only  one  blast-furnace  in  operation  ;  two  others  are,  however,  in  course 
of  construction. 

d.  The  Bendorf  Smelting- Works  with  one  blast-furnace  of  an  older 
pattern,  are  at  present  not  in  operation. 

e.  The  Johannes  Smelting- Works,  formerly  the  property  of  the  Ger- 
man-Dutcli  Joint-Stock  Company  for  Smelting  and  Mining,  near  Duis¬ 
burg  on  the  Rhine,  produce  daily,  in  four  blast-furnaces,  from  about  140 
to  1G0  tons.  The  construction  of  six  more  furnaces  has  been  commenced, 
and  the  works  are  in  connection  with  the  Rhenish  and  the  Bergisch- 
Miirkisch  Railway. 

These  works  have  also  140  coke-ovens  in  operation,  and  120  more  in 
course  of  construction. 

Krupp’s  smelting-works  produce,  accordingly,  at  the  present  time, 
with  eleven  blast-furnaces,  nearly  10,000  tons  pig-iron  per  month. 

00.  Catalogue  and  description  of  the  objects  exhibited  : 

(1.)  One  crucible  cast-steel  block,  (1,S00  crucibles  each  containing 
about  GO  pounds,)  54  inches  octagonal,  weighing  52,500k  =  524  tons. 

This  casting,  originally  cylindrical,  has  been  reduced  to  the  pres¬ 
ent  octagonal  form  by  forging  under  a  50-ton  hammer  to  illustrate  the 
malleability  of  the  material.  Cuts  were  made  in  four  different  places, 
while  in  a  red-hot  state,  to  show,  when  broken  off  later,  the  density 
and  soundness  of  the  cast  steel.  This  block,  of  gun-metal  quality,  is 
intended  for  the  body  of  the  gun  of  37 cm  (14  inches)  caliber,  and  receives 
the  required  form  by  further  forging. 

In  London,  1851,  the  firm  exhibited  a  crucible  cast-steel  block,  weigh¬ 
ing  2, 250k.  =  2£  tons,  and  received  the  only  council-medal  awarded  in 
the  cast-steel  department;  in  Paris,  1855,  a  block  of  10,000k.  =  10 
tons;  in  London,  1862,  a  block  of  20,000k.  =  20  tons;  in  Paris,  18G7, 
a  block  of  40,000k.  =  40  tons. 

All  articles  produced  in  the  establishment,  with  exception  of  the  disk- 
wheels  and  crossings,  which  are  cast  in  molds,  are  forged  and  wrought 
by  tools  from  similar  more  or  less  heavy  castings  of  circular  cross-sec¬ 
tion. 

(2.)  One  locomotive  straight  axle  of  crucible  cast  steel,  in  the  forged 
state,  (pattern  of  the  Xortheastern  Railway,  in  Switzerland.) 

(3.)  One  forged  teuder-axle  of  crucible  cast  steel,  (pattern  of  the  same 
railway.)  The  body  of  this  axle  is  forged  complete  under  the  hammer, 
and  requires  no  further  workmanship. 

(4.)  Six  carriage-axles  of  crucible  cast  steel,  forged  according  to  the 
dimensions  approved  by  the  German  railways.  The  body  is,  in  the 


KRUPP’S  WORKS - ESSEN. 


73 


same  manner,  forged  complete  under  tbe  hammer.  Production  in  1S72 
of  unmounted  axles  in  the  forged  and  finished  state,  16,450  axles. 

The  first  extensive  trials  with  Krupp’s  cast-steel  axles  were  made  in 
the  year  1850,  at  Borsig’s  works,  Berlin,  by  a  commission  appointed  at 
a  meeting  of  German  railway-engineers,  (pamphlet  by  Landbaumeister 
Dihm,  Berlin,  1850,  printed  by  J.  Petscb.)  Although  the  trials  were 
very  favorable,  Krupp’s  cast-steel  axles  were  not  generally  adopted  until 
the  year  1801  and  1862.  The  production  increased,  however,  rapidly, 
so  that  the  firm  supplied,  in  1865,  more  than  11,000,  while  the  supply 
during  last  year  (1872)  exceeded  16,000  axles. 

(5.)  Two  unwelded  rings  of  crucible  cast  steel,  forged  from  solid  blocks 
by  making  a  cut  iu  the  middle  and  opening  them  out  under  a  hammer. 
In  accordance  with  this  method  of  manufacture,  patented  by  the  firm 
in  1853,  the  rail  way- tires  receive  the  required  dimensions  and  sections 
by  rolling,  as  shown  by — 

(6.)  Two  samples  of  tires,  ready  rolled  and  complete  up  to  turning. 
Also,  one  tire  ready  turned.  Production  iu  1872,  more  than  45,000  tires. 

Up  to  the  year  1853,  only  welded-iron  and  fine-grained  iron  tires  were 
manufactured.  Krupp’s  establishment  was  the  first  that  introduced  the 
unwelded  cast-steel  tires  for  use  on  railways,  and  caused  them  to  be 
generally  adopted.  Since  the  expiration  of  the  above-named  patent, 
this  method  of  manufacture  has,  in  principle,  been  imitated  by  all  works 
manufacturing  cast-steel  tires. 

(7.)  Two  unwelded  angle-rings  of  crucible  cast  steel,  for  steam-boilers, 
made  in  the  same  manner  as  the  tires. 

(8.)  Two  coupling-rods  and  two  connecting-rods,  forged  from  crucible 
cast  steel.  Pieces  of  machinery  of  this  description  are  supplied  by  the 
works  in  the  forged  state  only,  as  here  shown. 

(9.)  Four  piston-rods,  forged  from  crucible  cast  steel.  (Pattern  of 
the  Central  Railway,  in  Switzerland.) 

(10.)  Two  slide-bars  of  crucible  cast  steel,  iu  the  forged  state. 

(11.)  Two  pistons,  forged  from  crucible  cast  steel.  (Pattern  of  the 
Niederschlesisch-Markiscli  Railway.) 

(12.)  One  locomotive  crank-axle  of  crucible  cast  steel,  with  single,  and 
one  with  double-bearings.  Both  axles  are  in  the  finished  state. 

Those  c^ank-axles,  which  were  supplied  to  the  French  Orleans  Rail¬ 
way  during  1857,  1858,  and  1859,  have,  up  to  the  present  year,  run  over 
500,000  kilometers,  (312,000  miles,)  and  are  still  in  good  working  order. 

(13.)  One  locomotive  eccentric  crank,  and  one  driving-wheel  crank, 
both  of  crucible  cast  steel,  in  the  finished  state.  These  pieces  of  ma¬ 
chinery  are  supplied  by  the  works  in  the  rough- turned  or  finished  state. 

(14.)  One  set  of  locomotive  and  tender  axles,  pattern  for  engines  C. 
IV  of  the  Northeastern  Railway,  in  Switzerland,  consisting  of — 

a.  One  driving-axle  of  crucible  cast  steel,  ready  fitted  with  tires, 
cranks  of  same  material,  spoke-wheels,  nave  included,  of  wrought  iron, 
and  cast-iron  counter-weights.  Weight,  2,160k  =  about  43  cwt. 


74 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


b.  Two  coupliug’-axles  of  crucible  cast  steel,  ready  fitted  with  tires 
and  crank-pins  of  the  same  material;  spoke-wheels,  nave  included,  of 
wrought  iron,  and  cast-iron  counter-weights.  Weight  of  each,  l,900k  = 
about  38  cwt. 

c.  Two  tender-axles  of  crucible  cast  steel,  body  forged,  ready  fitted 
with  tires  of  same  material,  and  spoke-wheels,  nave  included,  of  wrought 
iron.  Weight  of  each,  l,200k  =  about  2d  cwt. 

Production  in  1S72  of  complete  sets  of  locomotive  and  tender-axles,  475. 

(15.)  Two  carriage-axles  of  crucible  cast  steel,  body  forged,  ready  | 
fitted  with  tires  of  same  material,  and  spoke-wheels,  nave  included,  of 
wrought  iron.  Weight  of  each  950k  =  about  19  cwt. 

Axles  and  tires  according  to  the  dimensions  approved  by  the  German 
railways. 

Production  in  1S72,  4,050  sets. 

(10.)  Two  carriage-axles  of  crucible  cast  steel,  ready  fitted  with  disk 
wheels,  cast  in  molds,  of  same  material.  Weight  of  each,  l,0l)0k  = 
about  20  cwt. 

Production  in  1872,  4,340  sets. 

,  (17.)  A  collection  of  spring-steel  fractures  and  cross-sections  of  spring- 
steel.  This  steel  is  supplied  in  bars  of  any  section  not  less  than  10mm  jj 
thick  and  G5,ul“  wide. 

Production  in  1872,  3,000,000k  =  about  3,000  tons. 

(See  fractures  and  cross-sections  under  i7o.  20.) 

(18.)  A  collection  of  cast-steel  springs  for  locomotives,  tenders,  and 
carriages : 

l  _  I 

a.  Two  locomotive-springs  with  teu  flat  leaves,  welded  links,  and 
bored  bolt-holes;  two  of  the  same  with  14  flat  leaves,  with  welded 
links  and  bored  bolt-holes. 

b.  Two  collision-springs  with  9  flat  leaves;  one  with  13  ribbed  leaves.  1 

c.  One  tender  spring  with  9  flat  leaves. 

d.  One  passenger-carriage  spring  with  5  ribbed  leaves  and  rolled  i 
eyes;  one  with  0  flat  leaves  and  rolled  eyes;  one  with  7  flat  leaves  I 
and  welded  eyes. 

c.  One  luggage-wagon  spring  with  5  flat  leaves  and  rolled  eyes  ;  one  it 
with  0  ribbed  leaves  and  rolled  eyes;  four  with  7  ribbed  leaves  and 
rolled  eyes;  four  with  S  flat  leaves  and  rolled  eyes. 

Production  in  1S72,  38,000  springs. 

(19.)  One  reversible  double  crossing  of  crucible  cast  steel,  cast  in  a 
mold  and  ready  to  be  laid  down.  (Pattern  of  the  Cologue-Miuden 
railway.)  These  crossings  have  been  introduced  on  many  Germau  and 
transatlantic  railways. 

(20.)  Bessemer-steel  rails : 

The  manufacture  of  these  rails  is  illustrated  by  a  Bessemer  casting  from 
which  octagonal  blocks  ai’e  forged,  as  shown  by  the  exhibited  sample. 

These  blocks  then  receive  by  rolling  the  required  form  for  rails,  as  | 
also  shown,  are  cut  oft' according  to  weight,  and  rolled  to  the  prescribed 


KRUPPS  WORKS - ESSEN. 


75 


section;  two  rails  rolled  in  this  manner,  the  ends  of  which  are  not  cnt 
off,  are  also  exhibited  ;  two  rails  ready  cnt  and  punched  according  to 
the  Oologne-Miuden  section  Y  ;  one  for  Cologne-Miuden  switches;  one 
for  Oberschlesisch  switches. 

The  annual  production  of  the  works  of  steel  rails  has  increased  from 
100  tons  to  50,000  tons  in  1872.  This  increase  is  no  doubt  the  best 
proof  of  the  favorable  results  obtained  from  the  use  of  steel  rails  on 
railways,  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  these  rails  are  now  generally  in¬ 
troduced. 

Besides  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails  for  locomotive-railways,  the 
manufacture  of  those  of  smaller  sections,  from  11  to  22  pounds  per  yard, 
for  mining  purposes,  has  also  considerably  increased. 

Production  in  1872,  2,000  tons. 

Here  follows  a  collection  of  rail-fractures  of  different  kinds. 

(21.)  Two  switches  of  Bessemer  steel,  (section  of  the  Oberschlesisch 
and  Biederschlesisch-Markisch  Bailways,)  ready  planed,  as  same  are 
supplied  by  the  works,  also  in  the  finished  state. 

(22.)  One  double  crank-shaft  of  crucible  cast  steel,  forged  also  from  a 
solid  block  and  finished,  for  a  transatlantic  steamer.  Weight,  9, 000k  ; 
length,  7.650m;  diameter,  0.38m. 

(23.)  One  trunnion-hoop,  unwelded,  of  crucible  cast  steel,  in  the  forged 
state. 

(24.)  2  pressed  sides  for  field-gun  carriages,  of  cast  steel,  6mra  and.  10,nm 
thick. 

(25.)  Bolls  and  rolling-machines  : 

The  rolls  and  rolling-machines  exhibited  illustrate  the  most  usual 
forms  and  dimensions  used  in  this  branch  of  manufactory,  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  establishment. 

1.  1  pair  of  rolls,  A,  65  by  40mm. 

2.  1  pair  of  rolls,  B,  78  by  52rnm. 

3.  1  pair  of  rolls,  O,  157  by  105mn>. 

4.  1  pair  of  adjusting-rolls,  95  by  148ram. 

5.  1  pair  of  rolls  for  mint  purposes,  210  by  2L0mm. 

6.  1  roll  for  manufacturing  percussion-caps,  61  by  72ram. 

7.  1  pair  of  rolls,  polished,  420  by  462mm. 

8.  1  pair  of  rolls,  to  be  engraved  for  rolling  spoons. 

9.  1  pair  lace-rolls,  polished. 

10.  1  rolling-machine,  A,  with  rolls  65  by  40mm. 

11.  1  rolling-machine,  B,  with  rolls  78  by  52mm. 

12.  1  rolling-machine,  O,  with  rolls  157  by  105ram. 

For  goldsmiths : 

13.  1  tinsel-rolling  machine,  157  by  52mm. 

14.  1  lace-rolling  machine,  40  by  210  to  58  by  126m,n. 

All  rolls  being  hardened,  excepting  those  for  rolling  spoons. 

(26.)  A  collection  of  fractures  of  hardened  tool-steel,  as  well  as  various 
other  fractures  of  manufactured  articles,  such  as  axles,  tires,  crossings, 
and  disk- wheels;  mint-dies  with  polished  surface. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


7fi 

(27.)  A  series  of  various  classes  of  ore,  pig-iron,  and  pig-steel  iron, 
from  the  mines  and  smelting-works  of  the  firm,  used  iu  the  manufacture 
of  steel. 

Cl.  Artillery  material. — The  guns  are  manufactured  from  crucible  cast 
steel,  of  a  quality  especial^  adapted  for  the  purpose,  and  are,  those  of 
the  smallest  calibers  excepted,  constructed  according  to  the  built-up 
system.  All  guns  have  Krupp’s  round  wedge. 

The  naval  and  coast-gun  carriages  are  generally  manufactured  from 
wrought  irou  ;  only  particular  parts,  such  as  the  axles,  axle-trees,  cylin¬ 
ders,  and  piston-rods  of  the  hydraulic  butfer,  and  the  slide-rollers  of  the 
coast-gun  carriages,  being  made  of  cast  steel.  Cast  irou  is  only  used  for 
small  truck-wheels. 

(2S.)  30jem  gun  on  coast  carriage. — Caliber,  305mm;  length  of  gun, 
0.7"’;  length  of  bore,  5.77,n;  weight  of  gun  with  wedge,  3G,G00k;  pre¬ 
ponderance,  0. 

The  gun  has  72  parallel  grooves,  with  4.5mm  width  of  lands,  and  a  uni¬ 
form  twist  of  21.79'"  in  length. 

Weight  of  charged  steel  shell,  29G>i;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder,)  G0k;  initial  velocity,  4G5m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  257k;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder,)  50k;  initial  velocity,  4G0"'. 

The  carriage  is  intended  for  earth-parapets  of  1.9m  height,  and  has  a 
height  of  2.3S01".  To  check  the  recoil,  an  hydraulic  buffer  is  used.  The 
running-out  of  the  gun  after  discharge  is  self-acting. 

The  projectile  is  lifted  by  means  of  a  movable  crane  with  windlass, 
which  is  arranged  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  slide,  and  brought  on 
to  the  bottom  of  the  gun. 

The  elevation  (+  17°,  —  7°)  is  taken  by  means  of  a  toothed  elevating- 
arc  on  the  upper  part  of  the  carriage.  For  training,  the  end  of  the  slide 
is  provided  with  a  chain-gear. 

By  this  apparatus  the  gun  can  be  very  easily  and  quickly  served. 

To  run-in  the  gun,  a  rope-windlass  may  be  placed,  if  necessary,  on 
each  side  of  the  slide  behind. 

Kilograms. 

Weight  of  carriage .  5,  650 

Weight  of  slide . -  -  .  . .  15,  350 

Total  weight . .  21,000 

A  30.icm  gun  of  the  foregoing  description  was  tried  in  the  month  of 
February,  1S73,  iu  the  presence  of  a  commission  of  Prussian  and  Austrian 
artillery  officers,  with  5  rounds  of  20k,  7  rounds  of  40k,  6  rounds  of  50k, 
207  rounds  of  60k,  5  rounds  of  G5k ;  charges  of  prismatic  powder,  and 
with  solid  shot  weighing  from  300  to  303k.  The  gun  was  after  this 
trial,  with  exception  of  slight  gutterings  (Ausbrennungen)  in  the 
chamber,  perfectly  uninjured  and  ready  for  further  trials,  which  are  to 
take  place  on  the  lately-acquired  practice  ground  of  the  establishment, 
7,000m  iu  length,  as  soon  as  it  can  be  properly  prepared  for  the  purpose. 


KRUPP’s  WORKS - ESSEN. 


77 


The  carriage  was,  at  the  eud  of  the  trial,  also  uninjured,  excepting  a 
very  trifling  crashing  of  the  points  of  the  wedge-rails  on  the  girders  of 
the  slide. 

(29.)  2Scm  howitzer  on  coast-carriage. — The  gun  is  constructed  for  be¬ 
ing  placed  in  coast-batteries.  Caliber,  280mm  ;  length  of  gun,  3,200m ; 
length  of  bore,  2,520m;  weight  with  wedge,  10, 000k;  preponderance,  0. 

The  gun  has  72  parallel  grooves,  with  4.5mm  width  of  lands,  and  a 
uniform  twist  of  11. 2m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  199k  ;  maximum  weight  of  charge, 
i!0k.  The  carriage  of  the  gun  admits  of  an  elevation  of  75°. 

The  carriage  differs  from  the  coast-gun  carriages  principally  in  that 
the  whole  of  the  under  face  of  the  slide  lies  in  the  platform  on  firing, 
so  as  to  extend  the  impact  of  recoil  over  a  larger  surface.  For  training, 
the  slide  is  placed  upon  rollers,  for  which  reason  the  rear  slide- trucks 
are  put  on  eccentric  axles. 

The  projectile-crane,  training-gear,  hydraulic  buffer,  and  self-acting 
running-out  apparatus  are  the  same  as  in  the  other  coast-gun  carriages. 
The  elevating-gear  is  also  similarly  constructed. 

Weight  of  the  whole  carriage,  9,220k  ;  height,  l,675ra. 

(30.)  Short  26cm  ship-gun  on  battery ‘carriage. — Caliber,  260mm;  length, 
o.2m  ;  length  of  bore,  4.420m  ;  weight  of  gun  with  wedge,  18,000k.  Pre¬ 
ponderance,  0. 

The  gun  has  64  parallel  grooves,  with  4.25mm  width  of  lands,  and  a 
uniform  twist  of  18. 2m. 

Weight  of  charged  steel  shell,  lS4k;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder,)  37. 5k  ;  initial  velocity,  450m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  159k  ;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder),  30k ;  initial  velocity,  450m. 

This  gun  has  a  carriage  for  use  in  a  broadside-battery  of  iron-clads. 
The  carriage  differs  from  tbe  former  ship-carriages  for  similar  purposes, 
principally  in  that  the  hydraulic  buffer  and  apparatus  for  self-acting 
running-out  are  contrived  similarly  to  those  of  coast-gun  carriages* 
The  hydraulic  buffer  is  so  arranged  that  the  gun,  with  the  upper  part  of 
the  carriage,  can  be  retained  at  once  on  any  part  of  the  slide. 

The  training  is  effected  by  a  cog-wheel,  which  works  into  a  cog-racer 
in  the  deck,  and  is  moved  by  a  worm-wheel,  so  as  to  dispense  with  an 
especial  brake  to  retain  the  gun  in  the  required  direction.  For  eleva¬ 
tion,  there  is  arranged  on  both  sides  of  the  gun  a  cogged  elevating-arc  ; 
both  are,  however,  moved  simultaneously  from  the  left  side  of  the  car¬ 
riage  by  a  hand- wheel.  In  order  to  relieve  the  ship’s  side  in  firing,  the 
recoil  is  partially  received  from  the  grooved  rollers  by  ribs  on  the  upper 
face  of  the  deck-racers,  and  from  a  strong  hook,  which  ties  the  fore  part 
of  the  slide  down  to  the  strong  projecting  lip  of  the  front  racer. 

Total  weight  of  carriage,  8,756k;  height,  l,220m. 

(31.)  Long  24cm  gun  on  battery-carriage  for  casemate-ships. — Caliber, 
235.4mm;  length  of  gun,  5.23m;  length  of  bore,  4.54m;  weight  of  gun, 
with  wedge,  15,500k;  preponderance,  0. 


78 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  gun  has  32  grooves,  whose  breadth  increases  toward  the  breech, 
with  a  width  of  lands  of  3.9mm  at  breech  and  7.85mm  at  mouth.  The 
twist  is  uniform,  of  16.4S"1  length. 

Weight  of  charged  steel  shell,  135k  ;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic  pow¬ 
der)  24k ;  initial  velocity,  430m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  118.5k;  weight  of  charge,  20k ;  ini¬ 
tial  velocity,  424U1. 

The  gun  is  mounted  on  a  battery-carriage  for  casemate-ships.  Owing 
to  its  position  in  one  of  the  obtuse  angles  of  the  casemate,  so  as  to  be 
capable  of  firing  through  a  broadside  and  a  bow  or  stern  port,  it  was 
necessary  to  make  arrangements  for  a  change  of  ports.  This  is  done 
by  means  of  a  turn-table,  on  which  the  gun  rests  with  the  middle  slide- 
supports  and  the  rear  slide-rollers,  after  the  fore  slide-rollers  have  been 
lifted  correspondingly  by  an  hydraulic  lifting-jack,  fixed  under  the  slide 
for  this  purpose.  To  facilitate  the  unshackling  of  the  pivot-bar  on  the 
change  of  ports,  it  is  divided,  and  at  the  joint  an  easily  removable  bolt 
is  put  on. 

To  check  the  recoil,  the  carriage  is  provided  with  an  adjustable  plate- 
conypressor.  A  chain  running-in-and-out  gear  is  applied  on  both  sides 
of  the  slide-end.  For  training,  the  pinion  of  the  cog-racer  is  moved  by 
the  same  crauks  which  are  used  for  the  above-mentioned  chain-gear. 

The  elevation  is  taken  by  means  of  a  cogged  elevating-arc. 


Height,  1,195'". 

Kilograms. 

Weight  of  carriage .  2, 344 

Weight  of  slide . .  5,  466 


Total  weight .  .  7,810 


(32.)  Long  21cra  gun  on  coast-carriage. — Caliber,  209.3mm ;  leugth  of 
gun,  4.708'"  ;  leugth  of  bore,  4.106'"  ;  weight  of  gun,  with  wedge,  10,000k ; 
preponderance,  0. 

The  gun  has  30  grooves,  whose  breadth  increases  toward  the  breech, 
with  3.4"""  widtli  of  lands  at  breech  and  7.3"""  at  mouth.  The  twist  is 
uniform,  of  14.23'"  length. 

Weight  of  charged  steel  shell,  95k;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic  pow¬ 
der,)  17k  ;  initial  velocity,  430"'. 

Weight  of  charged  comtnou  shell,  79k;  weight  of  charge,  14k ;  initial 
velocity,  430m. 

The  gun  is  mounted  on  a  coast-carriage  of  a  description  similar  to  that 
of  the  304cm  gun. 

Height,  2,015'". 

Kilograms. 


Weight  of  carriage . - .  2,  090 

Weight  of  slide .  5, 110 

Total  weight .  7,  200 


79 


KRUPP’s  WORKS— -ESSEN. 

(33.)  21em  siege-gun,  with  slide-carriage. — Caliber,  209.3mm  ;  length  of 
gun,  3.400™ ;  length  of  bore,  2,910m  ;  weight  of  gun,  with  wedge,  3,900k  ; 
preponderance,  0. 

The  gun  has  30  grooves,  whose  breadth  increases  toward  the  breech, 
with  3.7mm  width  of  lands  at  breech  and  7.5mm  at  mouth.  The  length 
of  twist  is  12.36m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  79k ;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder,)  6.5k  ;  initial  velocity,  300m. 

The  carriage  for  this  gun  is  a  short  slide-carriage,  in  all  essential 
points  similar  to  the  coast-carriages.  The  slide,  when  in  battery,  rests 
in  front  on  the  pivot-block,  behind  on  two  rollers  which  can  be  moved, 
for  the  purpose  of  training,  by  means  of  handspikes.  The  cogged  ele¬ 
vating-arc  admits  of  27°  elevation  and  0°  inclination.  The  project¬ 
ile-crane,  hydraulic  buffer,  &c.,  are  similar  to  the  coast-carriages.  This 
gun  can  be  made  available  for  transport.  For  this  purpose  a  strong 
axle  with  large  wheels  is  placed  in  the  axle-supports,  after  the  gun  and 
carriage  have  been  run  in  on  the  slide ;  then  the  fore  end  of  the  slide  is 
raised  by  means  of  a  lifting-apparatus,  which  is  permanently  fixed  on 
the  slide,  consisting  of  a  screw  with  worm-wheel  gearing ;  and  finally 
the  rear  end  of  the  platform  is  limbered  up.  The  transport  rear  wheels 
have  a  diameter  of  2.046™  and  a  breadth  of  0.1801U  in  the  rim.  The  dis¬ 
tribution  of  the  weight  resting  on  hind  and  fore  wheels  is  in  proportion 
of  4  to  1.  To  lighten  the  transport- wagon,  the  slide-rollers  may  be  car¬ 
ried  separately;  the  projectile- crane  may  be  turned  over.  For  transport 
by  rail,  the  limbered-up  carriage  can  be  easily  placed  on  a  10-ton  luggage- 
wagon.  The  bed,  made  of  oak  beams  and  provided  with  pivot-block 
and  racer,  can  be  carried  on  an  ordinary  luggage- wagon.  As  soon  as 
the  gnu  has  been  carried  to  its  proper  place  over  the  bed  in  the  battery, 
it  is  unlimbered,  and  then  the  rear  slide-rollers  are  lowered  down  on  the 
racer  by  means  of  a  windlass ;  the  slide  is  afterward  let  down  in  front 
upon  the  pivot-block,  and  the  transport  axle  and  wheels  are  removed. 


Height  in  battery,  1.9m. 

Kilograms. 

Weight  of  carriage .  922 

Weight  of  slide .  1,728 


Total  weight . .  2,  650 

The  limbered-up  gun  with  side-arms  weighs .  8, 160 

The  bed  complete  weighs .  2, 0S0 


(34.)  Long  17cm  gun  on  upper-deck  carriage. — Caliber,  172.6mm;  length 
of  gun,  4,250™ ;  length  of  bore,  3,780™ ;  weight  of  gun  with  wedge,  5,600k; 
preponderance,  0. 

The  gun  has  48  parallel  grooves,  with  3.5mm  width  of  lands,  and  a  uni¬ 
form  twist  of  11.2™. 

Weightof  chargedsteel  shell, 55k;  weight  of  charge,  (prismaticpowder,) 
10k;  initial  velocity,  460™. 


80 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  45k;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder,)  10k;  initial  velocity,  465m. 

The  upper-deck  carriage  for  this  gnu  is  to  be  placed  in  the  bow  or 
stern  of  iron  clads,  and  provided  with  contrivances  so  as  to  be  moved 
easily  and  quickly  into  a  rear  position.  To  check  the  recoil,  a  plate- 
coiupressor  is  used.  For  training,  the  slide,  which  usually  rests  on  the 
supports,  is  placed  on  the  rollers,  for  which  purpose  the  rear  slide-rollers 
are  mounted  eccentrically. 


Height,  1,020"'. 

Kilograms. 

Weight  of  carriage . . . . . ,  1, 255 

Weight  of  slide .  2,235 


Total  weight . .  3,490 


(35.)  15cm  siege-gun  on  wheel-carriage. — Caliber,  149. lmm ;  length  of 
gun,  3.44m;  length  of  bore,  3,040ra;  weight  of  gun  with  wedge,  3,000k ; 
preponderance,  lm  from  the  trunnion,  25k. 

The  gun  has  30  grooves,  with  3mm  width  of  lands  at  breech  and  5.5mm 
at  mouth.  The  length  of  twist  is  9.7m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  2Sk^  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic 
powder,)  Gk ;  initial  velocity,  470m. 

The  carriage  for  this  gun  is  constructed  as  a  wheel-carriage.  The 
brackets  are  made  of  plates  and  angle-iron.  The  elevating-screw  admits 
of  35°  elevation  and  5°  inclination.  As  a  peculiarity  in  this  carriage 
may  be  named  the  hydraulic  buffer,  which,  on  discharge,  checks  the 
recoil  to  about  1™  or  less.  The  buffer-cylinder  can  be  moved  vertic¬ 
ally,  being  fastened  to  the  brackets  at  one-third  of  their  length  from 
behind.  The  piston-rod  can  be  moved  vertically  and  horizontally,  by 
means  of  a  pivot-bolt  connected  with  an  anchor,  partly  imbedded  in  the 
parapet. 

Height,  l,S30m ;  weight  of  carriage,  l,S45k. 

(30.)  Long  15cl"  gun  ou  ship-carriage. — Caliber,  149.1'"m  ;  length  of  gun, 
3.83"’ ;  length  of  bore,  3.43m ;  weight  of  gun  with  wedge,  4.000k ;  prepon¬ 
derance  at  the  commencement  of  the  rounding  of  the  wedge,  75k. 

The  gun  has  48  parallel  grooves,  with  3,nm  width  of  lauds  and  9.7m 
length  of  twist. 

Weight  of  charged  steel  shell,  35k;  weight  of  charge,  (prismatic  pow¬ 
der,)  Sk;  initial  velocity  400  . 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  2Sk  ;  weight  of  charge,  G.5k;  initial 
velocity,  405m. 

The  carriage  of  this  gun  is  made  for  broadside  use  ou  sloops  of  war 
and  similar  vessels.  It  is  a  slide-carriage.  To  check  the  recoil,  a  plate- 
compressor  is  used,  and  a  breeching  as  reserve.  The  elevation  is  effected 
by  a  cogged  elevating-arc,  and  the  training  by  means  of  tackles,  for  which 
side-eyes  are  provided  ou  the  rear  end  of  the  slide.  The  slide  rests  usu¬ 
ally  by  supports  on  the  racers;  for  training,  it  is  lifted  upon  the  rollers. 

Heieht,  0.9G0m. 


KRUPP'S  WORKS - ESSEN. 


81 


Kilograms 


Weight  of  carriage . : .  1,505 

Weight  of  slide .  935 

Total  weight . .  2,440 


(37.)  12cm  gun  on  ship-carriage. — Caliber,  120.3mm ;  length  of  gun,  2.925m ; 
length  of  bore,  2.602m  ;  weight  of  gun,  with  wedge,  l,400k;  preponder¬ 
ance,  100k. 

The  gun  has  18  grooves,  whose  breadth  increases  toward  the  breech, 
with  2.5m,n  width  of  lands  at  breech  and  6.5 mm  at  mouth.  The  length  of 
twist  is  S.42m. 

Weight  of  charged  steel  shell,  15.5k;  weight  of  charge,  (large-grained 
powder,)  3.5k  ;  initial  velocity,  450m. 

Weight  of  charged  common  shell,  15.5k;  weight  of  charge,  (large¬ 
grained  powder,)  3k;  initial  velocity,  450m. 

The  carriage  for  this  gun  is  a  wheel  carriage  constructed  for  the  main 
or  upper  deck  of  small  vessels.  To  check  the  recoil,  an  hydraulic  buffer 
is  applied,  similar  to  that  of  the  15cm  siege-carriage.  The  buffer-cyl¬ 
inder,  movable  vertically  and  horizontally,  hangs  on  the  ifivot-bolt ;  the 
piston-rod  is  fastened  to  the  carriage.  A  strong  breeching  is  provided 
as  reserve.  The  carriage  rests  usually  on  four  rollers ;  for  training,  the 
rear  rollers,  which  are  mounted  eccentrically,  are  lifted,  whereby  the 
weight  is  transferred  to  a  training-roller. 

The  elevation  is  taken  by  means  of  a  cogged  elevating-arc,  which  ad¬ 
mits  of +15°  and — 10°. 

Height,  0.900™ ;  weight  of  carriage,  S95k. 

(38.)  9cm field-gun  with  carriage. — Caliber,  91. 5m™ ;  length  of  gun,  2.040™  • 
length  of  bore,  1.819™ ;  weight  of  gun,  with  wedge,  425k ;  preponder¬ 
ance,  50k. 

The  gun  has  16  grooves,  whose  breadth  increases  toward  the  breech- 
with  2.5,nm  width  of  lands  at  breech  and  6.5mm  at  mouth.  The  twist 
is  4.53™. 

Weight  of  charged  shell,  6.9k  ;  weight  of  charge,  (cannon-powder,)  0.6k ; 
initial  velocity,  322m. 

The  gun  carriage  has  riveted  wrought-iron  brackets.  Weight  of  car¬ 
riage,  (without  accessories,)  546k.  The  elevating-screw  admits  of  an  ele¬ 
vation  of  +  15T3g°  and  8°. 

(39.)  Sc™  field-gun,  with  carriage.— -Caliber,  78.5™™  ;  length  of  gun, 
1.935™;  length  of  bore,  1.728™  ;  weight  of  gun,  295k ;  preponderance,  70k. 

This  gun  has  12  grooves,  whose  breadth  increases  toward  the  breech, 
with  2.5™™  width  of  lands  at  breech,  and  6.5m™  at- month.  The  twist 
is  3.62™  long. 

Weight  of  charged  shell,  4.3k;  weight  of  charge,  (cannon-powder,) 
0.5k  ;  initial  velocity,  357™. 

The  carriage  for  this  gun  has  also  riveted  brackets.  Weight  of  car¬ 
riage,  (without  accessories,)  460k.  The  elevating-screw  admits  of  13}f° 
elevation,  and  S°  inclination. 

6  1 


82 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


(40.)  6cm  mountain-gun  on  carriage. — Caliber,  G0mm ;  length  of  gun, 
1.250"';  length  of  bore,  1.130mj  weight  of  gnu  with  wedge,  107k;  prepon¬ 
derance,  14k. 

This  gun  has  IS  parallel  grooves,  with  3mm  width  of  lands  and  2.10“ 
length  of  twist. 

Weight  of  charged  shell,  2.3k ;  weight  of  charge,  0.2k  ;  initial  velocity, 
300m. 

The  carriage  has  wrought-irou  brackets,  cast-steel  axle,  and  wooden 
wheels.  On  the  naves  of  the  axle  there  are  conical  friction-brakes. 

Weight  of  carriage,  109k ;  height,  0.0G01". 

The  elevating-screw  admits  of  21°  elevation  and  10°  inclination. 

(41.)  Ammunition: 

(a.)  Shells.  Forged  of  crucible  cast  steel  for  every  one  of  the  exhib¬ 
ited  guns;  both  whole  ones  and  cross-sections. 

(5.)  Common  shells  of  cast  iron  for  all  exhibited  guns  ;  some  in  cross- 
sections,  all  with  complete  percussion-fuses. 

(c.)  Models  of  cartridges  and  of  prismatic  powder. 

The  specific  weight  of  the  prismatic  powder  is,  for  the  2Gcm,  2Scm, 
anjd  30icm  guns,  from  1.72  to  1.7G  ;  for  those  of  smaller  calibers,  from 
1.G2  to  l.GG. 

62.  Buttgenbacii’s  blast-furnaces. — The  brothers  Conrad  and 
Franz  Buttgenbach,  of  Reuss,  in  Bheuish  Prussia,  exhibited  a  model 
and  drawings  of  their  new  method  of  constructing  blast-furnaces,  pat¬ 
ented  in  Austria,  France,  Belgium,  England,  and  America.  The  model, 
about  4  feet  high,  is  very  perfect,  and  is  sold  to  the  Imperial  Mining 
Museum  at  St.  Petersburg.  Inasmuch  as  Mr.  Buttgenbach  presented 
with  the  model  a  full  description  of  his  furnace  in  print,  and  reported 
specially  upon  it  to  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  I  prefer  to  present  it 
in  full  in  his  own  words  : 

“’ll!  1S59, 1  undertook  the  management  of  the  Xeuss  Smelting-Works, 
situate  ou  the  Lower  Rhine,  Rhenish  Province,  and  there  I  found  a  high 
blast-furnace,  then  just  recently  erected,  which  had  not  yet  been  in 
active  operation. 

“An  engineer,  late  of  the  Liegen  district,  who  had  seen  all  the  blast¬ 
furnaces  of  that  part  of  the  country  set  up  agaiust  steep  hills,  supplied 
with  raw  materials  brought  up  to  the  required  level  by  means  of  carts 
and  wheelbarrows,  and  having  steam-boilers  and  air-heating  apparatus 
mostly  on  a  level  with  the  furnace-mouth,  when  charged  with  the  duty 
of  sketching  out  a  plan  for  the  work  above  mentioned,  iu  his  inability 
to  free  himself  from  the  influence  of  this  (old-fashioned)  notion,  actually 
projected  and  caused  to  be  built  on  a  level  plane  a  stack  of  masonry 
measuring  40  feet  square  at  its  base,  by  40  feet  iu  height,  rising  perpen¬ 
dicularly. 

“  At  the  center  of  this  stack  was  placed  the  blast-furnace,  its  hearth 
being  accessible  ouly  by  means  of  very  narrow  embrasures ;  upon  the 


83 


BUTTGENBACH’s  BLAST-FURNACES. 

platform  of  tlie  furnace-mouth  two  steam-boilers  have  been  erected,  as 
well  as  a  draught-flue,  the  idea  being,  probably,  that  the  descent  was 
to  take  place  contrary  to  the  natural  tendency  of  the  gases. 

“  This  stack  being  altogether  too  bulky  for  me  to  attempt  to  remove 
it  bodily,  I  simply  contented  myself  with  clearing  away  as  much  of  it  as 
possible  round  about  the  hearth,  and  in  such  condition  as  I  then  brought 
it  to,  our  blast-furnace  has  been  continuously  at  work  ever  since  1SG0, 
under  my  management.  The  difficulty  of  working  with  a  furnace  simi¬ 
larly  blocked  in,  but  more  especially  the  fact  resulting  from  the  experi¬ 
ences  of  two  or  three  years’  operations  that  the  fire-proof  facings  had 
completely  worn  away,  impelled  me  to  attempt  the  construction  of  a 
blast-furnace,  the  heart  of  which  should  he  readily  accessible  on  all  sides, 
and  following  up  this  idea,  I  built  up  at  our  works  a  blast-furnace  50 
feet  high  and  17  feet  in  diameter  at  the  boshes. 

“In  justice  to  my  brother,  a  metallurgical  engineer,  I  must  not  here 
omit  to  state  that,  in  elaborating  and  finally  determining  upon  my  plans, 
I  had  the  advantage  of  his  suggestions  and  valuable  advice. 

“  In  18C7,  a  model  of  the  above-named  blast-furnace  was  exhibited  in 
Paris,  and  I  had  the  satisfaction,  not  only  of  being  complimented  upon 
my.  idea  by  a  great  number  of  engineers  of  every  nationality,  qualified 
to  express  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  but  of  having  conferred  upon  me, 
likewise,  the  distinction  of  an  honorable  mention  on  the  part  of  the  jury 
of  the  exhibition.  The  articles  contributed  to  the  Revue  Industrielle  of 
the  exhibition  of  1867  by  Professor  Jordan,  who  occupied  the  chair  of 
metallurgy  at  the  Rcole  centrale  in  Paris,  have  brought  my  system  into 
notice  in  France.  Since  1867,  six  French  iron-masters  have  adopted  my 
system,  and  have  constructed  9  blast-furnaces  from  my  plans  and  in 
accordance  with  my  suggestions.  Both  in  Germany  and  Austria  my 
system  has  likewise  been  introduced  with  success  at  several  iron- works. 

“  The  fundamental  idea  of  this  mode  of  construction  and  the  advan¬ 
tages  of  the  system  may  be  summed  up  as  follows,  viz : 

“  1st.  The  mason- work  of  the  stack  is  quite  independent  of  the  blast¬ 
furnace  proper.  Each  ring  or  course  of  bricks  constituting  the  hearth, 
boshes,  and  inside  wall  is  readily  accessible  and  free  from  any  casing, 
except  as  regards  a  small  portion,  measuring  from  3  to  4  feet  in  height, 
at  the  widest  section  of  the  blast-furnace. 

“  Consequently,  the  whole  of  the  above  several  parts  are  completely 
bare  and  easily  reached  for  any  purpose  required,  even  while  the  fur¬ 
nace  is  in  active  operation.  This  feature  conduces  to  the  duration  of 
the  furnace,  for  in  case  of  need  any  injured  part  can  be  repaired,  even 
when  the  furnace  is  at  work. 

“  2d.  The  inside  wall  and  the  upper  part  of  the  boshes  being  cooled  by 
the  atmosphere  having  access  thereto,  they  remain  in  their  normal  con¬ 
dition  without  wear,  and  do  not  become  unduly  heated  at’  any  time, 
being,  therefore,  indefinitely  kept  in  a  state  of  preservation,  since  there 
never  occurs  a  fusion  of  materials  at  this  height. 


84 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


“3d.  The  hearth,  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  boshes,  being  apt  to 
suffer  after  a  certain  time,  from  the  destructive  action  of  the  materials 
in  a  melting  state,  may  be  replaced  without  any  difficulty  whatever 
while  the  work  is  going  on,  so  that  there  is  no  occasion  to  apprehend 
any  extinction  of  the  fires  so  long  as  the  in-wall  is  not  destroyed.  If 
putting  out  the  fires  should  at  any  time  become  necessary,  the  hearth 
and  the  boshes  could  be  renewed  without  affecting  the  in-wall  in¬ 
juriously. 

“  4th.  Each  particular  brick  being  accessible  during  the  working  of 
the  furnace,  and  the  progress  of  the  fire  easily  ascertained,  corrosions 
can  be  obviated  by  cooling  down  with  water  thrown  on  the  several 
parts,  or  by  means  of  water-vessels  or  tuyeres  wherein  the  water  circu¬ 
lates  placed  within  these  parts  as  far  as  the  inside  of  the  furnace, 
whereby  the  wear  and  tear  can  be  checked. 

“oth.  The  utilization  of  the  gas  at  the  furnace-mouth  can  be  so  man¬ 
aged  as  to  make  it  yield  the  best  results.  The  pillars  supporting  the 
platform  of  the  furnace-top  are  gas-pipes,  and  drop  into  sheet-iron 
vessels  fixed  to  the  summit  of  the  base  of  the  stack,  where  it  slopes 
awpy.  These  vessels  are  open  on  one  side,  so  that  when  filled  with 
water  up  to  a  certain  height,  they  can  be  shut  down  by  means  of  a  valve, 
measuring-a  few  centimeters  square.  The  gas  issuing  forth  out  of  the 
furnace-mouth  finds  its  way  into  these  receptacles,  and  in  its  passage 
through  them  travels  over  a  large  surface  of  water.  Here  it  deposits 
the  dust,  while  a  great  part  of  the  water  suspended  in  the  gas,  in  a  state 
of  vapor,  is  condensed.  Consequently,  the  gas  reaches  its  destination  in 
a  highly-purified  condition,  and  may  yield  the  very  best  results  in  those 
parts  where  it  is  desired  to  make  use  of  it. 

“  The  arrangement  of  the  said  water-receptacles  allows  of  the  with¬ 
drawal  of  the  dust  or  grit  deposited  while  in  full  working,  and  in  the 
event  of  an  explosion,  the  area  of  from  five  to  six  millimeters  of  the 
water  column  paralyzes,  as  though  it  were  a  gigantic  valve,  any  inju¬ 
rious  effects.  In  point  of  fact,  instead  of  dreading  we  rather  wish  for 
explosions  from  time  to  tinic^  since  they  serve  the  purpose  of  clearing 
off  the  dust  and  grit  that  may  still  be  clinging  to  the  inner  walls  of  the 
pipes.  Moreover,  there  is  the  advantage  of  confining  these  subsidiary 
appliances  to  a  spot  on  the  works  which  does  not  in  any  way  interfere 
with  the  general  progress  of  the  manufacture. 

“  Gth.  The  gas-pipes  being  supporters  also  of  the  platform  surround¬ 
ing  the  furnace-mouth  or  top,  render  the  said  platform  independent  of 
the  blast-furnace  proper,  and  that  without  involving  any  special  outlay. 

“  In  the  first  days  of  this  erection,  critics  expressed  a  fear  that  the 
chilling  of  the  parts  thus  exposed  in  this  blast-furnace  would  be  achieved 
only  at  the  cost  of  a  greater  consumption  of  fuel.  But,  contrary  to  such 
apprehensions,  experience  has  amply  shown  that  blast-furnaces,  the 
brick-work  of  which  at  the  core  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  outer  air, 
use  less  fuel  than  do  those  that  are  protected  by  strong  mason  work,  or 


BUTTGENBACH  S  BLAST-FURNACES. 


85 


sliut  in  by  means  of  a  second  inner  casing  with  a  lining  of  sheet-iron  ; 
and  the  opinion  expressed  by  me  from  the  very  beginning  explains  this 
result.  For,  in  point  of  fact,  a  blast-furnace  should  form  at  its  lower 
part  a  smelting-crucible,  and  it  is  generally  known  that  every  expedient 
available  is  brought  into  use  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  the  walls  of  this 
portion  of  the  structure.  The  boshes  are  a  kind  of  retort,  wherein  the 
ore  is  reduced  by  means  of  its  contact  with  the  fuel,  aud  the  in-wall  is 
like  unto  the  neck  of  a  retort,  and  in  which  the  ore  is  prepared  by  the 
action  of  a  moderate  heat  and  contact  with  the  reducing  gases. 

“If  the  ore  sinking  into  the  in-wall  section  requires  a  spongy  condi¬ 
tion,  and  continues  in  this  condition  without  undergoing  semifusion,  it 
is  quite  obvious  that  the  effect  produced  by  the  gas  must  be  infinitely 
greater,  and  that  the  ore  must  descend  into  the  zones  of  the  boshes  and 
of  the  hearth  in  a  much  better  state  of  preparation  than  if  the  heat  of 
the  in-wall  had  partially  converted  it  into  cinder,  so  that  the  reducing 
gas  must  pass  on,  incapable  of  action  upon  such  ore,  except  superfi¬ 
cially.  The  ore,  thus  brought  into  a  better  state  of  preparation,  must  of 
necessity  require  less  fuel  in  order  to  its  perfect  fusion. 

“Moreover,  in  the  event  of  cinder  being  formed  at  the  in-wall  zone, 
it  will  adhere  to  the  walls  and  produce  concretions,  which  always  impede 
the  proper  working  of  a  blast-furnace.  When  the  ore  sinks  with  regu¬ 
larity  the  smelting-process  is  facilitated,  whereby  a  further  saving  of 
fuel  is  effected. 

“  The  truth  of  the  foregoing  assertions  has  been  fully  established  by 
the  experience  of  eight  years’  working  at  our  works.  Concretions  have 
never  been  noticed,  and  the  proportion  of  fuel  required  for  the  furnace, 
constructed  upon  the  new  principle,  has  always  been  from  10  to  15  per 
cent,  smaller,  cceteris  paribus. 

“  When  good  coke  has  been  used,  excellent  No.  1  foundery-pigs  have 
been  produced  from  ores  yielding  35  per  cent.,  the  consumption  of  coke 
being  in  the  ratio  of  11  parts  to  10  part  of  pig,  at  a  temperature  of  350° 
centigrade,  under  blast,  while  in  the  case  of  white  pig  it  is  one  part  less 
of  good  coke  to  every  part  of  pig.  Touching  the  fears  entertained  of 
undue  chilling  in  severe  seasons,  the  following  facts  have  served  to 
dispel  them  in  toto  : 

“The blast-furnace  attheNeuss  Works  has  more  than  once  been  sud¬ 
denly  blown  out  for  several  weeks,  owing  to  causes  quite  foreign  to  its 
working  capabilities.  Three  of  these  suspensions  occurred  during  the 
war  in  the  year  1S70-’71,  owing  to  the  want  of  fuel,  and  no  prepara¬ 
tory  arrangements  were  madebeforeany  of  the  said  suspensions  of  work. 
They  lasted  during  a  space  ranging  between  three  and  ten  weeks  re¬ 
spectively. 

“  I  did  not  touch  the  blast-furnace  during  any  of  the  periods  of  stop¬ 
page  referred  to,  the  most  prolonged  of  them  occurring  at  a  time  when 
the  thermometer  registered  10°  to  17°  0.,  and  yet  when  work  was  re¬ 
sumed  the  furnace  did  its  work  again  with  surprising  regularity.  On 


86 


Vienna  international  exhibition,  1873. 

tlie  last  occasion,  however,  I  was  obliged  to  raise  up  the  tuyeres,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  the  thickening  of  the  bottom  stone. 

“For  the  last  two  years,  the  furnace  has  been  blown  from  one  meter 
and  fifty  centimeters  above  the  original  level.  It  behaves  admirably, 
producing  as  much  as  50,000  kilograms  in  twenty-four  hours.  I  cannot 
conceive  of  any  blast-furnace  constructed  upon  a  different  principle  be¬ 
ing  capable  of  withstanding  the  effect  of  events  such  as  those  detailed 
above,  and  yet  remaining  fit  for  work.  The  blast-furnace  I  am  describ¬ 
ing  has  entered  upon  the  eighth  year  of  its  existence,  and  the  condition 
of  its  core  is  such,  as  yet,  that  one  will  readily  admit  the  almost  cer¬ 
tainty  of  its  lasting  out  double  or  three  times  the  said  number  of  years, 
consideriug  that  the  bricks  of  the  in-wall  and  of  the  boshes  have,  up  to 
the  present,  lost  nothing  of  their  thickness.  This  may  be  easily  verified , 
for  all  the  bricks  coming  to  the  outer  air  may  be  examiued  at  any  mo¬ 
ment.  Their  thickness  may  be  unerringly  ascertained  by  piercing  the 
walls  with  a  small  pin-drill.  The  walls,  be  it  borne  iu  mind,  are  but 
weak,  measuring  110  more  than  2  feet  thickness  at  the  base,  and  18 

iuches  at  the  summit  of  the  in-wall. 

✓ 

“  This  thickness  they  have  not  lost  during  an  existence  of  eight  years. 
Experience  has  shown,  moreover,  that,  the  core  of  the  furnace  being 
exposed  to  the  air,  the  internal  heat  produces  hardly  any  effect  upou  the 
bricks,  either  by  dilation  or  contraction.  Hearth,  boshes,  and  in-wall 
were  originally  fastened  together  in  the  Neuss  blast-furnace  by  means 
of  flat  iron  binders  occurring  at  the  third  course  alternately. 

“This  precautionary  measure  appears  superfluous.  It  is  over  four 
years  ago  since  I  have  had  the  binders  removed  at  the  hearth  and 
boshes,  as  well  as  at  the  in-wall,  iu  part;  for  I  perceived  that  they 
served  no  useful  purpose,  since  the  cooling  down  of  the  bricks  prevents 
expansion  altogether.  Indeed,  the  furnace  iu  the  parts  referred  to  is 
just  the  same  as  on  the  day  of  its  erection. 

“  At  Vienna,  I  have  exhibited  at  the  Veutscher  Pavilion  fur  Bergbau , 
Iliittemcesen ,  (No.  8635,)  a  model  of  this  blast-furuace,  in  which  I  have 
shown  the  deductions  made  from  an  experience  of  the  working,  during 
a  period  of  eight  years,  of  the  first  blast  furnace  of  its  kind. 

“  The  chief  alterations  introduced  by  way  of  improvement  consist  in 
a  diminution  of  the  stack  to  a  very  great  extent,  at  that  part  of  it  which 
supports  the  in-wall ;  this  diminution  being  accompanied,  however,  by 
so  considerable  a  sloping  away  from  the  center  toward  the  rise  of  the 
boshes,  that  the  space  around  the  hearth  and  the  boshes  has  been  still 
further  enlarged,  so  that  it  may  be  considered  as  perfectly  isolated. 

“  1  have  also  introduced  a  peculiar  description  of  closed  hearth,  which 
admits  of  ordinary  working,  as  well  as  working  with  a  closed  hearth. 
I  have  been  using  this  method  for  the  last  six  years  with  the  very 
best  results.  Its  application  is  very  simple  indeed,  and  free  from  the 
objectionable  features  of  other  known  methods,  since  the  work  of  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace  can  be  performed,  iu  case  of  need,  without  de¬ 
pending  upou  the  mouth  of  a  tuyere  for  running  off  the  slag. 


buttgenbach’s  blast-furnaces.  •  87 

“The  hearth  is  closed  in  by  a  cast-iron  tymp  placed  in  the  usual  posi¬ 
tion.  This  tymp  arch  is  cooled  by  a  current  of  water  passing’  through  a 
coiled  iron  fixed  in  'the  cast  iron. 


Fig.  55. — Buttgenbacli’s  blast-furnace. — Elevation  and  section. 


“In  the  center  of  this  plate  there  is  an  aperture  or  orifice,  measuring 
three-quarters  of  an  inch,  running  almost  over  the  entire  height,  and  the 
cooling-pipes  are  situate  as  near  this  kind  of  slit  as  may  be.  This  slit  is 
closed  up  by  means  of  ordinary  clay.  A,  the  upper  portion  of  the  slit, 


88  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

is  placed  two  or  three  inches  higher  than  the  center  of  the  line  of  the 
tuyeres. 


Front  view. 

“  b,  level  center  of  the  tuyeres ;  c,  columns  of  the  breast ;  d,  dam ;  e,  tap- 
hole ;  p,  space  between  dam-stoue;  tymp  closed  in  with  clay;  T,  cast- 
iron  tymp. 

“The  slag  of  the  blast-furnace  ascending  above  the  dam-stone  and 
reaching  the  level  of  the  tuyeres  runs  off  easily  through  a  hole  driven 
by  means  of  a  light  steel  bar  into  the  said  slit;  and,  since  the  level  of  i 
this  hole  may  be  altered  at  will,  a  means  is  thus  afforded  for  changing  | 
the  level  at  which  the  slag  is  run  off  over  a  range  of  2-1  inches,  which  is 
a  very  great  advantage  in  itself;  but,  in  addition  to  that,  there  is  this  i 
further  facility,  namely,  that  nothing  hinders  one  from  tapping  the 
melted  ore  at  this  same  slit. 

“I  shall  not  dwell  at  length  upon  the  advantages  of  such  an  arrange¬ 
ment,  but  will  simply  state  that  during  the  six  years,  since  I  have  been  ' 
making  use  of  it,  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  fault  with  it,  and  that  | 
in  my  practice  it  has  always  possessed  all  the  advantages  of  the  closed 
breast. . 

“  In  the  said  model,  I  have  also  applied  three  rows  of  tuyeres,  made 
of  gun-metal,  overlying  one  auother  so  that  the  upper  row  is  two  and 
one-half  meters  above  the  first.  These  tuyeres  reach  into  the  interior  as 
deeply  as  the  blast-tuyeres.  By  this  arraugmeut  the  walls  of  the  hearth 
are  kept  in  perfect  preservation,  and  in  case  of  accident  the  blast  may 
be  introduced  through  the  said  tuyeres,  affording  advantages  that  iron¬ 
masters  will  bo  able  to  appreciate  without  further  explanations. 

“Practice  has  showu  that  this  kind  of  blast-furnace,  being  readily  ac¬ 
cessible  on  all  sides  and  at  any  moment,  is  far  more  easily  managed 
than  any  other  system  ;  which  fact  practical  men  will  readily  admit. 

“Over  and  above  the  advautages  above  enumerated,  there  is  auother, 
namely,  that  the  construction  of  such  a  blast-furnace  must  evidently 
be,  and  is,  in  point  of  tact,  much  less  costly  than  that  of  any  furnace  j 
built  upon  another  principle.  It  takes  much  less  time  to  build,  to  dry,  i 
and  to  fire ;  in  fact,  it  is  a  practical  elucidation  of  your  English  proverb, 
‘time  is  money.’ 


89 


buttgenbach’s  blast-fuenaces. 

“Let  me  add,  too,  that  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  application  of 
my  system  to  blast-furnaces  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  and  that  the  largest 
section  would  just  be  the  one  best  adapted  for  illustrating  its  great  ad¬ 
vantages,  no  less,  speaking  relatively,  than  its  saving  qualities. 

“In  conclusion,  I  must  say  that,  to  my  mind,  this  system  is  the  most 
advanced  in  simplicity  of  blast-furnace  construction.-'7 

In  reply  to  criticisms  and  objections  made  at  the  meeting  and  in  the 
journals,  Mr.  Buttgenbach  addressed  a  communication  to  Engineer¬ 
ing,  as  follows  : 

“At  the  meeting  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  I  had  the  pleasure 
of  reading  a  paper  about  my  system  of  blast-furnaces — a  system  which 
was  illustrated  and  described  in  your  number  of  August  15  last ;  and  I 
see  with  satisfaction  that  this  paper  is  reproduced  in  your  number  of 
August  29,  together  with  a  report  of  the  discussion.  Your  contemporary, 
the  Engineer ,  has  also  published  communications  respecting  my  fur¬ 
nace,  and  in  particular  I  notice  an  article  in  the  number  of  that  journal 
for  September  12,  expressing  opinions  adverse  to  my  system.  Allow  me 
to  say  that  I  shall  always  be  glad  to  find  adversaries  to  my  ideas,  as 
their  opposition  only  gives  me  occasion  to  explain  these  ideas  more  fully, 
and,  I  trust,  in  a  more  convincing  manner. 

“  On  the  occasion  of  the  discussion  of  my  paper  at  Liege,  it  was  impos¬ 
sible  for  me  to  answer  thoroughly  to  the  objectious  made  by  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  institute — first,  for  want  of  time,  and,  secondly,  for  want  of 
sufficient  knowledge  of  the  English  language.  But  having  now  the  re¬ 
ports  before  me,  and  encouraged  by  the  interest  taken  by  the  English 
press  in  my  system,  I  think  it  due  to  those  who  have  been  present  at 
the  meeting,  and  to  the  readers  of  the  papers,  that  I  should  reply  to  the 
various  objections  raised. 

“1.  To  the  objection  offered  by  one  speaker,  that  he  did  not  consider  the 
brick-work  of  the  base  practical,  and  that  the  use  of  cast-iron  columns 
is  to  be  preferred,  I  have  to  answer  that  this  cannot  be  an  objection  to 
the  system  as  such.  I  exhibited  my  model  with  a  base  of  cast-iron  pil¬ 
lars,  and  with  a  base  of  brick-work.  My  experience  shows,  however, 
that  a  base  of  red  bricks  is  entirely  sufficient,  and  leaves  room  enough 
round  the  blast-furnace  to  allow  of  even  the  most  difficult  repairs  with¬ 
out  opposing  the  slightest  obstacle.  I,  for  my  part,  would  never  allow  a 
base  to  be  made  of  cast-iron  pillars,  the  cost  of  the  latter  being  four  or 
five  times  that  of  a  brick-work  or  masonry  base,  and  the  last  entirely 
fulfilling  the  desired  purpose.  The  adoption  of  brick-work  or  cast  iron 
for  the  base  is  therefore  only  a  question  of  economy.  The  base  of  brick¬ 
work  contains  100  cubic  meters,  while  it  costs  at  the  Neusser  Works 
only  1,300  francs,  and  could  be  constructed  in  fifteen  days. 

“  2.  A  second  objection  raised  was  that  a  blast-furnace  of  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  only  one  brick  would  not  resist  the  pressure  of  the  materials  in 
large  furnaces  like  those  of  Cleveland.  1  think  that  quite  a  false  idea 
exists  of  this  pressure.  This  pressure  is  not  at  all  a  great  one,  being 


90 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


partly  paralyzed  by  the  state  of  the  minerals,  which,  by  the  heat,  are 
caused  to  adhere  more  or  less  together  with  the  coke,  without,  however, 
being  in  a  state  of  semi-fusion  or  vitrified. 

“  I  have  taken  away  a  good  part  of  the  bricks  of  the  stack,  several 
meters  above  the  largest  section  of  a  blast-furnace,  but  the  mixture 
remained  in  the  furnace  and  allowed  me  to  replace  the  bricks  I  had 
taken  away  without  the  slightest  difficulty.  On  this  occasion  I  remarked 
that  the  bricks  had  not  even  lost  3  centimeters  after  a  campaign  of  seven 
years. 

“  For  the  rest,  as  supporting  what  I  have  said  above,  I  must  state  1 
that  an  establishment  which  adopted  my  system  made,  contrary  to  my 
advice,  the  first  blast-furnace  with  a  base  of  cast-iron  pillars,  and  after 
a  few  years’  experience  a  second  blast-furnace  at  the  same  works  was 
constructed  with  a  base  of  brick-work. 

“3.  Next,  it  has  been  asserted  that  there  are  in  Cleveland  and  the 
North  of  England  blast-furnaces  with  free-standing  shafts. 

“I  have  been  over  that  part  of  England,  and  I  have  not  seen  one 
blast-furnace  where  the  shaft  had  a  thickness  of  only  one  brick  ;  they 
have  all  inside  a  circle  of  large  special  bricks,-  surrounded  by  a  mantle 
of  brick-work,  often  thicker  than  the  lining.  In  my  furnace  the  single 
thickness  of  bricks  is  freely  exposed  to  the  air,  and  dilatation  by  heat 
being  prevented,  I  am  enabled  to  have  a  furnace  without  hoops. 

“  4.  One  opponent  admits  that  my  arrangement  preserves  the  boshes 
against  the  attacks  of  the  fire,  but  it  is  said  that  one  could  as  well  repair 
blast-furnaces  such  as  those  in  Middlesbrough,  which  have  a  lining  and 
a  mantle  round  this  of  3  feet  or  4  feet  thickness.  I  do  not  deny  that 
repairs  are  possible  in  the  latter  case,  but  certainly  they  are  expensive, 
very  difficult,  and  require  much  time;  evei’y  practical  man  knows  that, as 
soon  as  one  must  go  below,  say  30  feet  from  the  mouth,  this  becomes  diffi¬ 
cult  work,  the  more  so  as  the  mantle  hides  the  defects  of  the  lining,  and 
one  does  not  know  the  state  of  the  latter.  With  an  entirely  free  shaft, 
on  the  other  hand,  one  can  perfectly  well  ascertain  at  any  time  the  state 
of  the  bricks,  and  can  easily  make  repairs,  keeping  the  blast-furnace 
filled.  I  think  this  is  a  great  advantage. 

****** 

“  7.  It  was  stated  that  scaffolding  does  not  occur,  or  ought  not  to  occur, 
with  very  hot  blast,  and  especially  not  where  Whitwell’s  apparatus  is 
employed.  I  am  an  advocate  of  high-blast  temperatures,  and  especially 
of  Whitwell’s  excellent  stoves,  but  it  is  not  the  great  heat  of  the  blast 
which  prevents  these  scaffoldings ;  these  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the 
mineral  and  the  coke  of  the  district. 

“  I  could  name  works  in  Luxembourg  where  the  blast  is  heated  by 
Whitwell’s  stoves,  but  where,  with  the  small  mineral  to  which  I  have 
referred,  such  dangerous  scaffoldings  have  occurred  in  a  new  blast-fur¬ 
nace  they  feared  they  should  be  forced  to  blow  it  out.  If  at  the 
crisis  they  had  had  tuyeres  available  3  meters  higher  up,  they  could 
easi'y  have  got  over  the  difficulty,  the  more  as  they  had  very  hot  blast. 


91 


buttgenbach’s  blast-furnaces. 

“S.  As  to  the  way  of  conducting  the  gas,  one  must  not  forget  that 
with  mineral  containing  20  per  cent,  of  water,  and  of  which  two-thirds 
are  small,  (fine,)  one  has  to  take  precautions  quite  different  to  those  taken 
in  Cleveland,  where,  though  the  ore  is  in  lump,  I  have  seen  gas  pipes  of 
3  feet  in  diameter  full  of  top  dust,  aud  which  were  cleaned  with  the  ut¬ 
most  difficulty.  All  these  difficulties  disappear  by  my  arrangement, 
and  especially  all  explosions  are  without  any  effect — a  very  important 
matter  when  one  has  to  do  with  wet  minerals. 

“  En  resume,  all  the  objections  made  concern  the  Middlesbrough  dis¬ 
trict  only,  but  out  of  this  there  exist  others  too ;  we,  and  many  other 
works,  work  with  mineral  of  which  two-thirds  pass  into  a  sieve  of  10 
holes  per  square  inch,  containing  20  per  cent,  of  water,  and  which  can¬ 
not  support  any  calcining,  as  getting  too  easily  to  powder.  Under  such 
circumstances,  the  Cleveland  iron-masters  would  not  have  constructed 
blast-furnaces  85  to  90  feet  in  height,  aud  would  have  had  to  take  other 
precautions  than  they  have  to  avoid  stoppings  every  week,  to  manage 
the  difficult  cleaning  of  their  gas-pipes,  which  would  soon  have  been 
filled  with  dust. 

“  With  materials  as  used  in  our  district,  where  we  use  twenty  different 
minerals  always  varying,  and  where  coke  contains  as  much  as  18  per 
cent,  of  cinder,  a  blast-furnace  cannot  be  so  regular,  or  be  so  easily 
managed  as  a  Middlesbrough,  and  there  very  often  happen  disturbances 
in  the  smelting  process. 

“  The  corrosive  nature  of  the  mineral  containing  manganese  rapidly 
attacks  the  bricks  of  the  blast-furnace,  in  consequence  of  which  one 
makes  everywhere  preparations  to  prevent  that,  and  I  believe  that  the 
three  series  of  tuyeres  is  the  best  preservative ;  for  the  rest,  experience 
proves  it. 

“The  Middlesboro  blast-furnaces  endure,  it  is  said,  ten  to  thirteen 
years,  but  certainly  they  would  not  do  so  under  the  conditions  we  have 
to  meet  here.  My  blast-furnace  was  erected  in  1865,  and  its  condition 
is  still  such  that  one  will  readily  admit  the  almost  certainty  of  its  last¬ 
ing  out  double  or  three  times  its  present  age. 

“Altogether,  I  find  that  the  observations  made  by  the  English  iron¬ 
masters  who  condemn  my  system  are  too  partial,  the  statements  made 
reading  as  if  the  Cleveland  district  was  the  only  district  to  be  provided 
with  furnaces,  and  as  if  the  conditions  which  exist  also  existed  every¬ 
where.  This,  however,  as  I  have  shown,  is  very  far  from  being  the  case. 

“  Even  for  the  Cleveland  district  I  think  there  are  some  advantages 
in  my  system  which  would  be  valuable ;  at  least  an  eight  years’  experi¬ 
ence  of  my  furnace  suggests  this  view  to  me.  I  may  add,  too,  that 
seventeen  of  my  furnaces  have  been  constructed  on  the  continent,  and 
are  all  at  work  under  almost  entirely  different  conditions.  I  think  this 
letter  is  a  sufficient  reply  to  the  sharp  criticism  of  the  ’Engineer  to 
which  I  do  not  want  to  reply  in  detail,  not  being  disposed  to  enter  into 


92 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  IS73. 

polemics  with  a  writer  wlio  makes  inaccurate  statements,  and  then 
founds  arguments  on  them. 

“I  did  not  put  up  my  system  as  a  new  invention  in  every  particular 
of  its  arrangements,  but  as  a  total  arrangement  it  is  new.  As  such  it 
has  been  acknowledged  by  authorities,  including  the  owners  of  the  sev¬ 
enteen  blast-furnaces  built  on  my  system. 

*  *  *  *  #  *  # 
Meusser  Iron-works,  (near  Dusseldorf,) 

“  September  1G,  1373.” 

OSNABRUCK  IKON  AND  STEEL  WORKS. 

G3.  The  Joint-Stock  Company  of  Osnabrtick,  province  of  Hanover, 
founded  in  1SG9,  made  for  the  first  time  au  exhibition  of  its  products 
for  comparison  with  all  others  in  the  International  Exhibition  at  Vienna 
in  1S73. 

Of  the  original  grand  plan  of  these  works,  only  that  part  is  now  fin¬ 
ished  and  this  year  in  full  operation  which  is  iuteuded  for  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  Bessemer  steel  and  its  applications  for  steel  rails,  wheel-rims, 
axles,  forgings,  &c.,  and  therefore  the  collection  of  objects  on  exhibition 
is  naturally  quite  limited  ;  but,  on  account  of  the  origin  and  method  of 
manufacture  of  these  products,  they  are  none  the  less  worthy  of  exam¬ 
ination. 

The  group  of  objects  outside  of  the  glass  cases  consists  of — 

1st.  Bessemer-steel  axles,  of  which  three  are  rough-forged,  and  serve  as 
a  base  for  a  group  of  wheel-tires;  one  is  a  finished  forged,  and  one  a 
finished  turned,  car-axle,  and  there  is,  moreover,  one  which  was  bent 
double  in  the  cold. 

2d.  Bessemer-steel  tires,  of  which  one  is  finished;  one  is  the  rough 
forging  for  a  tire,  and  is  without  a  hole  ;  the  next  one  is  rough  but  with 
a  hole ;  six  are  rolled  and  finished,  and  of  diameter  from  430mm  to 
2,420'nm  ;  and  one  was  bent  into  the  form  of  a  figure  8  in  the  cold. 

3d.  Bessemer-steel  rails,  of  which  four  pieces  were  bent  into  a  spiral 
form,  and  one  piece  was  twisted  in  the  cold. 

4th.  Bessemer-steel  forgings,  among  which  are  a  piece  showing  the 
fracture,  a  large  cylinder,  two  broken  pieces  of  axles,  five  different 
proof-pieces  from  the  ends  of  rails,  and  two  forged  ties. 

Under  the  glass  cover  are — 

5th.  Various  proof-pieces  of  Bessemer  steel,  among  which  is  a  hat 
with  a  tassel,  made  from  the  end  of  a  tire. 

Gth.  A  collection  showing  the  fractures  of  blocks  of  rough  steel,  foig 
ings,  tires,  and  rails. 

7th.  A  rail-end  and  a  number  of  sections. 

Sth.  Breaking  proofs  of  the  products  obtained  by  the  use  of  different 
kinds  of  iron  and  coke. 

9th.  Samples  of  infusible  clays  and  various  infusible  substances  used 


OSNABRIICK  IRON  AND  STEEL. 


93 


in  the  processes  of  manufacture  of  Bessemer  steel,  such  as  tuyeres,  stop¬ 
pers,  funnels,  &c. 

The  production,  in  tons,  of  the  Osnabriick  Iron  and  Steel  Works  has 


been  as  follows : 

First  half 
1872.  of  1873. 

Bessemer  rough  steel,  in  blocks .  217.42  152.00 

Finished  rails . .  128.91  125,00 

Tires,  axles,  and  forgings .  240.  60  100.  00 


Average  laboring  force,  in  1872,  850  men  ;  first  half  of  1S73,  1,000  men. 

There  have  been  employed  a  Bessemer  plant,  with  two  converters  and 
five  cupola-furnaces;  4  steam-hammers ;  a  rolling-mill  for  rolling  rails  ; 
a  rolliug-mill  for  tires;  a  machine-shop  for  turning  axles;  a  foundery, 
with  two  cupola-furnaces  and  one  flame-furnace ;  a  forge,  a  carpenter- 
sliop,  a  place  for  the  manufacture  of  fire-brick,  &c. 

The  thirteen  heating-furnaces  were  heated  with  gas,  which  was  gene¬ 
rated  in  eight  Siemens  gas-furnaces. 

Ten  engines,  together  having  1,200  horse-power,  were  used  as  motors. 
The  steam  was  furnished  by  24  boilers. 

A  large  and  a  small  locomotive  were  used  for  transportation. 

For  some  years  previous  Bessemer  steel  had  been  made  almost  exclu¬ 
sively  from  English  hematite  pig-iron,  and  although  the  German  manu¬ 
facturers  had  sometimes  mixed  with  it  a  portion  of  German  pig-iron,  it 
was  reserved  for  the  Osnabriick  Iron  and  Steel  Works  to  make  the 
finest  Bessemer-steel  products  entirely  from  German  materials,  of  which 
the  neighboring  Georgs-Marien  furnace,  with  its  iron  rich  in  manganese, 
furnishes  the  larger  part;  and  though  from  economical  considerations 
the  use  of  English  pig-iron  is  not  wholly  dispensed  with,  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  when  the  production  of  Bessemer  pig-iron  equals  the 
demand,  the  continental  manufacturers  of  Bessemer  steel  can  dispense 
with  foreign  products. 

The  prejudice  which  has  long  existed  against  the  employment  of  Ger¬ 
man  materials  for  steel-manufacture,  as  well  as  the  hesitation  of  the 
managers  of  railroads  to  employ  Bessemer  steel  in  the  construction  of 
roads,  cars,  &c.,  have  both  been  overcome,  and  if  Bessemer  steel  cannot 
be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  all  other  steel  articles,  its  present  im¬ 
proved  quality  allows  it  not  only  to  be  used  for  rails,  but  also  to  com¬ 
pete  most  successfully  with  crucible  steel  in  the  general  manufacture  of 
tires,  axles,  and  other  forgings,  on  account  of  its  greater  cheapness. 
Axles  made  entirely  of  German  pig-iron  have  been  tested  by  the  royal 
directors  of  the  Bergisch-Markische  Bailroad,  and  have  grandly  with¬ 
stood  the  very  severe  tests  of  falling  weights. 

The  problem  of  making  such  a  product  from  material  the  behavior  of 
which  in  the  different  processes  was  uncertain  was  certainly  a  difficult 
one,  but  the  managing  engineer,  Mr.  Schemman,  has  by  perseverance 
succeeded  in  overcoming  all  the  obstacles  and  difficulties,  after  many 
unsuccessful  experiments,  and  has  solved  the  problem. 


94  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 

The  converter  linings,  the  blast-pipes,  and  all  other  requisites  made  of  • 
fire-clay  which  are  elsewhere  used  for  the  casting  of  steel,  as  well  as 
the  best  of  the  imported  furnace-linings,  especially  proved  themselves 
to  be  of  inferior  quality,  and  only  after  all  those  and  other  requisites  in 
improved  quality  were  manufactured  at  the  home  works  could  the  steel 
produced  reach  a  perfection  which  will  with  difficulty  be  surpassed. 
The  converter-linings  which  are  made  here  have  sometimes  withstood 
75  charges,  and  on  an  average  50  charges. 

Tires  of  2,420mm  diameter  are  made  from  a  massive  block  of  steel  by 
punching  a  hole  and  rolling. 

Kails,  which  are  usually  rolled  GO  feet  long,  cau,  if  necessary,  be  made  j 
100  feet  long. 

The  piece  of  a  heavy  shaft  exhibited  represents  some  which  have  been 
lately  made  for  Westphalia,  and  which  were  forged  with  a  fifteen-ton  ■ 
trip-hammer. 

The  adoption  of  new  and  improved  machinery  at  the  Osnabriick  Steel 
Works,  the  fortunate  location  of  the  different  departments  of  the  works  |! 
in  relation  to  one  another,  the  increased  facilities  for  production  on  h 
account  of  the  additional  buildings  now  in  process  of  erection,  the  li 
nlaking  of  new  products,  such  as  rolling  steel,  spring-steel,  sheet-steel,  I 
&c.,  in  connection  with  the  central  location  at  the  junction  of  three  if 
railroads,  the  proximity  of  furnacesand  coal-mines,  with  property  around 
the  works  already  purchased  for  further  enlargements,  ^ecure  to  these  I 
works  a  very  successful  future,  and  especially  as  local  conditions  allow  j 
cheaper  living  than  is  possible  elsewhere,  and  therefore  allow  steel  to  j| 
be  more  economically  produced. 

GEORGS-3IAEIEN-HUTTE  COMPANY. 

64.  The  Georgs-Marien  Mining  and  Smelting  Company,  in  addition  to  1 
its  very  interesting  exhibition  of  ores,  iron,  mining-maps,  and  sections  I 
of  furnaces,  published  a  very  full  description  of  the  property  of  the  com-  I 
pany,  and  especially  of  the  benevolent  institutions  founded  for  the  benefit  j| 
of  the  workmen.  This  brochure,  in  German,*  has  been  freely  drawn  j 
upon  for  the  following  information,  translated  from  its  pages. 

The  origin  and  development  of  the  works. — The  Georgs-Marien  Mining  I 
and  Metallurgical  Compauy  was  organized  in  the  year  1850,  as  a  joint-  I 
stock  company  for  mining  iron-ore,  coal,  and  other  minerals,  and  also  1 
for  the  production  of  iron  and  other  materials  from  them. 

The  capital  stock  is  2,500,000  thalers,  of  which  1,500,000  thalers  were  || 
immediately  expended,  aud  G50,000  thalers  more,  making  a  total  outlay  || 
of  2,150,000  thalers.  Besides  this,  a  loan  of  700,000  thalers  was  con- I 
tracted,  but  which  is  now  being  rapidly  paid.  The  company  bought,  in 
1856,  the  mining-privileges  of  their  present  property,  “Heiigel  I,”  a  bed 

*  Besclireibwng  der  Verhaltnisse  und  Einrichtuvgen  der  Georgs-Marien- Hiitte  bei  Osnabriick,  || 
AussgesteUt  unter  Gruppc  I,  A fro,  8642.  auf  der  In  ter  nation  alen  Ausstellung  inTTien  irn  Jab  re  jl 
1873.  Osnabriick,  Dntck  von  J.  G.  Eislirg ,  1873.  4to.  Pp.  21.  Plates. 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE  COMPANY.  •  95 

of  iron-ore,  containing  4,815,500  square  meters,  at  Beckerode,  near  Os. 
nabriick,  with  the  furnaces  and  machine- works  that  were  upon  it.  The 
company  also  bought  various  other  beds  of  clay  and  bog-iron  ore  in  the 
county  of  Osnabriick,  and  received,  in  1856,  a  grant  of  the  coal  and  iron 
fields  of  Gluckauf;  in  1857,  of  those  in  Dorenberg,  and  in  1858,  of  those 
in  Hilterberg.  These  fields  together  have  an  area  of  48,220,000  square 
meters.  Moreover,  in  1865,  the  company  received  a  grant  of  the  iron- 
beds  of  Hiigel  II,  with  an  area  of  3,721,000  square  meters. 

The  iron-ore  beds  Hiigel  I  and  Hiigel  II  lie  on  the  so-called  Hiigel, 
which  is  a  mountain-ridge  (one  of  the  spurs  of  the  Teutoburger  forest) 
one  and  a  half  miles  southwest  from  the  city  of  Osnabriick.  Brown  and 
spathic  iron -ores  are  chiefly  obtained  from  them. 

The  coal-fields  of  Gluckauf,  Dorenberg,  and  Hilterberg  he  in  the  forest 
clay-formation  of  the  Osning  Mountains,  or  the  Burger  Mountains, 
one  and  a  half  to  two  miles  southeast  of  the  city  of  Osnabriick. 

It  was  the  intention  of  the  company  to  connect  all  their  mines  of  coal 
and  iron  by  a  railroad  running  east  and  west,  and  then  to  establish  at 
some  suitable  point  extensive  smelting-works,  which  should  be  inde¬ 
pendent  of  the  precarious  production  of  charcoal,  and  be  supplied  with 
coke.  The  location  of  these  works  was  especially  dependent  upon  a  suf¬ 
ficient  supply  of  running  water,  which  was  found  in  the  valley  of  the 
Diite.  The  space  for  the  location  of  the  works  was  purchased  from  the 
government  of  Hanover. 

The  building  of  the  works  was  rapidly  carried  forward,  and  in  1858  a 
coke-furnace  was  in  operation.  The  transportation  of  the  materials  from 
the  iron-ore  fields  at  Hiigel,  and  the  coal -fields  at  Oesede  and  Borgloh, 
was  done  at  that  time  by  horse-power  on  roads  constructed  by  the  com¬ 
pany. 

The  great  amount  of  water  in  the  Diite  Yalley,  and  the  insufficiency 
of  the  machinery  for  its  control,  made  the  working  of  the  coal-mines 
peculiarly  difficult  and  expensive.  Coal  could  be  obtained  cheaper  from 
Dortmund,  and  in  1866  the  working  of  the  coal-mines  of  the  Diite  was 
provisionally  stopped.  The  same  combination  of  circumstances  worked 
against  the  other  coal-mines,  so  that  after  due  deliberation  the  plan  of 
building  a  railroad  between  the  works  and  the  coal-mines  was  aban¬ 
doned,  and  the  construction  of  a  railroad  between  the  works  and  the 
mines  at  Hiigel  and  the  Westphalian  collieries  was  taken  up  with  vigor, 
and  in  1870  railroad  communication  was  established  with  the  great  thor¬ 
oughfare  of  the  Coln-Mindener  Railroad. 

The  construction  of  the  Hamm-Osnabriick  Railroad,  which  is  now  pro¬ 
gressing,  will  connect  the  coal-mines  of  the  company  directly  with  all 
other  points,  and  will  enable  the  company  to  work  them  to  advantage. 

The  company  has  now  the  sole  management  of  the  railroad  between 
Oesede  and  Hasbergen,  and  also  that  from  Domprobst  and  Sundern  to 
Rothenberg,  and  uses  upon  these  railroads  five  locomotives  and  hun¬ 
dreds  of  freight-cars,  besides  passenger-cars ;  and  they  use  the  same  not 


96 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


only  for  their  own  business,  but  do  a  steadily-growing  general  carrying- 
business. 

The  working  of  the  little  charcoal-furnace  and  rolling-mill  at  Becke- 
rode  has  been  suspended  and  superseded  by  coke-burning  furnaces. 
The  price  of  charcoal  is  constantly  rising,  while  the  quality  of  coke  is 
rapidly  improving,  and  therefore  the  company  is  able  to  produce  a 
better  quality  of  pig-iron  at  a  much  less  cost  than  formerly. 

The  products  of  the  Georgs-Marien  Works  have  been  principally  sold 
to  the  steel,  puddling,  and  rolling  works  of  Westphalia  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  articles  of  the  best  quality.  The  iron  competes  favorably 
with  the  better  kinds  of  pig-iron  from  Seigerland. 

The  rolling-mill  and  machine-works  at  Beckerode  were  too  small  aud 
their  sales  too  insignificant  to  justify  their  continuance.  These  works 
were  therefore  incorporated  with  the  Georgs-Marien  Works,  which  were 
then  approaching  completion;  aud  the  Beckerode  shops  were  used  for 
the  construction  of  steam-boilers,  mostly  for  home  use,  aud  in  repairing 
machinery,  using  a  small  water-power  as  motor,  while  some  of  their 
workmen  with  their  families  lived  iu  the  house  of  the  company  at  Beck-  ; 
erpde  or  in  the  neighboring  villages. 

Although  the  Georgs-Marien  Works  have  not  yet  reached  their  full 
development,  either  in  their  menus  or  their  production,  iu  consequence 
of  the  imperfection  of  communication,  yet  the  size  and  technical 
arrangements,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  their  productions,  and,  not 
the  least  consideration,  the  number  of  workmen  employed  and  the  ex-  I 
celleut  accommodations  for  their  welfare  aud  happiness,  give  the  works  ! 
a  right  to  claim  a  conspicuous  place  among  their  competitors. 

The  company  owns,  besides  the  already-mentioned  railroads  and  equip- 
ments,  G  finished  blast-furnaces,  of  which  5  are  iu  blast,  each  having 
3  hot  blasts,  each  oue  of  which  has  a  heating-surface  of  140  square  ( 
meters,  the  apparatus  being  of  a  peculiar  qonstruction,  made  with  hang-  ;i 
iug  pipes.  There  are  14  crushing-machines  and  5  horizontal  blast- 
engines. 

There  are,  besides  these,  various  other  stationary  engiues  for  different 
purposes,  with  54  boilers  of  different  construction,  having  together  3,700  j 
square  meters  of  heating-surface  aud  2.500  horse  power.  The  requisite  j; 
coke  is  produced  by  300  coke-furnaces,  and  the  gas  thus  obtained  is  : 
used  as  fuel  for  the  boilers.  A  machine-shop  aud  fouudery  are  employed  , 
as  an  auxiliary  to  the  works  and  the  mines,  for  the  manufacture  of  the 
tubes,  ore-breakers,  machines,  &c.,  that  are  needed.  The  machine-shop 
has  an  engine  aud  about  40  working  machines,  aud  all  the  apparatus  | 
necessary  for  the  construction  and  repairing  of  engiues  aud  maehiues. 
Its  annual  production  is  estimated  to  be  worth  130,000  thalers.  The  : 
fouudery  has  a  blast-cylinder,  2  Irish  cupola-furnaces  capable  of  melting 
from  3,500  to  5,000  kilograms  per  hour,  derricks,  and  all  the  acces-  t 
sory  apparatus,  aud  is  capable  of  producing  two  million  kilograms  of 
castings  per  annum. 


GEORGS-MARIEN  WORKS. 


97 


The  blast-furnaces  produced  in  1872  53,118,100  kilograms  of  pig- 
iron,  valued  at  1,882,000  thaler;  while  in  1SG7  tbe  production  was  but 
32,473,890  kilograms,  valued  at  920,000  thaler. 

It  should  be  noted  that  of  this  production,  in  1872,  70  per  cent,  was 
Bessemer  pig,  and  30  per  cent,  was  a  good  quality  for  puddling,  while, 
in  1867,  28  per  cent,  was  Bessemer  pig,  and  72  per  cent,  was  good  pud¬ 
dling-iron. 

By  means  of  a  peculiar  contrivance  connected  with  the  blast-furnaces 
the  greater  part  of  the  slag  from  them  is  granulated,  and  thus  it  is  capa¬ 
ble  of  being  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  for  example,  as  a  packing 
around  railroad-sleepers,  in  the  manufacture  of  mortar,  good  bricks,  &c. 

A  new  contrivance,  the  invention  of  the  director,  Mr.  Liivmann,  is  of 
great  value.  The  front  hearth  of  the  coking  furnaces  is  done  away  with, 
and  the  furnaces  are  tightly  closed  by  a  form  made  of  slag  and  cooled 
with  water. 

The  company  is  erecting  gas-works,  to  make  sufficient  for  1,009  burn¬ 
ers.  It  will  be  used  in  the  works  and  the  colony  of  laborers. 

The  raising  and  transportation  of  the  ore  is  done  by  7  stationary 
engines  and  5  locomotives,  run  by  18  steam-boilers,  having  a  heating- 
surface  of  501  square  meters,  not  counting  8  horse-power  above  and  4 
horse-power  under  ground,  in  addition  to  that  mentioned. 

The  quantity  and  value  of  ore  raised  at  Hiigel  in  1867  and  in  1872 
were: 


Year. 

Ore,  kilo- 

Value, 

grams. 

thalers. 

1867  . 

160, 722,  000 
222, 769, 385 

69,  964 
183, 590 

1872  . 

The  whole  works  of  the  Georgs-Marien  Company  employ  1  general 
director,  1  metallurgical  director,  1  mining  director,  1  director  of  the 
machine-works,  35  men  for  overseers  and  office-service,  and  1,600  work¬ 
men,  distributed  as  follows: 


At  the  blast-furnaces .  450 

At  the  foundery . 80 

At  the  machine-shop . 140 

On  the  railroad .  80 

Carpenters,  builders,  masons . .  .  110 

Miners  at  Hiigel  1 .  650 

Day  laborers . . . . .  90 


1,600 

The  company  was  awarded  a  medal  at  the  International  Exhibition 
at  London  in  1862,  and  in  1867  it  received  a  silver  medal  at  the  exhibi¬ 
tion  in  Paris,  for  the  good  quality  of  the  pig-iron  produced. 

7  i 


98 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  prosperity  of  the  works  is  shown  by  the  dividends  paid  to  the 
stockholders  in  the  past  four  years,  as  follows  :  1S68-’G9,  10  per  cent.; 
1SG9-70,  10  per  cent.;  1870-71,  8  per  cent.;  1871-72,  1G  per  cent. 

65.  Institutions  and  associations  for  the  physical  and  men¬ 
tal  WELFARE  OF  THE  WORKMEN  AT  GEORGS- MARIEN-HUTTE. — The 
Georgs-Marien  Joint-Stock  Company  differs  very  materially  from  most 
manufacturing  companies  in  that  it  not  only  aims  to  give  the  share¬ 
holders  the  largest  dividends  possible,  but  besides  its  industrial  purposes 
it  seeks  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  working  classes,  by  forming  a 
community  of  them,  and  establishing  and  supporting  for  them  churches, 
schools,  clubs,  associations,  and  other  beneficial  institutions.  Deeming 
this  the  surest  way  of  accomplishing  its  purposes,  the  company  has  made 
this  work  one  of  its  first  and  chief  efforts. 

The  company  was  obliged  to  create  a  new  industry  in  a  part  of  the 
country  where  the  prospects  for  the  future  were  good  enough  to  justify 
considerable  preparations  and  the  attempt  to  benefit  the  poor  laboring 
classes  of  the  surrounding  villages. 

This  was  a  great  undertaking,  for  at  the  time  of  the  founding  of  the 
woiks  they  were  at  the  distance  of  a  half  au  hour’s  ride  from  the  larger 
country  roads,  and  could  only  be  reached  by  primitive  lanes  and  by¬ 
ways,  as  was  also  the  case  with  the  small  villages.  Therefore  roads 
had  to  be  constructed  to  the  newly-acquired  coal-fields  and  iron-mines, 
while  all  the  old  roads  had  to  be  improved. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  district  were  for  the  most  part  farmers,  and  for  .  i 
the  few  such  as  had  spare  time  there  were  always  chances  enough  for 
employment  at  the  neighboring  coal-fields.  This  had  its  advantages 
for  them,  since  the  laborers  at  the  works  would  be  obliged  to  devote  all 
their  time  to  it,  while  at  the  coal-mines  the  miuing  being  done  by  shifts, 
working  eight  hours  each,  they  had  sufficient  time  to  work  their  fields 
also.  Under  the  existing  circumstances  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
district  could  not  take  steady  employment  at  the  new  works,  and  even 
those  who  might  have  done  so  could  only  be  prevailed  upon  by  the  offer  I 
of  higher  wages,  and  even  then  they  were  very  slow  to  come  and  begin 
work  for  the  “strangers.”  It  was,  therefore,  an  unavoidable  necessity 
to  engage  laborers  from  remote  parts  of  the  country,  and  for  whom  in  : 
this  very  thinly-settled  district  habitations  and  boarding-facilities  could  , 
not  be  found. 

6G.  Houses. — Thus  the  company  was  forced  at  the  outset,  and  before  j 
any  technical  work  could  be  begun,  to  provide  houses  for  their  work¬ 
men,  on  a  plan  which  of  course  could  not  satisfy  all  demands  for  com¬ 
fortable  living,  but  which  would  permit  of  the  speediest  completion  and 
give  shelter  to  as  many  as  possible.  These  houses  were  built  with  a 
frame-work  as  general  lodging-houses,  but  so  that  they  might  afterward 
be  converted  into  dwellings  by  the  erection  of  partitions.  Nineteen  of 
these  houses  were  so  built,  and  are  known  as  “  lodging-houses.” 

Afterward,  as  the  number  of  steady  and  settled  employes  increased, 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE — DWELLING. 


99 


and  there  was  more  opportunity  for  deliberation,  and  forethought  in 
building,  more  regard  could  be  given  to  the  lasting  comfort  of  the 
workingmen.  Houses  were  built  upon  the  same  plan,  for  but  two  fam¬ 
ilies,  and  so  that  each  family  had  a  separate  entrance,  shed,  and  yard. 
The  disadvantages  of  these  houses  were  the  same  as  with  the  lodging- 
houses:  slight  frames,  low  ceilings,  small  windows,  and  insufficient 
ventilation.  Then  the  sheds  for  stabling,  &c.,  were  so  closely  connected 
with  the  houses  that  they  were  unhealthy  and  not  durable. 

After  finishing  the  above-described  dwellings  in  1859,  the  company 
decided  not  to  enlarge  the  colony  on  this  plan,  believing  that  the  work¬ 
men  could  be  induced  to  take  the  matter  into  their  own  hands,  and 
secure  for  themselves  an  independent  homestead,  and  that  the  company 
would  thereby  secure  a  set  of  steady,  interested  laborers.  To  this  end 
a  building-plot  of  thirty  square  rods,  at  a  standard  price,  and  an  ad¬ 
vance  of  cash  to  aid  in  the  erection  of  the  proposed  building,  was  offered 
to  each  workman.  The  workman  had  to  pay  4  per  cent,  interest  on 
this  sum,  and,  moreover,  allow  the  company  to  retain  and  apply  such  a 
proportion  of  his  monthly  earnings  that  the  property  would  be  un¬ 
incumbered  in  the  course  of  fifteen  years. 

The  conditions  for  the  granting  of  the  loan  were — 

1st.  That  the  plan  of  the  proposed  house  should  have  the  approval  of 
the  architect  appointed  by  the  company. 

2d.  That  the  building  of  the  house  should  be  under  the  supervision 
and  control  of  the  company’s  architect,  in  order  to  protect  the  builder 
against  fraud,  and  in  order  that  the  company’s  money  should  be  ex¬ 
pended  for  this  stated  purpose  only. 

3d.  That  the  laborer  should  himself  furnish  a  part  of  the  neces¬ 
sary  capital. 

This  last  clause  was  never  fully  enforced,  and  this  was  the  first  cause 
which  led  to  the  failure  of  this  plan. 

Yery  soon  after  the  adoption  of  this  plan  a  number  of  workmen  made 
application  to  obtain  the  offered  privilege  and  to  build  their  own  houses. 
In  the  course  of  building  it  would  often  be  the  case  that  enlargements 
would  be  made,  and  alterations  of  the  original  plan,  which  would  de¬ 
mand  a  greater  outlay  than  at  first  contemplated.  Then  the  furnishing 
of  the  new  house  would  cost  much  more  than  was  expected.  In  almost 
every  case  the  capital  needed  from  the  company  exceeded  the  original 
demand.  It  resulted  that  the  payment  of  the  interest  and  the  monthly 
deductions  from  the  wages  were  too  burdensome  for  many  of  the  men, 
and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  some  of  the  houses  were  sold  to  third 
parties  who  were  not  interested  in  the  success  of  the  company,  and 
thereby  the  good  intentions  of  the  latter  were  more  or  less  frustrated. 

To  avoid  these  evils,  the  third  clause  was  amended  so  as  to  read  that 
the  applicant  for  a  lot  and  loan  should  possess  at  least  a  half  of  the 
needed  capital.  Under  this  condition  it  was  thought  that  the  builder 
would  at  least  be  more  considerate  in  the  use  of  his  means;  but  the  re- 


100 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


salt  of  this  experiment  was  the  total  suspension  of  building  by  the 
workmen,  and  the  company  was  again  forced  to  erect  houses  for  their 
men,  although  much  against  its  inclination.  After  due  consideration,  a 
new  aud  well-approved  plan  was  adopted,  and  upon  it  sixteen  new 
dwellings  were  built  as  an  experiment,  and  these  having  given  entire 
satisfaction,  the  number  will  be  increased  in  the  course  of  this  year  by 
the  addition  of  forty-four  more. 

The  dwellings  are  judiciously  separated  from  one  another,  as  they 
also  are  from  the  sheds,  yards,  &c.  The  entrances  to  the  houses  are 
opposite  each  other ;  the  rooms  are  high  and  airy.  On  the  first  floor  are 
a  sitting-room,  bed-roorn,  and  kitchen;  on  the  upper  floor  either  one 
large  chamber  or  two  small  ones.  The  cellar  is  large  enough  to  hold 
the  winter-stores,  and  is  entered  fiom  the  kitchen.  The  shed  has  two 
compartments — one  for  a  pig  and  one  for  a  goat,  aud  room  above  for 
winter-fodder.  A  garden  of  from  15  to  20  square  rods  is  connected 
with  each  dwelling. 

The  walls  of  the  houses  are  made  of  the  bricks  made  of  slag,  and  a 
space  of  2i  inches  is  left  between  the  walls,  rendering  the  dwellings  per¬ 
fectly  dry. 

The  best  evidence  of  the  adaptation  and  desirableness  of  these  dwell¬ 
ings  to  the  workmen  is  furnished  by  the  fact  that  it  is  looked  upon  as  a 
reward  and  a  special  privilege  to  obtain  one  from  the  company. 

The  officers  of  the  company,  who  originally  had  to  live  either  in  lodg¬ 
ing-houses  or  other  public  places,  are  now  also  better  provided  for. 
Special  buildings  have  been  erected  for  them.  These  houses  contain  on 
the  first  floor  five  rooms  and  two  chambers,  and  on  the  upper  floor  six 
more  rooms.  In  the  basement  are  the  kitchen,  pantry,  and  cellar  room. 
In  the  rear  are  sheds  similar  to  those  of  the  laborers,  with  a  garden- 
plot  of  about  thirty  square  rods,  for  the  cultivation  of  vegetables.  The 
company  owns  now  six  houses  for  officers,  aud  one  so-called  director’s 
house. 

Differing  a  little  from  the  above-described  family  double  dwellings 
are  the  houses  for  the  foremen  and  lower  officers  of  the  works.  They 
contain  two  sitting-rooms,  two  chambers,  and  basement.  There  are 
now  four  of  these  houses  built,  and  four  more  in  the  course  of  erection, 
which  will  be  finished  this  year.  The  possession  by  the  company  of  so 
much  fertile  land  euables  them  to  lease  to  their  workmen  who  desire  it 
a  plot  of  ground  for  farming,  and  this  has  proved  to  be  a  great  advan¬ 
tage  to  them.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  that  in  this  way  eighty  acres 
of  rough  land  have  been  cleared  and  made  suitable  for  cultivation,  or 
converted  into  building-lots.  The  land  is  leased  at  a  fixed  price,  aud 
the  different  lots  distributed  by  ballot  among  the  workmen. 

As  has  been  already  mentioned,  the  works  are  too  distant  from  other 
communities  to  receive  from  them  any  of  the  benefits  of  social  life.  It 
was  therefore  necessary  to  organize  au  independent  community,  and  to 
provide  means  for  the  solemnizatiou  of  marriage,  baptism,  and  death. 


101 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE SCHOOLS — CHURCHES. 

The  now  existing’  community  was  organized  in  I860  under  the  name  of 
“  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte.” 

It  is  evident  that  a  united  community  can  only  exist  as  such  when 
properly  provided  with  all  the  requisite  arrangements  and  necessary 
institutions  for  the  bodily,  mental,  and  moral  welfare  of  its  members, 
such  as  churches,  schools,  hospitals,  and  other  associations. 

67.  Schools  at  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte. — In  January,  1857,  the  first 
evangelical  private  school  was  opened  with  22  children,  and  at  Easter, 
in  1862,  the  same  was  re-opened  as  a  public  school  with  two  classes 
and  180  children.  For  this  purpose  an  evangelical  school  society  was 
formed,  in  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  villages  were 
received,  whose  children  had,  till  that  time,  received  their  education  in 
the  existiug  Roman  Catholic  schools  and  their  religious  institutions  in 
the  city  of  Osnabriick,  some  five  miles  distant.  There  are,  at  present, 
some  280  children  in  the  community  schools,  divided  into  four  classes, 
under  four  good  teachers.  Another  school,  situated  near  the  iron-mines 
at  Rotheuberg,  has  been  established  by  the  company. 

The  school-house  building  contains  four  large  school-rooms,  one  con¬ 
firmatory,  three  dwellings  for  married  teachers,  and  one  dwelling  for  an 
unmarried  one,  which  can,  when  needed,  be  easily  converted  into 
another  large  school-room  for  a  fifth  class  by^takiug  down  the  partition. 
The  southern  part  of  the  building  was  erected  in  1861,  and  consisted  of 
two  large  school-rooms,  which,  when  the  large  double  folding-doors 
were  opened,  were  converted  into  one,  aud  used  for  prayer-meetings. 
In  1868  the  third  class-room,  and  in  1839  the  fourth  class-room,  were 
added. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  school  soon  made  the  room  too  small,  and 
provision  had  to  be  made  for  the  increase  of  pupils  by  obtaining  rooms 
in  private  houses,  and  it  was  only  possible  in  1872  to  finish  the  northern 
part  of  the  building  and  unite  all  classes  under  a  single  roof.  For  the 
accommodation  of  the  Catholic  members  of  the  community,  represented 
by  about  60  children*  the  company  established  a  temporary  school  in 
1871.  This  house  contains  a  large  school-room,  which  is  also  used  for 
divine  worship,  aud  also  apartments  for  the  teacher. 

The  directors  of  the  company  are  the  patrons  of  the  evangelical  school, 
and  this  gives  them  the  privilege  of  nominating  three  teachers,  the  other 
being  chosen  by  the  state. 

68.  Churches. — As  already  stated,  the  rooms  of  the  evangelical  school- 
house,  as  well  as  of  the  Catholic,  were  constructed  with  the  intention  of 
using  them  provisionally  for  divine  service.  Although  the  need  of  a 
minister  of  the  gospel  was  keenly  felt  by  the  members  of  the  community, 
since  the  nearest  place  of  worship  was  about  five  miles  distant,  it  was 
not  until  1867  that  an  evangelical,  and  until  1872  that  a  Roman,  priest 
could  be  engaged,  and  the  building  of  churches  is  now  taken  in  hand 
by  the  respective  congregations. 

69.  Industrial  schools.— Near  the  elementary  school  there  is  a  high  or 


102 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


advanced  school  for  the  older  boys  and  the  younger  workmen.  Instruc¬ 
tion  is  given  by  the  regular  teachers,  aud  by  the  engineers  of  the  com¬ 
pany,  on  every  Monday,  Tuesday,  and  Thursday  evening  ;  also,  on  Sun¬ 
day  mornings  before  church-time.  Instruction  is  given  in  the  following 
branches:  German  and  English,  languages,  technical  and  ornamental 
drawing,  arithmetic,  writing,  physics,  and  cosmogony.  The  younger 
workmen  during  their  apprenticeship  are  obliged  to  attend  this  school, 
which  numbers,  at  present,  about  30  pupils. 

A  girls’  industrial  school  has  also  been  established,  where,  under  the 
guidance  of  a  female  teacher  and  some  of  the  able  housewives  of  the 
officials,  the  girls  are  instructed  in  knitting,  sewing,  and  all  other  neces¬ 
sary  handiwork. 

Similar  schools  have  been  established  also  at  the  colony  Kothenberg 
for  young  miners  and  girls,  and  they  are  well  patronized. 

70.  Libraries. — Close  by  the  schools  stand  the  public  libraries.  They 
were  founded  in  1SG2,  and  contain  now  about  S00  volumes,  some  of 
which  are  very  valuable.  The  first  aud  second  teachers  of  the  evangel¬ 
ical  schools  act  as  librarians.  The  books  are  in  great  demand  by  the 
workmen,  especially  during  the  long  winter  evenings. 

71.  Court  of  justice. — We  cannot  close  this  account  of  the  institutions 
of  the  community  without  mentioning  the  peculiar  court  of  justice  which 
is  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  in  the  place. 

The  court  of  justice,  or  the  peace  society,  strives  for  an  adjustment  of 
all  controversies,  without  the  intervention  of  the  courts  and  the  pro¬ 
cesses  of  the  law.  Members  of  this  society  are — 

1st.  All  the  employes  of  the  company. 

2d.  All  others  who  dwell  on  the  company’s  grounds,  and  who  have 
pledged  themselves  by  signing  the  constitution  aud  by-laws  of  the 
society. 

For  the  settlement  of  all  differences  between  the  members,  nine  jus¬ 
tices  of  the  peace  are  choseu  from  among  the  members  of  the  society, 
to  serve  for  the  term  of  one  year.  The  meeting'of  this  court  is  not 
held  at  definite,  stated  times,  but  whenever  required,  aud  the  time  of 
meeting  is  made  known  by  public  proclamation. 

The  members  of  the  society  are  bound,  in  all  differences  between 
themselves,  to  call  on  this  court  before  entering  suit  in  any  other  court 
of  law,  or  before  denouncing  one  another.  The  parties  must  appear 
personally,  and  all  counselors,  except  memoers  of  the  family,  are  ex¬ 
cluded. 

This  court  of  public  peace  was  founded  in  lSGo,  and  had  m  the  be¬ 
ginning  its  hands  full  of  minor  cases  of  every  kind  and  description,  but 
the  fact  that  its  decisions  were  impartial  aud  plain,  and  that  the  guilty 
parties  had  to  submit  generally  to  a  severe  rebuke  in  the  presence  of  a 
great  number  of  their  friends  and  comrades,  caused  it  to  be  feared  even 
more  than  the  courts  of  the  state. 

72.  The  icorhingmen's  association. — This  society  is  based  upon  the  mu¬ 
tual-benefit  plan.  It  secures  to  its  members — 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE— WOKKINGMEN’S  ASSOCIATION.  1 05. 

edical  aid  and  care,  free  of  expense  in  case  of  sickness. 

2d.  Compensation  for  wages  lost  during  sickness,  at  the  rate  of  one- 
i  half  the  regular  wages,  at  the  maximum  of  12£  silbergroschen  per  day. 

3d.  A  life-long  pension  to  invalid  members  of  from  20  to  50  per  cent, 
of  their  ordinary  wages,  and  even  the  whole  amount  of  wages  in  ex¬ 
ceptional  cases  ;  25  thaler  per  month  is  the  highest. 

4th.  One-third  of  the  pension  of  a  deceased  member  to  his  widow. 

5th.  Support  and  education  for  the  children  of  deceased  or  invalid 
members  until  confirmation,  (generally  at  the  age  of  14.)  In  exceptional 
cases  support  is  given  even  till  they  have  reached  the  age  of  20  years. 

6th.  Assistance  at  burials;  sometimes  payment  of  the  whole  expense 

The  funds  of  the  society  are  divided  into  three  classes — 1st.  Sickness- 
fund  ;  2d.  Pension-fund ;  and,  3d.  Capital-fund. 

Every  workman  has  to  contribute  to  the  first  class.  They  can  con¬ 
tribute  to  the  second  class  under  certain  conditions.  All  those  who  con¬ 
tribute  to  the  first  fund  only  are  designated  as  “unsettled”  workmen, 
while  those  who  contribute  to  both  funds  are  classified  as  “settled” 
workmen. 

In  1872  the  association  numbered  1,535  members;  “  settled  ”  mem¬ 
bers,  412  ;  invalids,  2;  widows,  13;  children  to  be  supported,  46. 


There  were  spent  in  1872  : 

Thaler. 

In  cases  of  sickness. - .  11,115 

Pensions .  770 

Exceptional  support .  112 

Burial  expenses .  92 

Society  expenses  and  sundries .  443 


12, 572 

Income . .  20,217 


Surplus . . . . .  7,645 


Tbe  cash  capital  of  the  association,  exclusive  of  furniture,  amounted 
to  39,063  thaler  at  the  end  of  the  year  1872. 

73.  Hospital. — For  the  care  and  treatment  of  the  sick,  a  well-fur¬ 
nished  hospital  is  provided.  It  is  under  the  care  of  an  excellent  resident 
physician  and  nurses,  and  has  a  drug-store  attached.  The  hospital  was 
at  first  located  in  one  of  the  lodging-houses,  but  now  is  in  an  inde¬ 
pendent  building  erected  for  the  purpose  by  the  company,  and  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  “  Workingmen’s  Association,”  free  of  charge. 

For  all  technical  establishments  of  this  magnitude  a  hospital  is 
indispensable,  and  especially  is  it  important  here  ;  for  the  workmen  are 
scattered  over  a  large  area,  so  that  it  would  be  very  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  for  the  physician  to  pay  the  necessary  attention  to  his 
patients  in  case  of  accident  or  severe  sickness.  In  the  year  1872  there 
were  3,345  cases  of  sickness,  making  an  aggregate  of  17,396  days  of 
sickness,  to  which  the  physician  would  never  have  been  able  to  attend 
w  ere  it  not  for  the  hospital. 


104 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


The  hospital  steward  is  the  assistant  to  the  physician,  and  he  pro¬ 
vides  for  the  inmates  at  certain  fixed  rates  of  compensation.  There 
are  two  nurses.  Charges  are  made  to  the  workmen  according  to  their 
earning’s,  the  company  paying-  at  the  least  one-half  of  all  that  paid  by 
the  workmen. 

The  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Workingmen’s  Association  is 
under  the  control  of — 

1st.  A  board,  consisting  of  four  members,  two  of  whom  are  choseu  by 
the  workmen,  anti  the  other  two  by  the  superintendent  of  the  works. 

2d.  A  certain  number  'at  present  four)  of  the  older  regular  or  settled 
workmen. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  strange  that  so  small  an  amount  has  been 
paid  from  the  relief-fund  of  the  association  for  the  aid  of  its  members  ; 
but,  besides  this  fund,  there  are  several  other  funds  from  which,  under 
the  able  administration  of  the  board,  large  sums  are  given  for  the  wel¬ 
fare  and  benefit  of  the  workmen. 

The  principal  of  these  funds  is  the  “  workingmen’s  deposit-fund,” 
which  was  established  by  a  donation  of  4,000  thaler  in  1SG6,  and  dona¬ 
tions  have  been  made  most  liberally  by  the  stockholders,  and  were  2,827 
thaler  in  amount  in  18G7  ;  G,.j02  in  1868;  G,775  in  I860;  5,S30  in  1870; 
10,079  in  1871 ;  G,S23  in  1872.  The  accounts  of  the  board  which  con¬ 
trols  these  funds  are  examined  by  a  supervising  co  mmittee  appointed 
by  the  stockholders. 

The  other  five  funds  are  mostly  for  special  purposes ;  one,  for  instance, 
for  the  education  of  the  sons  of  workmen  who  prove  able  and  worthy; 
one  to  give  Christmas  presents  to  poor  children  ;  o  ne  for  extra  support 
of  orphans.  All  these  funds  are  under  the  controlling  supervision  of 
the  directors  of  the  works. 

Besides  those  organizations  which,  like  the  workingmen's  association, 
are  supported  by  fixed  dues  from  the  workmen  who  belong  to  them,  and 
by  donations-from  other  interested  parties,  there  are  other  very  benefi¬ 
cial  organizations  which  have  been  established  by  the  administration  of 
the  works.  One  of  these  is  the — 

74.  Store-union. — This  is  established  for  the  pu  rpose  of  enabling  its 
members  to  obtain  the  necessaries  of  life  of  good  quality  and  at  reason¬ 
able  prices,  and  thereby  to  enable  them  to  lessen  t  heir  daily  expenses, 
and  effect  a  saving.  To  this  end  contracts  were  made  with  different 
trading-houses  and  store-keepers,  binding  them  to  sell  good  articles  at 
fixed  prices,  and  at  a  certain  percentage  on  the  cost.  The  association 
has  also  opened  stores  itself,  such  as  grocery,  hardware,  shoe,  crockery- 
stores,  &c.  A  bakery  was  established  in  1872,  and  a  butcher’s  stand  is 
being  started. 

Every  workman  who  will  comply  with  the' rules  and  regulations  can 
become  a  member.  All  the  goods  bought  at  the  stores  of  the  associa 
tion  or  of  the  traders  under  its  control  are  paid  for  on  delivery  with 
tokeus,  which  are  afterward  exchanged  at  the  treasury  of  the  company 


105 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE - LODGING-HOUSES. 

for  cash,  and  entered  on  the  account  of  the  buyer.  The  profits  made 
by  the  stores  in  trade  are  divided  among  the  members  according  to  the 
amount  of  goods  entered  upon  their  pass-books.  When  this  dividend 
is  due  they  can  draw  the  sum  to  their  credit  above  three  thaler  at  the 
treasury,  or  it  can  remain  there  bearing  5  per  cent,  interest,  but  the 
amount  must  not  exceed  300  thaler,  as  this  is  the  limit  of  capital  of 
one  individual  in  the  store-union,  allowed  by  the  constitution. 

This  union  is  managed  by  a  board  of  seven  directors,  four  at  least  of 
whom  are  chosen  from  among  the  workingmen.  As  the  store-buildings 
belong  at  present  to  the  company,  it  supervises  the  affairs  of  the  union, 
but  the  control  will  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  association  as  soon  as 
the  reserve-funds  have  accumulated  to  make  a  capital  sufficiently  large 
to  warrant  the  independent  maintenance  of  the  association. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  amount  of  business  done  by  the 
union  :  Capital  deposited  at  the  end  of  1872,  15,549  thalers.  Sales  in 
this  year,  17,768  thalers.  Clear  profits,  1,906  thalers,  which,  being  di¬ 
vided  among  the  members,  after  deducting  the  three  thaler  for  the  re¬ 
serve  fund,  gave  to  each  man  a  profit  of  silbergroschen  to  every 
thaler  paid  out  in  tokens. 

75.  Lodging-houses. — As  beneficial  to  the  bodily  welfare  of  the  work¬ 
men,  the  lodging-house  is  noticeable.  It  has  been  often  necessary  to 
engage  large  numbers  of  temporary  workmen  for  the  creation  of  exten¬ 
sive  improvements,  and  at  such  times  the  want  of  places  for  lodging 
was  strongly  felt.  The  erection  of  barracks  helped  somewhat,  but  it  was 
soon  decided  to  furnish  for  this  purpose  permanent  substantial  buildings. 
The  first  buildings  for  this  purpose  were  erected  in  1870,  one  at  the 
colony  near  Rotheuberg  iron-mines,  and  the  other  at  the  Georgs-Marien 
Works.  The  first-mentioned  will  soon  be  replaced  by  a  larger  one,  but 
the  latter  has  proved  sufficient.  Small  rooms  are  provided  for  the  ac¬ 
commodation  of  the  young  men,  where  they  may  occupy  their  leisure 
hours  in  study  or  literary  pursuits  without  disturbance. 

76.  Club-house. — Quite  recently  it  was  thought  possible  to  do  some¬ 
thing  for  the  social  needs  of  the  workmen  by  building  a  club-house. 
This  building  is  for  the  accommodation  of  the  different  societies  and 
clubs  ;  also  for  the  meetings  of  the  board  of  directors  and  other  bodies. 
The  building  will  also  contain  some  apartments  where  the  young,  un¬ 
married  officers  of  the  company  can  lodge.  The  smaller  hall  will  ac¬ 
commodate  the  singing  and  orchestral  societies,  where  their  rehearsals 
can  take  place.  The  billiard  and  reading  rooms  are  free  to  members  of 
any  society.  A  small  hall  is  reserved  for  the  meetings  of  different 
societies  for  culture  or  education,  and  is  closed  against  all  but  members 
during  the  time  of  their  meetings.  About  the  building  are  grounds 
under  cultivation  for  a  park,  free  to  all  visitors.  A  walk  of  about 
fifteen  minutes  through  this  park  leads  to  the  shooting-gallery.  A 
bowling-alley  is  near  by  the  club-house,  and  is  free  to  all  visitors,  save 
when  any  society  is  holding  a  sociable. 


106 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


77.  The  turn  hall. — This  hall  is  nearly  completed.  It  has  a  hall  13 
meters  long  and  7  meters  wide,  used  as  a  gymnasium.  It  has  two 
rooms  for  the  storage  of  turn  apparatus,  and  a  room  for  a  lire-engiue, 
hose,  &c.  The  hall  and  the  surrounding  grounds  are  for  the  beueflt  of 
the  scholars  of  the  public  schools  and  the  Turners’  Society. 

The  progress  in  the  development  of  social  life  and  habits  has  been 
very  rapid.  Already,  in  1801,  the  first  orchestral  society  was  started 
by  teachers,  officers,  and  workmen.  The  society  grew  rapidly,  and  was 
well  supported,  though  at  one  time  it  nearly  succumbed.  Rehearsals 
take  place  once  a  week,  and  every  six  or  eight  weeks  a  concert  is  given 
which  is  free  to  all  members,  and  to  their  families  and  friends.  The 
entertainment  consists  of  orchestral  music,  solos,  and  singing.  The 
directors  of  the  company  have  recently  engaged  a  musical  director  or 
leader,  whose  duties  are  to  give  instruction  to  the  different  musical 
societies  free  of  charge.  Encouraged  by  this,  a  brass  baud  has  been 
organized,  which  will  eventually  be  the  band  of  the  colony.  Especially 
worthy  of  note  is  the  “  Liedertafel  der  Georgs-Marien-H iitte”  a  singing- 
society  which  has,  not  only  by  its  numbers,  but  by  its  very  beneficial 
influence  upon  the  morality  of  the  community,  a  just  claim  to  superi¬ 
ority.  This  society  was  founded  in  1SGU,  and  has  among  its  members 
almost  the  whole  corps  of  officers  and  the  majority  of  the  members  of 
the  colony.  One  evening  in  the  week  is  devoted  to  rehearsals,  and 
every  six  or  eight  weeks  a  social  gathering,  enlivened  by  music,  song, 
declamation,  &c.,  is  held.  The  society  owns  a  large  collection  of  written 
music,  and  a  grand  piano.  A  branch  of  this  society  formed  exclusively 
of  workmen  devote  their  leisure  hours  to  the  cultivation  of  dramatic 
and  oratorical  talent,  and  by  their  successful  representations  they  have 
materially  assisted  in  the  entertainments  given  by  the  other  societies. 

A  rifle-club  was  established  at  the  same  time.  It  gathered  about 
forty  members,  whopractice  weekly,  aud  once  in  each  year  they  have  a 
prize-shooting  ;  and  this  custom  is  becoming  very  popular. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  better-educated  classes  among  the  different 
societies  that  there  was  a  lack  of  literary  and  scientific  culture,  and 
that  something  should  be  done  for  this  object.  Accordingly,  a  new 
society  was  formed  in  1870,  under  the  name  “  Yereinigungf'  (union,) 
with  the  understanding  that  all  the  members  of  the  other  societies 
could  also  join  this  without  subjecting  themselves  to  much  expense. 
This  “  union”  soon  received  such  material  aid  from  the  directors  of  the 
works  that  they  could  offer  free  membership  to  all  members  of  the 
other  societies,  and  only  outsiders  are  obliged  to  pa}’  for  admission. 

In  their  weekly  meetings,  the  political  and  socfal  questions  of  the  day, 
matters  of  interest  to  the  works  or  colony,  are  discussed.  A  selection 
of  periodicals  is  furnished  for  the  free  use  of  the  members.  It  is  pro¬ 
posed  to  connect  with  the  union  an  improvement  school  for  the  older 
workmen,  and  to  erect  a  building  for  the  purpose,  and  also  a  savings- 
bank. 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE— TURN  HALL - HOSPITAL. 


107 


The  union  arranges  for  three  or  four  so-called  musical  evenings  in 
ie  course  of  the  winter,  in  which  the  different  musical  societies  partici- 
ate,  and  in  exceptional  cases  outside  musicians  of  distinction. 

The  “  Turnverein'1'  has  about  forty  members,  mostly  young  workmen, 
ho  meet  once  or  twice  a  week.  By  building  a  new  hall  for  this  society, 
t  is  thought  that  the  additional  facilities  thus  afforded  will  increase  the 
itumber  of  members  of  this  most  useful  society. 

Among  the  societies  of  the  officers  of  the  works,  there  is  a  choir  or 
jsinging-club. 

Upon  the  establishment  of  the  different  societies,  the  board  of  direct- 
>rs  granted  certain  amounts  either  as  gifts  or  as  temporary  loans.  Now 
lie  board  appropriates  a  certain  sum  annually,  granted  unconditionally 
or  the  benefit  of  the  societies,  reserving  for  themselves  only  the  right 
if  placing  a  veto  upon  the  appropriation  of  any  money  in  cases  where 
there  is  doubt  of  good  intention  in  the  appropriation. 

This  fund  is  controlled  by  the  entire  board  of  directors,  which  is  com¬ 
posed  of  the  directors  of  all  the  different  societies,  by  which  the  re¬ 
quirements  and  wants  of  every  society  are  duly  considered  and  the 
money  divided  accordingly. 

78.  The  following  official  statements  are  made  regarding  the  hospital, 
the  school,  and  dwelling-houses. 

Hospital. — The  hospital  is  arranged  for  32  beds  placed  in  four  large 
halls,  and  four  single  rooms  with  one  bed  each.  In  addition,  there  is  an 
isolated  house  with  two  rooms  and  a  morgue.  The  ceilings  of  the  hos¬ 
pital  are  13  feet  high  throughout ;  the  basement,  built  of  freestone,  with 
an  arched  brick  ceiling,  contains  the  kitchen-rooms,  furnaces  for  heat¬ 
ing,  pantries,  and  cellar-rooms.  Besides  these,  there  are  rooms  for  con¬ 
tagious  diseases,  and  a  vapor-bath.  From  the  first  floor  upward,  the 
walls  of  the  hospital  are  constructed  of  porous  brick  made  of  slag,  with- 
air-chambers  2£  inches  wide. 

The  slag-bricks  are  made  of  the  granulated  slags  from  the  blast-fur¬ 
naces,  mixed  with  caustic  lime,  and  the  hardening  of  the  bricks  depends 
upon  the  presence  of  soluble  silica  in  the  slag,  which,  combining  with 
the  lime,  gives  the  bricks  great  firmness.  These  slag-bricks  have 
proved  very  useful  at  this  settlement  as  building-material,  and  deserve 
the  attention  of  the  public  in  general,  as  being  the  best  material  for  the 
construction  of  hospitals  and  sanitary  buildings  on  account  of  their 
porosity.  Though  as  yet  the  examination  of  the  physical  qualities  of 
these  bricks  has  not  been  made,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  they  have  a 
great  advantage  over  ordinary  building-stones  on  account  of  their 
porosity,  but  they  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  glassy  slag-bricks  which 
are  produced  at  other  furnaces. 

The  location  of  this  hospital  is  excellent.  It  is  free  upon  all  sides  to 
the  sun  and  air;  built  upon  dry  ground,  southwest  in  direction  from 
the  works,  and  thus  protected  from  the  smoke  by  the  predominating 
western  and  southwestern  winds.  Near  by  is  a  small  grove  of  beech- 


108 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


woods  and  a  small  lake,  through  which  a  clear  mountain-stream  run 
very  rapidly. 

The  halls  of  the  hospital  are  airy  and  light.  There  are'  no  dark,  clos< 
rooms.  It  is  provided  with  pure  water  for  washing  and  bathing  from  a 
high  reservoir,  into  which  the  water  is  pumped  by  steam.  The  drink 
ing-water  is  drawn  from  a  well. 

The  principal  corridor  is  80  feet  long,  7  feet  wide,  and  13  feet  high 
and  has  five  wiudows.  This  hall  opens  into  five  rooms,  containing  ii 
all  twenty-two  beds.  Apartments  of  the  same  dimensions  are  upon  tin 
second  floor.  The  hospital  has,  in  addition,  rooms  for  the  physician, 
steward,  and  nurses. 

The  system  of  ventilation  is  that  proposed  by  the  architect,  Schar 
rath.  The  principle  is  not  to  drive  a  large  volume  of  heated  air  into 
the  room  through  one  or  two  openings,  as  is  usual,  but  to  distribute  the 
heated  air  over  the  whole  exteut  inside  the  walls,  and  admit  it  through 
small  crevices  in  the  walls,  which  at  the  same  time  have  openings  for 
the  escape  of  the  same  quantity  of  foul  air.  The  foul  air  is  conducted 
away  through  a  pipe,  which  is  kept  hot  by  the  furnace  or  kitchen  fires, 
and  in  summer  by  a  special  stove  placed  in  the  basement.  It  is  the 
intention  of  the  directors  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  this  chimney  by 
the  use  of  steam-power,  by  directing  a  current  of  steam  into  the  pipe  in 
the  summer-seasou.  Extending  lengthwise  under  the  ceilings  of  the 
sick-room  are  square  wooden  boxes,  which,  after  going  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  sick-room,  enter  the  chimney.  There  are  slits  from 
1  to  li  inches  wide  along  the  box,  which  can  be  opened  or  shut.  The 
advantages  in  this  mode  of  ventilation  are  seen  in  the  uniform  distri¬ 
bution  of  heated  air  over  a  large  area,  thus  avoiding  all  draughts,  even 
when  the  apparatus  is  in  its  fullest  activity.  The  heating-apparatus  is 
in  the  basement,  and  cousists  of  five  stoves  for  heating  the  lower  floor 
and  two  for  heating  the  upper.  The  stoves  are  so  constructed  as  to 
have  a  very  large  heating-surface.  Thus  the  iron  never  becomes  red-hot, 
the  air  is  always  pure  and  kept  free  from  the  disagreeable  and  unhealthy 
odors  arising  from  the  burning  of  particles  of  dust  and  other  organic 
matters.  The  air  in  the  three  sick-rooms,  where  almost  every  bed  is 
occupied,  is  always  found  to  be  odorless,  sufficiently  moist,  uniform  in 
its  temperature,  and  entirely  free  from  draughts,  no  draughts  being  ob¬ 
servable  either  at  the  slits  for  the  admission  of  heated  air  or  for  the  exit 
of  the  foul.  In  room  No.  1 — which  had  eight  beds  and  seven  patients 
with  fractured  bones,  very  severe  burns,  and  one  who  had  both  his 
legs  amputated  at  the  thighs — the  healthful  state  of  the  patients  and 
the  condition  of  their  wounds  demonstrated  that  their  treatment  had 
been  good,  and  that  their  favorable  condition  was  in  a  great  measure 
due  to  the  good  state  of  the  atmosphere  produced  by  tbe  grand  system  of 
heating  and  ventilating  of  Dr.  Scharrath. 

School-houses. — Thescbool-houseshavein  general beeu  before  described. 
Onlv  a  few  additional  remarks  will  be  made.  The  two  rooms  for  the 


GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE - BOARDING-HOUSE.  109 

irst  and  second  classes  are  divided  by  folding  doors,  which  are  opened 
>n  Sundays  to  allowaof  divine  worship.  An  organ  with  twelve  stops 
ias  been  presented^by’one  of  the  former  directors  of  the  works.  The 
milding  is  built  partly  of  sandstone  and  partly  of  slag-bricks.  It  is 
mated  with  stoves  in  the  school-rooms,  and  the  ventilation  is  produced 
jy  a  stand-pipe,  as  in  the  hospital,  but  the  ventilating-boxes,  which  in 
he  hospital  extend  along  under  the  ceiling,  are  here  arranged  around 
the  walls  at  the  height  of  the  foot-boards,  and  thus  they  immediately 
3arry  away  the  cloud  of  dust  raised  by  the  many  moving  feet  of  the 

1  children.  There  are  also  large  ventilators  to  serve  to  bring  about  a 
speedy  ventilation'at  the  intermissions.  The  corridors  are  used  as  play¬ 
rooms  in  rainy  weather,  while  in  fair  weather  the  open  space  protected 
against  cold  winds  by  the  structure  of  the  building  serves  for  the  pur¬ 
pose. 

The  Oatholic'scliool,  which  is  used  at  the  same  time  as  a  church,  is, 
though  temporary,  very  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  includes  a  dwell¬ 
ing  for  the  vicar  and  the  teacher.  The  seats  are  benches  with  cross- 
backs  ;  the  desks  have  movable  tops,  but  these  are  to  be  replaced  by 
stools  and  good  stationary  desks.  At  the  visit  to  the  school-rooms, 
which  took  place  directly  after  the  dismission  of  the  pupils,  the  air  was 
found  perfectly  clear  and  free  from  dust,  and  at  a  temperature  of  15°  R., 
which  shows  the  ventilation  and  heating  to  be  perfect.  On  a  visit  to 
one  of  the  older  class-rooms,  the  air,  though  not  found  to  be  perfectly 
odorless,  was  yet  not  disagreeable,  though  70  children  had  occupied 
the  room  without  intermission  for  two  hours. 

Lodging  and  boarding  house. — This  is  established  with  the  view  of 
affording  the  unmarried  workmen  the  means  of  dwelling  in  healthy 
localities,  and  receiving  good  and  wholesome  food  at  a  moderate  price. 
The  building  is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  the  hospital,  and  of 
the  same  materials,  has  a  very  high  basement  for  the  culinary  depart¬ 
ment.  The  cooking,  for  about  300  boarders,  is  done  by  steam.  There 
are  rooms  for  about  150  lodgers.  The  house  contains  two  dining¬ 
rooms,  each  with  600  square  feet  of  floor,  and  24  feet  high.  They  are 
heated  by  steam-pipes  in  the  floor,  and  are  ventilated  like  the  hospital 
and  school-house.  The  sleeping-rooms  are  in  the  two  wings  of  the  main 
building.  In  the  rooms  are  iron  bedsteads,  one  placed  on  top  of  the 
other,  two  by  two,  with  mattresses  and  pillows  stuffed  with  sea-weed ; 
they  are  provided  with  linen  sheets,  and  one  woolen  blanket  in  summer 
and  two  in  winter.  Between  the  beds  are  wardrobes,  one  for  each 
lodger,  and  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  numbers  upon  the  bed¬ 
steads.  They  are  5  feet  high,  and  are  fitted  with  locks.  The  common 
wash-room  contains  20  china  wash-basins,  and  connected  with  this  are 
the  water-closets,  which  are  closed  during  the  day-time.  In  the  eastern 
wing  are  smaller  rooms,  for  from  one  to  six  lodgers  each,  who,  of  course, 
pay  more  according  to  accommodation.  There  are  lodgings  for  from  40 
to  50  men  in  this  wing,  while  the  western  wing  accommodates  from  90 
to  100  men. 


110 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  discipline  of  the  house  is  in  the  hands  of  the  steward,  who  is  re¬ 
sponsible  for  the  observance  of  certain  fixed  rules  and  regulations  es¬ 
tablished  by  the  board  of  directors,  who  also  at  certain  times  inspect 
the  victuals.  The  steward  pays  a  yearly  rent,  for  the  use  of  the  house 
and  furniture,  of  112  thaler.  Board  and  lodging  is  paid  for  on  the  fol¬ 
lowing  scale  of  prices:  Coffee  and  milk, 6  pfennig;  dinner,  with  a  quarter 
of  a  pound  of  meat  or  bacon,  for  a  whole  portion,  3  groschen;  forahalf-por 
tion,l£  groschen;  supper,  without  meat,  2  groscheu.  A  boarder  can  pro¬ 
cure  boiling  water  for  coffee  or  tea  at  anytime  free  of  charge,  and  everyone 
procures  his  own  bread  and  butter.  Connected  with  this  department, 
but  in  detached  buildings,  are  a  laundry,  store-house,  and  bath-rooms  with 
warm  water,  aud  for  the  use  of  which  the  steward  collects  a  small  fee. 
Near  the  steam-boiler  is  a  disinfection-apparatus,  into  which  steam 
can  be  admitted  to  free  clothing,  beds,  &c.,  from  vermin.  All  these 
rooms  are  well  ventilated,  and  are  always  found  unexceptionably  clean 
and  in  perfect  order. 

The  preceding  statements  show  with  what  foresight  and  interest  the 
managers  of  the  Georgs-Marien  Works  care  for  the  mental  and  physica 
welfare  of  their  employes,  and  the  success  which  they  have  achieved. 
Their  action  is  worthy  of  all  praise  and  imitation. 

BOCHUM  MINING  AND  STEEL  WORKS. 

79.  The  following  list  comprises  the  objects  sent  by  this  celebrated 
establishment,  the  Bochumer  Ve rein  fur  Bergbau  und  Gusstahl-Fabrica- 
tion ,  Bochum  in  Westfalen : 

(1.)  Cast-steel  propeller-screw  in  one  piece,  weighing  9,000  kilo¬ 
grams,  about  9  tons.  It  is  the  first  of  its  kind,  and  has  not  been 
forged  in  any  part. 

(2.)  A  cannon  for  a  fort,  of  cast  steel,  with  a  bore  of  21  centimeters, 
and  about  10,000  kilograms  in  weight.  The  carriage  upon  which  it  is 
placed  is  from  the  manufactory  of  Gruson,  in  Buckbau,  near  Magde¬ 
burg. 

(3.)  A  fort-canuon,  of  cast  steel,  of  15  centimeters  bore,  weighiug  3,000 
kilograms. 

(4.)  Two  field-pieces,  of  cast  steel,  one  0-pounder  and  a  4-pouuder. 

(5.)  A  steam-cylinder  for  a  hammer  of  300  centners  falling- weight,  with 
the  valve-box  and  base  plate  all  iu  one  piece,  made  of  crucible  steel, 
weighing  7,000  kilograms.  Near  by  it  the  piston  aud  piston-rod,  made 
of  forged  steel. 

(0.)  Press-cylinders  of  cast  steel,  the  largest  weighing  3,000  kilo¬ 
grams. 

(7.)  Cog-wheels  of  cast  steel. 

(8.)  Steel  pump-rod,  32  meters  long  and  105  milimeters  in  diameter, 
for  a  pump-rod,  forged  out  of  a  block  of  cast  steel.  Weight,  5,500  kilo¬ 


grams. 


BOCHUM  MINING  AND  STEEL  WORKS. 


Ill 


(9.)  A  beat  east-steel  cylinder  for  aa  elevator,  6,009  kilograms  in 
weight. 

(10.)  A  cast-steel  bell  of  1.83  meters  diameter,  weighing  2,850  kilo¬ 
grams. 

(11.)  A  group,  consisting  of  the  different  wheels  for  a  locomotive, 
tender,  and  cars,  part  with  cast-steel  disk  wheels,  part  wrought-iron 
spoke-wheels.  Near  by  the  last  is  the  inner  part  of  a  wheel  made  of 
cast  steel,  three  more  made  of  wrought  iron,  and  one  of  cast  iron. 

(12.)  Different  wheel-rims,  bands,  links,  &c.,  of  crucible  and  Bessemer 
steel,  the  greatest  wheel-rim  having  an  inner  diameter  of  3  meters. 

(13.)  Eerzstiicke  of  crucible  steel  of  various  construction. 

(14.)  A  collection  of  springs,  of  various  construction,  made  of  crucible 
steel.  ,  . 

(15.)  A  collection  of  broken  rails  and  wheel-rims,  to  show  fracture,  the 
samples  taken  at  different  stages  of  the  manufacture,  and  the  products 
made  from  different  iron  and  iron-ore. 

80.  The  cast-steel  works. — The  Bochum  Company  has  been  in  exist¬ 
ence  for  thirty  years.  For  the  first  eighteen  years  it  had  but  small 
capacity  of  production,  and  from  that  period  to  the  present  it  has 
developed  its  great  importance.  The  company’s  works  and  its  miues 
cover  an  area  of  140  hectares.  The  number  of  superintendents  and 
minor  officers  employed  is  250,  and  of  workmen,  nearly  6,000.  The  pro¬ 
duction  of  cast  steel  at  the  present  time  is  about  11,000,000  pounds 
monthly.  This  product  is  worth  nearly  $700,000.  In  1872  the  pro¬ 
duction  was  96,000,000  pounds,  worth  $6,000,000,  gold  value. 

The  raw  material  for  the  manufacture  of  cast  steel  is  mainly  obtained 
from  the  workings  of  the  company,  and  the  sources  will  be  briefly 
noticed. 

81.  The  coal-mines. — These  mines,  called  the  “  Maria  Anna”  and 
“  Steinbank,”  are  situated  at  a  distance  of  a  half-mile  from  the  steel¬ 
works.  They  are  connected  by  railroad  with  the  works,  and  at  present 
are  furnishing  a  part  of  the  fuel  required  for  the  works  from  a  single 
shaft.  Two  new  shafts  are  being  dug,  and  they  will  furnish  25,000 
bushels  daily  to  the  steel-works  and  blast-furnaces  next  year.  The 
mining-property  embraces  seven  square  fields,  and  possesses  an  uncom¬ 
mon  richness  of  coal-beds.  The  coal  is  all  of  the  best  quality. 

82.  The  iron-mines ,  in  the  Siegen  and  Nassau  districts,  are  numer¬ 
ous  and  of  great  size,  and  furnish  an  important  part  of  the  ore  used  in 
the  blast-furnaces  of  the  company.  Of  particular  value  are  the  spathic 
ores  mined  near  Kirchen.  It  is  a  superior  ore  for  the  manufacture  of 
spiegel  and  Bessemer  iron. 

83.  Coke  blast-furnaces. — Two  of  ordinary '  size  are  in  operation  near 
Miihlheim,  while  two  more  of  larger  size  are  being  built  at  Bochum, 
and  two  more  are  going  to  be  built  next  year,  and  two  more  in  1875. 

84.  The  coke-furnaces  in  Miilheim  furnish  coke  for  both  of  the  blast¬ 
furnaces.  Near  the  steel-works  in  Bochum  are  a  large  number  of 


1  1 2  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

coke-furnaces,  part  in  operation,  ancl  a  part  in  process  of  manufacture. 
Both  the  establishments  at  Bochum  and  at  MiilLieim  economize  the  gas 
that  is  produced. 

85.  The  steel-works  at  Bochum  manufacture  crucible  and  Bessemer 
steel.  Thirty-six  steam-hammers,  from  the  smallest  to  the  largest  size, 
are  used  iu  forging  the  steel. 

The  Bessemer  plant  runs  7  converters,  principally  producing  ma¬ 
terial  for  rails  and  blooms  to  be  forged  into  tires  and  axles.  The  Bes¬ 
semer  steel  and  crucible  steel  for  the  manufacture  of  tires  is  made  into 
blooms  of  sufficient  size  to  make  from  ten  to  twelve  tires,  and  then  is 
cut  up  into  pieces  of  proper  weight,  forged,  punched,  and  rolled  out, 
without  being  reheated  in  a  heating-furnace. 

One  of  the  special  operations  in  the  works  is  tjie  casting  of  steel  in 
molds,  after  the  invention  of  the  technical  director  of  the  works,  Mr. 
Jacob  Mayer.  The  importance  of  the  invention  was  acknowledged  by 
the  bestowal  of  the  great  gold  medal  of  honor  at  Paris  in  1855.  Al¬ 
though  the  process  was  not  patented  in  the  country,  it  remained  for  ten 
years  the  exclusive  property  of  the  company  and  of  those  works  in 
Prance  and  England  which  had  obtained  the  patent-right.  The  great 
screw  for  a  steamship,  which  was  made  for  one  of  the  ocean-steamers, 
having  a  diameter  of  5J  meters,  (17J  English  feet,)  as  well  as  other 
heavy  pieces,  such  as  the  press-cylinder  and  the  cast-steel  bell,  with  their 
sharply-defined  coats  of  arms  and  inscriptions,  show  the  significant 
progi'ess  of  the  Bochum  cast-steel  works. 

The  cannons  exhibited  show  the  favorable  condition  of  this  depart¬ 
ment.  The  first  one,  with  a  bore  of  -1  centimeters,  was  tested  with  five 
hundred  shots  to  prove  its  durability,  and  fifty  shots  to  prove  its  strength, 
by  the  imperial  commission.  The  testimony  of  the  commission  and  in¬ 
spection  of  the  piece  both  show  that  the  piece  has  undergone  no  notice¬ 
able  change  in  diameter  or  shape  of  the  bore.  The  range  of  the  piece 
with  ordinary  charge  is  8,000  meters,  which  is  more  than  a  German  mile. 

The  other  pieces  were  also  subjected  to  the  most  trying  proofs,  and 
show  no  change,  either  iu  the  bore  or  the  straightness  of  the  piece. 
With  these  pieces  are  seen  some  missiles,  some  of  which  are  new  and 
some  of  which  have  been  fired.  The  crucible  steel  for  cauuons  is  made 
according  to  a  rule  peculiar  to  the  Bochum  works,  and  patented  by  them. 
The  steel  is  not  brittle,  and  is  characterized  by  its  toughness  and  homo¬ 
geneous  nature. 

86.  Auother  specialty  of  these  works  is  the  manufacture  of  cast-steel 
bells.  We  have  not  space  to  detail  all  the  advantages  and  virtues  of 
cast-steel  bells.  The  manufacture  of  these  bells  dates  from  the  year 
1851.  As  early  as  1855,  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  the  bells  of  the  company 
attracted  general  attention.  The  surprise  of  the  inspectors  at  this  new 
cast-steel  product,  indeed,  the  doubt  as  to  the  possibility  of  working 
steel  in  this  way,  was  so  great  that  they  desired  an  inquiry  to  be  made, 
to  ascertain  whether  these  bells  were  really  steel,  as  was  represented, 
or  whether  they  were  made  of  cast  iron. 


BOCHUM  MINING  AND  STEEL  WORKS - BELLS.  113 

The  result  of  this  inquiry  was  the  bestowal  of  the  great  gold  medal 
by  the  jury  of  the  exposition,  upon  the  following  grounds  : 

“The  exhibited  bells  are  characterized  by  perfection  of  performance, 
and  a  very  clear,  unmixed  tone,  which  is  as  clear  as  that  of  the  best  or¬ 
dinary  bronze  bells.” 

As  a  consequence,  the  jury  came  to  the  conclusion — 

“That  the  Bochum  Company,  by  its  method  of  melting  and  pouring 
steel,  have  not  only  superseded  bronze  as  the  material  for  bells,  but 
have  given  a  new  direction  to  the  manufacture  of  large  forged  and 
rolled  pieces  for  machinery.” 

The  far-seeing  decision  of  the  French  jury  has  received  a  brilliant 
confirmation  by  this  year’s  exhibition.  It  was  not  only  a  great  advance 
in  theoretical  knowledge,  with  but  little  development  by  practice,  which 
awakened  the  surprise  of  the  jury,  for  that  which  they  characterize  as 
“perfection  of  performance”  is  not  only  “ progress ”  but  a  “ great  pro¬ 
gress  realized.v 

These  bells  are  cheap,  costing  only  half  as  much  as  bronze  bells ;  they 
are  heavy,  and,  since  1855,  their  manufacture  has  very  greatly  and  rap¬ 
idly  increased. 

In  the  year  185S,  a  test  proved  “that  it  is  impossible  with  human 
power  to  crack  one  of  these  steel  bells  with  heavy  sledge-hammers.” 
In  the  practical  use  which  has  been  made  of  them  since  the  beginning 
of  their  manufacture,  they  seem  to  far  outlast  the  bronze  bells. 

During  the  first  seventeen  years,  the  number  of  church-bells  that 
were  made  was  about  1,000,  and  about  1,500  of  smaller  kinds.  In  the 
last  four  years  about  600  church-bells  and  1,500  smaller  bells  have  been 
made  of  cast  steel. 

The  Bochum  bells  are  widely  distributed  over  the  whole  of  Europe, 
though  the  distribution  is  somewhat  limited  by  the  fact  that  they  are 
manufactured  both  in  Englaud  and  in  France  under  patent-rights 
granted  by  the  Bochum  works.  Besides  the  great  number  that  are  sus¬ 
pended  in  Europe,  six  have  been  sent  to  Asia,  ten  to  Africa,  forty-five 
to  North  America,  and  five  to  South  America.  Most  of  those  to  whom 
they  have  been  sent  have  written,  showing  their  perfect  satisfaction. 

The  following  is  a  price-list  of  the  works : 

A  bell  weighing  100  kilograms,  20  silbergrosclien  per  kilogram. 

A  bell  weighing  from  100  to  150  kilograms,  18  silbergrosclien  per 
kilogram. 

A  bell  weighing  from  150  to  15,000  kilograms,  16  silbergrosclien 
per  kilogram. 

In  the  good  service  that  their  bells  have  rendered,  the  company  has 
sufficient  guarantee  that  their  cast-steel  bells  will  not  crack,  and  they 
moreover  offer  to  buy  back  any  bells  that  shall  crack  in  the  future,  at 
half  the  price  of  the  new  ware.  However,  up  to  the  present  time, 
the  cracking  of  one  of  the  church-bells  is  unknown.  The  smaller  kinds 
(such  as  are  used  for  locomotives,  for  example)  are  the  only  ones  which 
have  ever  been  known  to  break. 

8 1  • 


114  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

87.  Extent  of  the  Boelium  works. — For  transportation  within  the  cast- 
steel  works,  0  locomotives,  100  cars,  anil  60  horses  are  used.  Steam- 
engines,  together  of  7,500  horse-power,  with  150  steam-boilers  and  a 
very  large  hydraulic  power,  are  employed  for  driving  the  works. 

The  steel-works  have  in  and  near  Bochum,  16  puddling-furnaces,  8 
heating-furnaces,  92  annealing  anil  warming  furnaces,  27  cupola  anil 
reverberatory  furnaces,  121  steel-melting  furnaces,  135  forging  aud 
welding  fires,  44  furnaces  for  heating  air,  24  crucible,  tube,  and  brick 
burning-furnaces. 

There  are  2  blast-furnaces  now  building,  aud  4  projected,  which  will 
soon  be  completed.  Each  of  these  sis  is  capable  of  producing  from 
120,000  to  130,000  pounds  of  pig-iron  daily. 

In  addition,  there  are  SO  cranes,  with  and  without  steam-power ;  4 
crucible  and  brick  presses,  5  clay-mixing  machines,  21  grindstones,  aud 
300  working  machines  of  various  kinds. 

Also,  36  steam-hammers,  the  heaviest  600  centners  falling-weight ; 
and  one  of  1,200  centners  is  being  set  up. 

The  monthly  production  of  railroad-stock  is  as  follows  :  1,000  combi¬ 
nations  (2  wheels  aud  1  axle)  of  car-wheels ;  40  full  sets  of  wheels  for 
a  locomotive  and  tender,  with  the  appurtenances ;  2,000  car  and  350 
locomotive  axles;  6,000  springs  for  locomotives  and  cars;  10,000  spiral 
springs  for  locomotives  aud  cars ;  16,000  to  18,000  rails ;  200  to  300 
Herzstxicke ;  150  to  200  Gchohelte  Weichenzungen. 

88.  Aid  for  the  workmen. — An  institution,  in  the  form  of  a  joint- 
stock  company,  has  been  established  which  has  for  its  object  the  build¬ 
ing  of  cheaper  and  better  dwellings  for  the  workmen  and  employes  of 
the  company,  the  obtaining  aud  the  production  of  the  necessaries  of  life, 
the  care  of  the  old  workmen  and  the  support  of  their  families.  The 
capital  of  the  institution  amounts  to  1,500,000  thalers,  of  which  300,000 
were  received  from  the  Bochum  Company,  200,000  from  the  workmen 
and  the  former  employes  of  the  company,  and  1,000,000  thalers  is  a  loan . 
After  deducting  the  large  interest,  (at  2  per  cent.,)  the  remaining  sum  is 
devoted  to  the  above-designated  objects. 

GLEIVTTZ  FURNACE,  UPPER  SILESIA. 

S9.  The  Hochofenzu  Gleiwitz  in  Ohcvschlesin  Company  makes  a  most 
instructive  exhibition  of  the  progressive  chauges  in  the  form,  size,  aud 
production  of  their  furnaces  at  different  periods  since  1799.  There  are 
four  large  drawings  of  equal  scale,  1  to  10,  giving  sections  of  the  fur¬ 
naces  in  1799,  1829,  1S54,  and  1872,  showing  in  a  vivid  anil  impressive 
manner  the  gradually-increasing  size  and  production.  The  data  taken 
from  these  drawings  are  herewith  tabulated. 


GLEIWITZ  FURNACE,  UPPER  SILESIA.  115 


Table  showing  dimensions  and  production  of  Gleiwitz  blast-furnaces  at  four  different  periods. 


Dimensions,  number  of  tuyeres,  and  production. 

Tear. 

1799. 

1829. 

1854. 

1872. 

Dimensions  of  furnace : 

Height . meters.. 

Diameter  at  top . . . meters.. 

Diameter  at  boshes . meters.. 

Diameter  at  or  above  tuyeres . meters. . 

11.18 
0.  96 
3.45 

0.  94 

13.14 
1.36 
3.14 

0.  63 

48. 14 

2 

25,  000 

15.  04 
1.88 

4.  79 

0.  94 
117.  58 

3 

56,  250 

13.  04 
3.  92 
5.  34 
2.  56 
220.  70 
8 

250,  000 

Tuyeres . . number . . 

Weekly  production . kilograms. . 

2 

13,  700 

CHAPTER  III. 


FRANCE. 


Exhibition  by  the  Schneiders,  Creuzot ;  Attractive  installation;  Tiie  ores 

AND  METALS  USED;  M.VXGAN-IRON;  EXTENT  OF  TIIE  WORKS;  CLASSIFICATION  OF 

IKON  AND  STEEL;  TABLE  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SEVEN  TYPES  OF  IKON 

MADE  AT  CRKUZOT  ;  COMMERCIAL  STEEL  AND  ITS  PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES,  AS  CLAIMED 

at  Creuzot;  Quality  of  rails;  Prices  according  to  quality  and  hardness; 

Large  castings  for  lining  mining-shafts;  Hevollier  Bietrix  &  Co.  and 

OTHER  EXHIBITORS  ;  ALGERIAN  ORES. 

90.  The  exhibitors  of  the  iron  and  steel  products  of  France  did  not 
enjoy  the  advantages  of  a  separate  building  for  the  reception  of  objects 
pertaining  to  the  mining  and  metallurgical  groups,  and  consequently 
their  exhibits  were  distributed  in  the  Machinery  Hall  and  parts  of  the 
main  building,  and  were  not  so  readily  found  as  those  of  Germany  and 
Austria. 

The  iron  and  steel  production  of  France  is  shown  by  the  annexed 
tabular  statement  from  the  years  !Sd9  to  1S74,  inclusive:* 


Years. 

Cast  iron. 

Wrought 

iron. 

Steel. 

Total. 

1 359 . 

Tons. 

753.  032 

Tons. 

531,  769 

Tons. 

16,922 

Tons. 

I',  307,  373 

i860 . 

737,  932 

503,  229 

21,  211 

1,  321,  605 

1661 . 

329. 131 

591,772 

26, 169 

1,  117,  422 

1362 . 

923,  571 

618,  395 

30,  490 

1,507,159 

1863 . . 

933,  907 

707,  735 

25,  372 

1,667,061 

1364 . 

1,034. 161 

750,  331 

28,  189 

1,813,231 

1565 . . 

939,  972 

676,  775 

31,816 

1,698,563 

1866 . 

992,710 

759,  112 

28.  286 

1,780,  138 

1367 . 

931,906 

701,  160 

36,  855 

1, 672,  921 

1363 . . . 

931,  363 

713,  272 

66,  320 

1,  719, 160 
1,917.  364 

1363 . 

1,013.699 

601,201 

97,  281 

1370 . 

923,  312 

617,  331 

83,  788 

1,  625,  464 

1371 . 

859,611 

635,  376 

79,  811 

1,575,328 

1372 . 

1,  217,  833 

881,  203 

130,  083 

2,  232,  129 

1373 . 

1,366,715 

839,  891 

155,563 

2,  412.  174 

1571 . 

1, 123,  307 

862,  251 

217, 072 

2,  502,  633 

*  From  the  Bulletin  du  Comitt  des  Forges  de  France,  cited  by  David  Forbes. 


FRANCE— PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL, 


117 


Production  of  cast  iron  in  France  during  the  gear  1874.* 


Districts. 


Ardennes . 

Paris  Basin . 

Brittany . . 

Centre . 

Champagne . . . 

Comte . 

Escaut . 

Garde,  Bouches  du  Rhone,  and  Corsica. . . 

Loire  et  Savoie . . 

Longtvy . . 

Menrthe  and  Moselle . . . 

Sambre . 

Sud-Ouest . . 

TJsines  d’Aubin  et  de  la  marine  nationals 

Total . 

Total  in  1873  . 

Increase  in  1871 . . . . 

Decrease  in  1874.. . 


Fo  undery 
iron. 

Forge  iron. 

Total 

Metrical  tons. 

Metrical  tons. 

Metrical  tons. 

4,  211 

15,  549 

19,761 

12,  073 

2,  260 

14,  334 

52,  167 
76,  232 

233,  082 

345,  249 

84,  976 

161,209 

5,  967 

45,  296 

51,  284 

28,  676 

73,  707 

102,  383 

21,094 

85,  896 

106,  991 

29,  534 

262,  882 

292,416 

37,  119 

39,  919 

77,  039 

24,  908 

124,  977 

149,  885 

9,  198 

59,  874 

69,  072 

2,  968 

13,811 

16,  780 

16,  900 

16,  900 

304, 172 

1,  119, 135 

1,  423,  307 

252,  840 

1, 129, 117 

1,381,  970 

51,  332 

9,  992 

41,  349 

Production  of  wrought  iron  in  France  during  the  year  1874*. 


Districts. 

Bars,  &c. 

Rails. 

Plates. 

Total. 

Metrical 

tons. 

34,  999 
40,  529 

7,  482 
116,  043 

93,  695 
33,  001 
50,  493 
18,  639 
101,563 

6,  279 
16,  990 
59,  336 

8,  386 
1,598 

Metrical 

tons. 

Metrical 

tons. 

13,  944 
12,  077 
2,  869 
30,  439 
5,  111 
10,  766 

7,  069 

Jlhtrical 

tons. 

48,  874 
52,  607 
10,  351 
186,  621 
98,  806 
52,  839 
66,  654 
25,  387 
131,  809 
6,  297 
16,  990 
125,  563 
8,  3S6 
31,  073 

40, 139 

4,  070 

9,  092 
6,  739 
16,  676 

Loire  <et  Savoie . . . 

13,  570 

Sambre . 

52,  945 

13, 281 

TJsines  d’Aubin  at  de  la  marine  nationale. . .  „ . 

23,  400 

1,075 

593,  987 
624,  772 

158,  063 
151,346 

110,  204 
130,  626 

862,  254 
906,  745 

Total  in  1873 . 

6,716 

30,  785 

20,  421 

44,491 

Production  of  steel  in  France  during  1874.* 


District. 

Bessemer  and  Martin. 

Cast  and  peddled. 

c  “ 

a  <D  q 
dap 

5 

Rails. 

Bar, plate, 
&c. 

Total. 

Rails. 

Bar, plate, 
Sec. 

Total. 

Paris  Basin . . . 

360 
8,  729 

925 

39,910 

672 

360 
71,  554 

925 
127,  141 
672 

250 

250 
5,  600 

1,235 
9,  309 

610 
77,  154 

2, 160 
135,  450 
672 
23 

62,  824 

5,  600 

Garde,  Bouches  du  Bhone  et 

1,235 
9,  309 

Loire  et  Savoie .  . . . . 

87,  222 

. 

Sud-Ouest . 

Ardennes  . . 

23 

23 

Total . . . 

150,  047 

50,  598 

200,  653 

5,  600 

10,  818 

16,  418 

217,  072 

Bulletin  du  Comite  des  Forges  de  France ,  February,  1875,  cited  by  David  Forbes. 


118  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

THE  CEEUZOT  WORKS. 

91.  Messrs.  Schneider  &  Co.,  proprietors  of  coal-mines,  iron-works, 
steel-works,  and  mechanical  works  at  Le  Creuzot  (Saoue-et-Loire) 
make  one  of  the  most  perfect  and  ornate  displays  in  the  whole 
exhibition.  It  is  in  the  machinery  hall  fronting  the  main  passage-way 
dividing  the  English  from  the  French  section.  It  is  compact  but  com¬ 
prehensive.  The  ores  from  Algeria,  Elba,  and  France,  with  the  coals, 
coke,  fluxes,  and  the  direct  products,  are  systematically  shown.  Then 
follow  polished  sections  of  all  the  forms  of  bar  and  angle  iron,  with 
samples  of  each  bent  and  broken  to  show  the  quality.  There  is  a  sim¬ 
ilar  series  of  steel-products,  including  sections  of  all  the  forms  of  rails 
made  for  various  railways.  The  numerous  specimens  of  great  teuacity 
are  particularly  interesting.  They  comprise  steel  bars,  3  or  4  inches 
square,  bent  double ;  polished  rail  way-axles  folded  back  one  end  upon 
the  other,  and  the  journals  bent  at  right  angles,  without,  in  either  case, 
showing  a  crack  or  a  flaw.  This  establishment  is  being  rapidly  extended 
iu  size,  and,  when  the  additions  now  in  progress  are  completed,  will 
cover  771  acres.  The  annual  production  of  pig-iron  is  180,000  tons;  of 
wrought  iron  90,000,  and  of  steel  00,000  tons;  number  of  workmen, 
15,500.  Experiments  are  being  made  to  test  the  strength  of  the  different 
braulls  of  iron  and  of  steel  sold  iu  commerce.  Thousands  of  samples 
have  been  carefully  tested  and  the  results  reoorded.  A  classification 
based  upon  these  results  is  proposed,  which  is  said  to  have  received 
the  sanction  of  the  trade.  Seveu  degrees  or  classes  of  iron-ore  are 
recognized,  and  the  physical  properties  of  each  class  are  tabulated. 
For  steel  three  classes  are  proposed,  and  these  classes  are  to  be  desig¬ 
nated  by  the  letters  A,  B,  C.  A  is  to  represent  the  ordinary  grades,  C 
the  superior,  and  B  the  intermediate  qualities. 

92.  As  an  example  of  successful  and  attractive  installation,  this  exhibit 
is  worthy  of  special  note.  The  arrangement  of  the  objects  is  accurately 
shown  by  the  annexed  ground-plan  diagram. 

93.  The  show-cases  are  lined  with  dark  maroon-colored  velvet,  and  the 
wood  is  finished  in  imitation  of  ebony.  The  glass  is  the  finest  French 
plate.  Great  care  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  labels,  and  in  mounting 
the  maps  and  drawings.  Iu  the  show-case  No.  3  we  find  the  mineral 
fuels  from  the  mines  belonging  to  Creuzot  as  follows:  Creuzot,  Mont- 
chauiu-Longpendu,  Decize,  Montaud,  and  from  Brassac  and  Beaubrun 
miues,  iu  which  Creuzot  is  a  joint  owner.  There  is  also  a  representation 
of  the  coke  made  at  Creuzot  from  a  mixture  of  bituminous  coal  of  St. 
Etienue  and  washed  coal-slack. 

Ores. — Under  the  head  of  ores  and  metals  used  at  Creuzot,  we  find 
in  case  4  magnetic  iron-ore  from  Mokta-el-Bfadid,  Algiers,  province  of 
Bona ;  oligiste  iron  from  the  island  of  Elba;  spathic  iron  from  Maurieune, 
Savoy;  pisolitic  ore  from  Berry,  Chauteloup,  Saint-Floreut,  Cher; 
oolitic  ore  from  Mazeuay,  Saone-et-Loire ;  limestoue-marble  from  Gilly, 
Allier. 


CEEUZOT  IRON-WORKS  EXHIBIT. 


119 


(5.)  Pig-iron  for  refining,  for  fountlery  purposes  and  for  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  steel,  classified  according  to  quality  and  appliances.  Furnace- 
slag  of  the  same.  Some  mangan-iron  of  high  percen  tage,  claimed  to  con¬ 
tain  70  per  cent,  of  manganese,  was  shown.  This  is  made  by  adding 
manganese  ore  to  a  bath  of  molten  iron  in  the  presence  of  charcoal  in  a 
Siemens  furnace. 


8 

7 

6 

5 

12 

i  n  i 

12 

Fig.  58. — Plan  of  Creuzot  exhibition — general  arrangement. 


1.)  Picturesque  view  of  Crenzot. 
(2.)  Geometrical  plan  of  Creuzot. 
(3.)  Coal  show-case. 

(4.)  Minerals. 

(5.)  Pig-iron. 

(6.)  Wrought  iron. 

(7  and  8.)  Steel. 

(9.)  Appliances  of  the  iron. 

(10.)  Appliances  of  the  steel. 


(11.)  Fractures  of  iron  and  steel. 

(12.)  Rolled  profiles  of  pieces  of  iron  and 
steel. 

(13.)  Engine  of  20  horse-power. 

(14.)  Locomotive,  Midi  Railway. 

(15.)  Wheels,  axles,  and  tires. 

(1  )  Cylinder  of  marine  engine. 

(17.)  Drawings  of  bridges. 


(G.)  Wrought  iron  classified  by  numbers  of  quality,  from  1  to  7. 
Tested  bars  showing  the  respective  physical  properties  of  each  qual¬ 
ity. 

(7  and  S.)  Steel  classified  by  numbers  of  hardness,  from  1  to  11,  and 
by  marks  of  quality,  A,  B,  C. 

(9.)  Specimens  showing  the  quality  of  the  iron,  classified  according 
to  the  numbers,  worked  up  either  cold  or  hot,  and  different  appliances. 

(10.)  Specimens  showing  the  quality  of  the  steel,  classified  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  numbers,  worked  up  either  cold  or  hot,  and  different  appli¬ 
ances. 

(11.)  Fractures  of  rails  and  other  pieces  of  iron  and  steel,  showing 
the  texture  of  the  metal. 

(12.)  Profiles  (cross-sections  polished)  representing  the  rails  and 
merchant  iron  made  by  the  Creuzot  Iron-Works. 

This  establishment  manufactures  engines  and  locomotives,  and  they 
exhibit,  upon  the  space  marked  in  the  plan  13,  an  engine  for  workshops, 


120  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 

with  vertical  cylinders  on  frames;  high  and  low  pressure,  with  con¬ 
densation;  20  nominal  liorse-power  ;  patent  governor. 

In  the  center  space,  marked  14,  a  highly-finished  freight-engine  for 
steep  gradients,  for  the  Midi  Railway  Company;  eight  wheels  coupled  ; 
outside  cylinders.  Weight  of  engine  empty,  47  tons  S  hundred-weight. 
This  locomotive  is  one  of  twenty  made  to  order  by  the  works  in  1872. 

(15.)  Upon  this  space  railicay-wheels  and  axles  are  shown  in  a  highly- 
finished  state.  Both  axles  and  tires  are  of  Creuzot  steel.  Axles  and 
tires  of  the  same  pattern  and  finish  are  shown  folded  up  aud  bent  iu 
opposite  directions  without  exhibiting  a  flaw. 

(10.)  Upon  space  10,  opposite  the  steam-engine,  they  exhibit  a  steam- 
enyiue  cylinder,  rough  from  the  fouudery,  as  cast  for  the  paddle-engines,  i 
with  high  and  low  pressure,  of  350  horse  power,  of  the  steamer  Petrel,  of 
the  French  navy.  This  piece  weighs  seven  tons.  The  diameter  of  the  j 
high-pressure  cylinder  is  3  feet  1  inches,  and  of  the  low-pressure,  5 
feet  lg  inches  ;  stroke  of  pistons,  3  feet  34  inches. 

(1/.)  Iu  the  spaces  marked  17  there  are  several  models,  plans ,  and  i 
drawings  of  public  works,  bridges,  viaducts,  aqueducts,  &c.,  among  | 
them  a  drawing  of  the  bridge  of  Friburg,  on  the  railway  from  Lausanne 
to  Friburg,  1859,  of  which  the  iron-work  weighs  3,000  tons;  the  swing- 
bridge  of  Brest,  18G0,  weight  of  iron-work  1,170  tons;  the  bridge  on 
El  Ciuca,  Spain,  1SGG,  weight  of  iron-work  247  tons. 

Drawing  of  the  bridge  on  the  Cliiffa,  Algiers,  18G8;  weight  of  iron¬ 
work  419  tons. 

Drawing  of  the  bridge  on  the  Danube,  at  Stadlau,  near  Vienna,  con¬ 
structed  at  Creuzot  in  1SG9  for  the  I.  R.  P.  Company  of  State  Railways, 
scale  7lJ-y.  Distance  between  abutments,  1,2G4  feet  8  inches;  number 
of  columns,  4;  distance  between  centers  of  columns,  2G3  feet  2  inches  • 
weight  of  iron-work,  2,140  tons. 

There  is  also  a  diagram  showing  the  manner  iu  which  the  bridge  has 
been  put  into  its  place  by  hauling. 

Drawing  of  the  bridge  on  the  Danube,  at  Vienna,  constructed  at 
Creuzot  in  1S73  for  the  administration  of  the  public-works  department, 
scale  jAg..  Distance  between  abutments,  1, OSS  feet;  fiumber  of  columns, 

3 ;  distance  betweeu  ceuters  of  columns,  275  feet  G  inches ;  weight  of 
iron-work,  2,400  tons. 

94.  Production. — The  exact  statistics  of  the  works,  as  regards  ex¬ 
tent  and  production  for  1873-  74,  are  as  follows: 


Vienna  International  Exhibition.  1873 


Iron  and  Steel 


puppii 


:  V 
tei 


iJS .  8SR 


LEGBND 


The  grounds  apd  shops  of  the 
diilereut  departments,  composing  the 
Creusot  works,  are  designated  by 
the  following  plain  tints  : 


COLLERIES . 

HIGH -FURNACES _ 

STEEL- WORKS . 

MECHANICAL-WORKS _ 

IRON  WORKS . . 

BUILDING  (k  REPAIRING. 


All  the  buildings  of  the  works 


Hi 

sms 


The  town  is  .indicated  J>y 


Scale  1  to  5,000  or  1mm  for  5  metres. 


THE  CREUZOT  IRON-WORKS - STATISTICS. 


121 


Statistics  of  Le  Creuzot,  1873-74. 


Statistical  elements. 

Creuzot. 

Appendages. 

Total. 

The  works  consist  of— 

Surface  of  the  works  and  of  the  industrial  appendages.. 

435 

336 

771  acres. 

Surface  of  the  buildings . 

51 

17 

68  acres. 

Length  of  railways,  broad  gauge . 

35 

14 

49  miles. 

narrow  gauge  . . 

18 

62 

80  miles. 

Number  of  workmen . 

9,  800 

5,  700 

15,500  workmen. 

Number  of  steam-engines . 

234 

74 

306  engines. 

Horse-power  of  the  same . 

15,  700 

3,  300 

19,000  horse-power. 

PRODUCTION. 

Weight  of  coals . 

190,  000 

525,  000 

715,000  tons. 

180,  000 

180,000  tons. 

90,  000 
60,  000 
280, 000 
240,  000 

90,000  tons. 

60,000  tons. 

Value  of  locomotive-engines,  (100  a  year) . 

Value  of  other  machinery  and  bridges . 

100,  000 

280,000  pounds. 
340,000  pounds. 

Note.— The  extensions  of  the  works  at  present  in  progress,  and  which  are  to  be  completed  in  1873-'74 
are  taken  into  account  in  these  statistics. 

95.  Awards  in  1867. — At  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1S67  a  grand  prize 
was  given  for  the  raw  and  finished  products  of  mineral  industry,  (Group 
Y,  class  40,)  and  another  grand  prize  for  mining-tools  and  processes  of 
working  the  mines,  (Group  YI,  class  47.)  A  gold  medal  for  railway-ma¬ 
terial;  a  gold  medal  for  civil  engineering ;  a  gold  medal  for  materials 
for  naval  architecture  and  saving  of  life ;  a  gold  medal  for  methods  of 
teaching  children  and  apparatus  for  the  same,  and  also  a  bronze  medal 
to  M.  Nolet,  as  co-operator,  for  apparatus  for  the  instruction  of  adults. 

96.  Classification  of  iron  and  steel,  Creuzot. — The  classifica¬ 
tion  before  mentioned  is  based  upon  the  needs  of  the  consumer,  the  en¬ 
deavor  being  made  to  meet  iu  a  uniform  and  reliable  way  the  demand 
already  existing  for  iron  and  steel  of  certain  qualities.  In  the  notes 
and  descriptions  which  follow  upon  this  subject  free  use  has  been  made 
of  the  valuable  notes,  in  French,  furnished  by  the  firm. 

When  Messrs.  Schneider  &  Co.  decided  to  greatly  extend  their 
metallurgical  works,  they  necessarily  became  solicitous  that  the  outlets 
for  their  products  should  also  be  extended.  To  attain  this  end,  the 
surest  means  was  to  seek  to  satisfy  all  the  wants  of  the  consumer  in  re¬ 
spect  of  quality  as  well  as  of  form,  or,  in  brief,  to  put  into  the  market 
the  equivalents  of  the  principal  varieties  of  iron  in  common  demand. 
Their  first  step  was  to  procure  a  certain  number  of  bars  of  the  same 
specimen  of  the  brands  best  known  iu  France,  England,  Belgium,  and 
in  all  producing  countries.  These  bars  were  submitted  to  mechanical 
tests  when  cold  and  when  hot.  From  the  data  obtained  from  thousands 
of  experiments  in  this  way,  the  coefficients  of  strength  were  deduced, 
representing  the  relative  value  of  each  variety.  It  was  found  that  the 
almost  infinite  varieties  of  quality  produced  by  metallurgy  could  be 
grouped  in  seven  chief  divisions,  and  that  these  seven  groups  or  types 
would  satisfy  all  the  needs  of  trade  and  the  consumer.  It  then  re¬ 
mained  to  find  the  means  of  realizing  in  practice  the  manufacture  in  the 
large  way  of  these  seven  types  of  iron  with  uniformity  and  regularity. 


122  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Chemical  analysis  of  both  the  irons  and  the  ores  was  resorted  to,  and 
the  mixture  of  ores  was  based  upon  the  analysis.  The  result,  after  long 
efforts,  has  been  that  the  Creuzot  Works  produce  seven  distinct  types  or 
qualities  of  iron,  denominated  by  the  numbers  1  to  7,  which  can  be  re. 
lied  upon,  and  which  have  been  well  received  in  commerce.  The  physi¬ 
cal  properties  of  each  of  these  qualities  of  iron  are  shown  in  the  sue-  ; 
ceeding  table. 

IKON. 


Numerical  table  of  the  physical  properties  of  the  seven  types  of  iron  made  at  Creusot .* 


Pullin, 

^•stress. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Iron  in  bars. 

Bars  turned  to  200— 2  of 
section,  and  to  100— 
iong.  t 

Sheet-iron. 

Specimens  cut  1,000— 
wide,  2,500'"-  long,  and 
10""'"  to  12""»  thick. 

CD 

s 

Sheets. 

CO 

Sheets. 

CO 

s~ 

a 

M 

Sheets. 

Bars. 

CO 

© 

Permanent  elongation  at  the  moment  of  breaking.. 

10 

15 

6.5 

18 

10 

21.5 

14.  6 

Charge  of  breaking  per  square  millimeter  of  prirni- 

11 

37.8 

33.2 

38 

33.7 

38.  5 

34.  4 

tive  section. 

Charge  of  breaking  per  square  millimeter  of  the 

51.3 

55.  5 

35.6 

60.3 

37.6 

67 

40.5 

section  as  broken. 

“Striction,”  (or  relation 

ot  the  primitive  section 

0.  soo 

0.  680 

0.  940 

0.  030 

0.  895 

0.  575 

0.  847 

tp  the  broken  section.) 

Coefficient  of  quality,  hot 

1 . 

to 

50 

60 

70 

5. 

0. 

7. 

ec 

00 

CD 

g 

CD 

© 

33 

© 

cz 

5 

& 

p; 

IT. 

« 

c n 

« 

tfl 

Permanent  elongation  at  the  moment  of  breaking.. 

25 

18.2 

29 

oo 

34 

26.5 

Charge  of  breaking  per  square  millimeter  of  primi- 

36.6 

34.8 

38.  75 

35.  6 

39.2 

36.7 

tive  section. 

Charge  of  breaking  per  square  millimeter  of  the 

73.6 

43 

83.5 

48 

112 

55 

section  as  broken. 

“  Striction, ”  (or  relation  of  the  primitive  section 

0. 524 

0.  808 

0.  462 

0.  740 

0.350 

0.  6C5 

to  the  broken  section.) 

Coefficient  of  quality,  hot  t . 

80 

99 

100 

*  The  figures  given  in  this  table  are  the  result  of  numerous  trials ;  nevertheless  they  are  only  com 
l>arative  and  approximate. 

t  The  bars  used  were  all  carefully  and  exactly  brought  to  the  same  dimensions,  and  were  tested  in  the 
same  apparatus  and  manner,  and  by  the  same  persons. 

1  By  an  empirical  process,  justified  by  experience,  the  comparative  value  hot  is  expressed  by  coeffi¬ 
cients  of  which  the  maximum,  100,  corresponds  to  the  best  charcoal- irons. 


97.  Commercial  steel. — A  similar  method  of  investigation  was  adopt¬ 
ed  in  respect  of  the  various  grades  of  commercial  steel,  and  resulted 
in  grouping  these  varieties  iu  three  grand  divisions,  designated  respect¬ 
ively  by  the  letters  A,  B,  and  0. 

The  first  division.  A,  includes  the  great  bulk  of  production  of  steel ;  the 
greater  portion  of  Bessemer  aud  of  Martin  steel,  and  some  crucible 
steel  made  in  England,  Belgium,  and  iu  France.  This  grade  of  steel  is 
used  generally  iu  rails  and  other  objects  of  general  manufacture. 

The  third  division,  C,  includes  steel  of  exceptional  purity,  which,  ac- 


CEEUZOT  IRON-WORKS - GRADES  OF  STEEL.  123 

cording  to  numerous  analyses,  is  only  to  be  found  in  the  best  products  of 
the  crucible  from  charcoal-iron  of  the  best  Dannemora  brand. 

The  second  division,  B,  comprehends  the  steels  of  intermediate  quality 
between  A  and  0. 

The  Schneiders  have  undertaken  to  realize  in  their  manufacture  in  the 
large  way  each  of  these  three  standard  types  of  quality  to  a  degree  at 
least  equal  or  superior  to  the  mean  of  each,  and  they  have  adopted  the 
three  marks  A,  B,  and  C  to  designate  three  grades  of  steel  which  they 
claim  to  be  able  to  produce  with  uniformity.  They  observe,  however, 
that  the  physical  properties  of  the  same  metal  are  so  greatly  modified 
by  its  degree  of  hardness  that  it  is  necessary  to  take  this  hardness  into 
consideration. 

The  elongation  of  bars  of  steel  under  strain  varies  more  with  the 
degrees  of  hardness  than  from  any  small  differences  of  chemical  com¬ 
position.  The  elongation  is  an  essential  quality,  which  for  the  same  bar 
varies  greatly  with  the  different  degrees  of  hardness.  The  classification 
adopted  by  the  Oreusot  Works  is  based  upon  the  hardness  rather  than 
the  composition.  Other  metallurgists  have  taken  the  degree  of  carbura- 
tion  as  the  basis  of  classification. 

This  basis  of  elongation  being  taken  for  the  classification,  it  became 
necessary  to  fix  the  extremes.  For  the  hardest  they  have  selected  a 
steel  which  is  susceptible  of  an  elongation  of  12  to  14  per  cent.,  or  an 
average  of  13  per  cent.,  and  for  the  softest,  which  permits  of  34  to  36 
per  cent.,  or  a  mean  of  35  per  cent.,  of  elongation.  They  are  able  to  pro¬ 
duce  at  will  such  steel,  and  to  maintain  the  production,  as  regards  this 
quality  of  hardness  and  elongation,  within  the  limits  of  variation  of  1 
per  cent.,  more  or  less.  They  have  also  been  able  to  subdivide  each  of 
these  three  groups  A,  B,  and  C  into  grades  of  hardness  differing  by 
2  per  cent,  of  elongation,  commencing  at  13  per  cent,  as  the  basis, 
only  as  the  extreme  limit  of  elongation  recedes,  as  the  purity  of  the  steel 
increases,  they  have  9  numbers  for  quality  A,  10  for  quality  B,  and  11 
numbers  for  quality  C. 

The  classification  so  adopted,  with  ttye  numbers  for  each  division, 
and  their  comparative  resistance  to  pulling-strain,  are  shown  upon  the 
annexed  table.  The  bars  used  in  these  experiments  were  all  carefully 
turned  to  a  diameter  giving  200  square  millimeters  of  section,  and  were 
100  millimeters  long.  They  were  hardened  in  oil. 


124 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1672. 


STEEL. 

Numerical  table  of  the  physical  properties  of  standard  steels  made  at  Creuzot,  by  quality  of 

metal  and  degree  of  hardness. 


Degrees  of  hardness. 


Pulling-strain  turned  bars, 
200mm2  of  section  and 
100 aim  in  length. 


Permanent  elongation  at 
the  moment  of  breaking. 

Brea  king-charge  per  square 
millimeter  of  primitive 
section. 

Breaking-charge  per  square 
millimeter  ol  the  section 
as  broken. 

“  Striction,”  (or  relation  of 
the  broken  section  to  the 
primitive  section. ) 

Charge  corresponding  to 
the  limit  of  elasticity. 


Coefficient  of  quality,  hot. . 


Permanent  elongation  at 
the  moment  of  breaking. 

Breaking-charge  per  square 
millimeter  of  primitive 
section. 

Break  i  ng-ch  arge  per  square 
millimeter  of  the  section 
as  broken. 

“  Striction,”  (or  relation  of 
the  broken  section  to  the 
primitive  section.) 

Charge  corresponding  to 
the  limit  of  elasticity. 


Coefficient  of  quality,  hot. . 


1  2  3  4 


% 

© 

c2 

U 

o 

a 

© 

© 

& 

© 

t- 

© 

© 

* 

Not  tempered. 

© 

© 

© 

H 

I 

S-4 

a 

& 

- 

| 

© 

© 

© 

© 

ft 

© 

z 

© 

H 

'A 

B 

C 

A 

B 

A 

b 

B 

C 

A 

B 

C 

13 

13 

13 

71  i.  2 

77.  7 

79 

95.2 

93 

100.2 

0.  800 
0.793 
0.788 
39 
■11.1 
•13.2 

o 

3.3 

5 

117 

119.3 

123 

119 

125.2 
132.  2 

0.  980 
0.950 
0.930 
72 

78.5 

35 

15 

73.0 

74.9 

70.2 
98.5 

101 

101 

0.  749 
0.740 
0.  732 
37.8 

40 

42.2 

4.8 

5.7 

0.6 

110.5 

115 

118.3 

120 

123 

136.5 

0.  930 
0. 900 
0.  867' 

68.3 

75.  5 

82 

17 

n 

17 

70.3 

71.8 

73. 2 

101 

104.2 

108 

0.  G97 
0.  687 
0.  678 
36.  4 

38.8 

41 

7.  2 

7!  8 

8.6 
105.  6 

108 

112 

122 

130.8 

141 

0.  865 
0.  827 
0.  794 
05.  8 

71 

73 

19 

19 

19 

60.8 

68.2 

69.  8 
103.  2 

107 

113 

0.  G46 
0.  636 
0.  617 
34.9 

37.  3 
39.3 

9.4 

10. 2 

10. 3 

9G.  8 

99 

104.8 
123.  5 
133.  5 
146.  3 
0.790 
0.  745 
0.  720 
CO.  6 

65.  4 
72.5 

A 

1*20 

120 

120 

120 

B 

125 

125 

125 

1 

25 

C 

130 

130 

130 

130 

Degrees  of  hardness. 

5 

G 

7 

8 

*6 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

r6 

© 

rs 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

1 

© 

© 

© 

© 

© 

©4 

© 

e< 

© 

© 

g 

© 

© 

H 

A 

H 

A 

H 

H 

A 

21 

n.  i 

23 

13.2 

25 

14.6 

27 

13 

B 

21 

12.6 

23 

14.8 

25 

17 

27 

19.5 

C 

21 

13.3 

23 

16 

25 

18.2 

27 

20.6 

A 

02.3 

|88.  6 

53 

78.7 

53.2 

68.6 

49.2 

61.2 

B 

64.1 

91 

59.7 

82 

DO 

73.  8 

50.5 

65.  8 

c 

65.9 

99 

61.5 

89.8 

56.8 

81.2 

52.2 

72.6 

A 

105.  6 

125 

106.8 

126.  5 

108 

128.1 

110 

129.  7 

B 

110.3 

136.2 

113 

138.  7 

115.2 

142 

119 

145.  1 

C 

115.5 

151.2 

119.6 

156 

123.2 

160.5 

127.  5 

165.  4 

A 

0.  505 

0.710 

0.  544 

0.  625 

0.  493 

0.  535 

0.  441 

0.  473 

B 

0. 582 

0.  670 

0.  529 

0.  590 

0.  477 

0.  520 

0.425 

0.  453 

c 

0.  570 

0.  655 

0.514 

0.  575 

0.460 

0.  508 

0.409 

0.  44) 

A 

33.  2 

56.2 

31 

50.3 

28.8 

43.8 

26.6 

37.8 

B 

35.3 

62.1 

33.3 

DO 

31.8 

49.3 

29.6 

44.  7 

C 

38.3 

68.8 

36.5 

62.2 

34.8 

56.9 

32.  7 

51.2 

A 

120 

120 

120 

115 

B 

125 

125 

125 

120 

c 

130 

130 

130 

125 

CREUZOT  IRON-WORKS - PROPERTIES  OF  STEEL. 


125 


Numerical  table  of  the  physical  properties  of  standard  steels,  <$  c. — Continued. 


Pulling-strain  turned  bars, 
200mm2  0f  section  and 
lOOram  in  length. 

Mark  of  quality. 

Degrees  of  hardness. 

9 

10 

11 

© 

© 

Pi 

B 

© 

© 

Tempered. 

Not  tempered. 

Tempered. 

Not  tempered. 

Tempered. 

Permanent  elongation  at 

(  A 

<  B 

29 

29 

21 

22 

32 

24.  2 

the  moment  of  breaking. 

l  0 

29 

23.  4 

32 

27.6 

35 

33 

Breaking-charge  per  sq  n  are 

(  A 

45 

56.2 

<  B 

46.  7 

58.  8 

41.  3 

51.  2 

section. 

(  c 

48.2 

63.8 

43.5 

53.2 

39.3 

46 

Breaking-charge  per  square 

(  A 

114 

131.3 

<  B 

123 

147.  5 

127 

152 

as  broken. 

(  C 

132.  6 

170 

140 

175.2 

146.6 

180.5 

C  A 

0.  395 

0.  428 

\  B 

0.  379 

0.  398 

0.  325 

0.  337 

primitive  section.) 

l  c 

0.  363 

0.  375 

0.310 

0.  305 

0.  268 

0.  255 

Charge  corresponding  to 

(  A 

<  B 

22.5 

27.  5 

33.6 

40 

23.  6 

33 

the  limit  of  elasticity. 

(  c 

30.7 

45.3 

27.8 

37.2 

24.4 

32.8 

C  A 

110 

Coefficient  of  quality,  hot. . 

B 

115 

110 

l  C 

120 

115 

110 

98.  Notwithstanding  the  great  number  of  the  experiments  and  the 
care  with  which  they  were  made,  the  figures  are  not  given  as  absolutely 
and  mathematically  accurate,  but  as  approximations  and  comparative- 
They  vary  of  course  somewhat  according  to  the  operator,  the  instruments, 
the  form,  and  the  preparation  of  the  specimen,  and,  further,  according 
to  the  intrinsic  qualities  of  the  metal.  The  bars,  however,  were  all 
formed,  as  nearly  as  could  be,  in  the  same  manner  and  turned  to  the  same 
dimensions,  and  the  experiments  were  confided  to  the  same  person,  and 
were  all  conducted  alike. 

99.  Resilience. — The  results  published  by  the  Creuzot  Works  -at 
Vienna  comprise,  it  will  be  noted,  only  elongation  and  “  striction,”  (the 
relation  between  the  area  of  the  fracture  and  the  original  section.) 
Other  experiments  upon  pressure  and  blows  have  been  made  in  great 
numbers;  but  owing  to  the  extreme  difficulty  of  breaking  the  bars,  es. 
pecially  among  the  higher  numbers,  it  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  tabu¬ 
late  all  these  results.  The  conclusion,  however,  is  that  in  a  general  way, 
for  steel  of  equal  quality,  the  resistance  to  shocks  has  a  constant  relation 
to  the  softness  of  the  metal ;  therefore,  for  most  uses,  and  particularly 
for  machinery,  p reference  should  be  given  to  soft  steel. 

100.  The  experiments  have  not  only  been  laborious  but  delicate,*  and 
have  occupied  years  of  time.  The  tabular  statements  represent  only 
the  first  part  of  a  series  which  the  Schneiders  contemplate  publishing, 

*  For  ascertaining  the  charge  corresponding  to.  the  limit  of  elasticity,  the  experi¬ 
menter  used  the  cathetoineter  of  Fromeut,  with  two  lenses. 


126 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


and  these  were  presented  in  advance  simply  on  account  of  the  exhibi-1! 
tion.  Chemical  investigations  of  all  the  steels  and  the  materials  used  l 
are  also  in  progress. 

Each  pouring  of  steel  at  the  works  is  submitted  to  physical  tests,  and 
these  are  combined  from  time  to  time  with  chemical  analyses,  and  these1  r 
investigations  are  conducted  in  such  a  manner  that  the  production  of  < 
steel  is  under  the  closest  surveillance  and  control,  aud  can  always  be!1 
kept  within  the  prescribed  limits  as  to  quality. 

101.  Deductions. — The  examination  of  the  tabulated  results  here  pre¬ 
sented  suggests  some  general  conclusions.  In  regard  to  the  hardness,  | 
it  is  seen  that  it  is  less  affected  by  the  tempering  in  proportion  to 
the  softness  of  the  metal.  At  the  extreme  of  the  grouping  and  for  the  i 
purest  metal  the  hardening  does  not  greatly  affect  the  elongation,  but 
increases  the  other  properties.  This  metal  is  a  kind  of  homogeneous  > 
iron,  or  melted  iron,  the  chemical  composition  of  which  is  the  same  as  , 
that  of  the  best  charcoal-irons.  We  pass  by  insensible  degrees,  in  a 
chemical  point  of  view,  from  the  hardest  steel  to  the  softest  iron,  with 
this  great  difference  always,  that  the  irou  is  produced  by  the  agglutina-  j 
tipn  of  elements  more  or  less  thoroughly  welded,  while  steel  is  the  re- 1 
suit  of  fusion,  which  assures  its  homogeneity,  and  gives  it  special 
qualities. 

102.  The  second  observation  is  that,  under  the  generic  name  of  steel, 
some  thirty  different  qualities  are  recognized  and  differentiated  by  their  ! 
physical  properties  and  by  their  chemical  constitution,  giving  distinct  | 
metals,  so  to  speak.  There  is  no  resemblance  between  quality  A,  No.  1, 
and  quality  C,  No.  11.  The  name  is  the  same,  but  the  substances  are 
different.  This  apparently  very  simple  matter  is  of  great  importance  in 
practice.  A  failure  in  au  application  of  steel  proves  nothing  against  it,  |i 
but  rather  against  the  choice  made  of  the  quality,  which  may  not  have  r 
had  any  adaptation  to  the  purpose  in  view. 

It  is  impossible  to  define  u  good  steel”  iu  an  absolute  manner.  Tool- 
steel  is  not  adapted  to  the  construction  of  machines.  It  is  the  same  with  ; 
iron.  A  quality  which  is  excellent  for  sheets,  gives  miserable  rails,  and  \ 
reciprocally.  In  the  varieties  of  iron  aud  of  steel  made  at  Creuzot,  each 
purpose  or  application  of  these  substances  may  find  its  appropriate 
quality.  The  product  best  adapted  to  the  end  iu  view  may  be  selected 
with  confidence.  The  tables  which  are  published  are  intended  as  a 
guide  to  the  consumer,  who  will  select  the  number  of  iron  or  steel  which 
has  the  physical  qualities  best  suited  to  his  purpose.  The  following 
general  statement  is  also  to  be  considered  : 

Bails  are  always  made  of  quality  A,  of  which  the  numbers  of  hard¬ 
ness  range  from  1  to  5,  according  to  the  preferences  of  railway  com¬ 
panies,  the  conditions  of  track,  climate,  traffic,  &c.  French  railways 
generally  use  hard  rails;  American,  soft  rails;  and  Russian  railways 
prefer  rails  of  intermediate  quality.  For  tires,  parts  of  machines,  axles, 
sheets,  &c.,  the  higher  numbers  of  quality  A  are  most  used,  but  it  is 


IRON  LININGS  FOR  MINING-SHAFTS. 


127 


better  to  use  quality  B.  The  quality  C  is  used  for  special  purposes, 

:  such  as  certain  plates,  axles,  ordnance,  and  other  exceptional  objects 
which  require  the  greatest  possible  strength  of  metal. 

103.  For  commercial  purposes,  use  is  made  of  the  annexed  tables  of 
price  and  of  hardness. 


Increase  of  price  according  to  quality,  hardness,  <fc. 


Marks. 

Increase  of  cost  per  100  kilograms. 

By  quality. 

By  hardness  numbers. 

0  francs .... 

From  1  to  7,  inclusive,  0  franc. 
From  8  to  11,  inclusive,  -1  francs. 
(Per  number.) 

30  francs .... 

COMMERCIAL  HARDNESS  TABLE,  CREUZOT. 

Approximate  elongation  obtained  on  bars  200  square  millimeters  of  section  and  100  milli¬ 
meters  long. 


IRON  LINING  FOR  MINING-SHAFTS. 

101.  The  company  des  Hauts-Fourneaux  de  Marquise  exhibit  large  cast 
linings  for  circular  shafts  sunk  on  the  Chaudron  and  Kind  systems. 
They  have  made  these  linings  of  the  following  diameters  : 

Exterior  Interior 
diameter,  diameter. 


1868  . .  . . . .  2m.40  2m.lG 

1868-1871  . . . . .  3.45  3.21 

1872-1873  .  3  .89  3  .65 

They  have  supplied  linings  to  the  following  localities  : 

Height  of 
column. 

Escarpelle  Company,  France .  87m.00 

Escarpelle  Company,  France .  75  .00 

Calcasieu,  United  States,  Louisiana .  135  .00 

Meuschin,  France . . . . .  75  .00 

Douchy . . . . . . .  49  .50 

De  Litvin.... .  70  .50 


The  maximum  thickness  of  these  linings  is  45  millimeters.  They 
generally  will  sustain  a  pressure  of  nearly  13  atmospheres  ;  the  maxi¬ 
mum  is  18  atmospheres. 

VARIOUS  EXHIBITS,  FRANCE. 

105.  The  establishment  of  Revollier  Bietrix  et  Cie.,  St.  Etienne,  ex¬ 
hibit  cast-steel  tires,  and  a  number  of  other  firms  of  the  Loire  united  in 


128 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

a  collective  exhibition  of  considerable  interest.  The  Societe  Anomjme 
des  Acieries  et  Forges  of  Firminy,  Loire,  under  the  direction  of  F.  F. 
Verdie,  manufacture  railway  material,  rails,  axles,  tires,  cast  steel,  &c. 
They  have  a  capital  of  3,000,000  francs,  and  a  production  in  lS72-’73 
valued  at  10,000,000  francs.  They  produce  21,000  tons  of  pig-iron  an¬ 
nually. 

The  Societe  des  Acieries  d  Ermont  exhibit  a  variety  of  articles  of 
cast  steel  in  illustration  of  the  Lesset  process,  (3  Boulevard  Hausmauj 
Paris,)  consisting  of  wheels,  plowshares,  ornaments,  cog-wheels,  tools,  ; 
gratings,  railway-frogs,  axes,  &c.  Some  grape-leaf  ornaments  are  very  j 
sharp  and  delicate,  with  a  fine  surface.  The  samples  are  malleable,  and 
bear  doubling  up  when  heated.  The  same  firm  send  a  large  drawing,  ( 
in  colors,  of  a  furnace  for  heating  crucibles  by  Ponsard’s  process,  illus-  i 
trated  also  by  folio  plates  published  by  the  Societe  Metallurgique  j 
pour  Vexploitation  du  procedes  Ponsard. 

10G.  Algerian  ores. — There  are  some  masses  of  specular  iron-ore 
from  the  departments  of  Oran  and  of  Constantine,  also  hematites  and 
siderite  and  peroxide  of  manganese.  These  are  shown  by  the  mining  ! 
department  of  Algeria.  The  ores  of  Mokta-el-IIadid  appear  in  the 
exhibition  made  by  Creuzot  and  by  other  establishments.  The  produc-  I 
tion  of  iron-ore  in  Algeria  was  nearly  400,000  tons  in  1S72.  Mokta-el-  j 
Undid  supplied  over  350,000  tons.  According  to  Forbes,* *  the  company  I 
owning  this  mine  raised  and  sold  372, S49  tons,  and  divided  74  per  cent.  I 
on  the  capital  stock.  The  profit  for  1S72  reached  the  sum  of  £  L  19,797.  | 

The  number  of  men  employed  in  the  iron-mines  of  Algeria  at  the  ; 
commencement  of  the  year  1S74  was  2,055.  The  exportation  of  iron- 
ores  during  the  years  1872  and  1873  was  as  follows,  in  metrical  I 
tons :  + 


France . . 

Netherlands .. 

Feljinra _ 

Germany . 

England . 

Spain . 

United  States 


In  1873. 

In  1872. 

267, 331 
64,  2G5 
13,  670 

251,528 

40,  960 
4,290 
1,562 

61, 157 

62, 098 

25 

11,504 

418, 893 

359, 497 

The  portion  shipped  to  the  Netherlands  was  for  transmission  to  Ger¬ 
many. 


*  Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Industries  in  Foreign  Countries,  1873. 
t  Front  reports  of  David  Forbes,  1375. 


CHAPTER  IX 


BELGIUM. 


Hope  furnace  and  mills  at  Liege  ;  Sclessin  Company  ;  Rolled  tikes,  Ougree 

Company;  John  Cockerill  Company  ;  Description  of  the  Cockerill  Works, 

MINES,  COKE-FURNACES,  ETC.;  THE  PRODUCTS  OF  THE  WORKS  ;  MlNING-MACHINEEY . 

107.  The  exhibitors  of  iron  and  steel  in  Group  I,  from  Belgium,  are  but 
few,  and  there  is  a  notable  absence  of  any  printed  information  concerning 
the  iron  and  steel  industry,  or  indeed  any  of  the  industries  classed  in 
the  first  group,  while  under  agriculture,  the  second  group,  the  catalogue 
is  enriched  with  statistical  descriptions. 

The  chief  exhibitors  are — 

Societe  Anonyme  des  Charbonnages ,  Ha u t- Fo urne a ux  et  Laminoirs  de 
VEsperance,  at  Liege,  and  at  Seraing,  near  Liege.  This  company  sends 
samples  of  coal  and  coke,  and  of  pig-iron,  at  150  francs  the  1,000  kilo¬ 
grams,  and  sheet-iron  from  450  francs. 

The  quantity  and  value,  estimated,  of  the  production  of  the  Belgian 
iron-works  in  the  years  1871, 1872,  and  1873  is  given  as  follows  :* 

BELGIAN  IRON-WORKS. 


1871. 

1872. 

1873. 

Blast- fare  aces : 

Number  in  activity . 

48 

52 

54 

Pip-iron  in  tons . 

C09, 2:io 

655,  565 

607,  373 

£4,  794,  552 

£2,  616,  823 

£2,  809,  929 

Founderies : 

Number  of  works . 

174 

168 

176 

Production  in  tons . 

70,  427 

79,  863 

81,  393 

£538,  561 

£841,  685 

£1,  000,  291 

Forges: 

N umber  of  works . . . 

58 

57 

53 

Production  in  tons . 

467,216 

502,  577 

480,  374 

£3,  369,  787 

£4,  979,  254 

£5,  570,  002 

Iron-workshops : 

Number  of  works . 

62 

63 

54 

Production  in  tons . 

33,  145 

28,  393 

23,  058 

Value . 

£474, 119 

£427,  962 

£428,  025 

Iron -mines : 

Iron-ore  extracted,  tons . 

697,  272 

749,  781 

503,  5f  5 

£253, 107 

£295,  617 

£240,  891 

Steel : 

Number  of  stsel-works . 

2 

3 

3 

Production  in  tons . 

8,  900 

15,  284 

19,  050 

£126,  800 

£231,  240 

£311,  200 

9  I 


L’Annuciire  statisiique  de  la  Belgique,  cited  by  David  Forbes. 


130 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


The  official  returns  published  by  the  ministry  of  finance  show  the  i 
following  as  the  importations  and  exportations  of  iron-ores  and  cast  and 
wrought  iron  of  every  description: 


IRON-ORES. 


Importations,  in  metrical  tons. 

Exportations,  in  metrical 
tons. 

1871. 

1873. 

1872. 

1874. 

1873. 

1672. 

512,  990 
13,  522 

1,  711 
180, 101 

19,  703 
800 

2,  519 

1 

o 

187. 108 
9,167 
380 
227,  217 
10,013 
191 
1,016 
755 

586,  038 
13,  656 
621 
180,  360 
7,  932 

1,  268 
11,  536 

3 

92, 355 

35,  299 
56,  555 
192 
122,  993 

31, 162 
11, 187 

Netherlands . . 

France . 

103,  647 

Italy . 

Algeria . 

1,966 

11 

Swollen  and  Norway . 

Other  countries  .  ..I . 

10 

Total . 

701,  778 

739,  536 

790,  590 

108, 202 

215,  029 

178,  996 

CAST  AND  WROUGHT  IRON. 


/ 

Importations,  in  metrical  tons. 

Expoitations.  in  metrical 
tons. 

•  1871. 

1873. 

1872. 

1871. 

1873. 

1672. 

I’ig  and  scrap . 

161.485 

145,211 

137, 008 

1 1, 137 

27, 207 

49,  096 

Castings . 

1.  175 

1,265 

981 

5, 096 

5, 265 

5,  023 

Ear-iron . ' . 

2,516 

2, 508 

3,  090 

2,  937 

2,211 

2,  611 

Rails . 

11, 131  ; 

9,  677 

7,  512 

92,  220 

72,  912 

81,495 

Plates  and  sheets . 

122 

1,279 

562 

26, 090 

18,  910 

24,  282 

Other  wrought  iron . 

3, 265 

1,710 

3,  823 

103,  807 

87,  597 

101,  654 

Anchors  and  chains . 

91 

111 

78 

5 

17 

31 

Nails . 

577 

177 

311 

11,066 

9,  765 

13,  346 

Other  manufactured  iron . 

3,221 

3, 588 

3,536 

16,  555 

12,  802 

15,  380 

Total . . 

187,  216 

168,  826 

156,931 

268,  919 

236,  716 

292, 918 

10S.  .Beams,  girders,  etc. — Socicte  Anonyme  des  Hauts-Fourncaux, 
Mines  et  Charbon nages  do  Sclessin ,  near  Liege.  This  company  exhibits  a 
variety  of  beams,  girders,  round  iron  and  steel,  angle  iron  and  segment- 
iron  for  forming  hollow  posts,  and  iron  and  steel  rails,  for  all  of  which 
they  claim  superiority  of  form  and  manufacture.  Their  list  of  prices 


(November,  1872)  is  as  follows: 

Francs- 

Girders,  300mm,  price  per  %  kilograms .  46.  00 

250,  237,  235 .  44.  00 

135  by  150  and  130  by  150  .  40.  50 

Segmental  iron  for  beams  and  posts .  38.  00 

Iron  rails . 32.  00 

Steel  rails .  46.  00 


100.  Rolled  tires.; — The  Ougree  Company  of  Seraing,  (Societe  de 
la  Fabrique  defer  (VOugree  a  Seraing,  pres  Liege,)  of  which  M.  .Mock  el  is 


JOHN  COCKERILL  CO. - SERAING. 


131 


the  general  director,  makes  a  fine  exhibition  of  rolled  weldless  tires  for 
railway-carriages,  tenders,  and  locomotives $  also  car-wheels  and  axles, 
all  either  of  fine-grained  iron,  puddled  steel,  or  Bessemer  steel.  The 
tires  are  beautifully  arranged  one  above  another,  held  together  by  bands 
and  bolts,  so  that  they  form  a  high  pyramid,  with  the  smallest  tires  at 
at  the  top.  Oue  of  the  tires  shown  is  10  feet  or  more  in  diameter.  The 
rings  of  steel  from  which  the  tires  are  rolled  are  also  showu,  together 
with  numerous  illustrative  sections  of  axles  and  tires  displaying  the 
quality  of  the  material. 

This  establishment  was  founded  in  1S3G.  It  has  participated  in  most 
of  the  great  international  exhibitions,  and  has  received  numerous  medals. 

JOHN  COCKERILL  COMPANY,  AT  SERAING. 

The  principal  establishments  of  the  Cockerill  Company  are  situated 
at  Seraing,  Belgium,  six  miles  from  the  town  of  Liege,  in  the  valley  of 
the  Meuse,  upon  the  carboniferous  formation  which  runs  through  the 
territory.  They  occupy  the  estate  which  was  used  as  a  summer-resi¬ 
dence  by  the  bishop-princes  of  Liege  until  the  end  of  the  last  century. 

110.  Societe  John  Coclcerill. — But  by  far  the  most  important  exhi¬ 
bition  in  this  department  from  Belgium  is  chat  made  by  the  celebrated 
works  of  John  Cockerill,  concerning  which  interesting  information  was 
freely  supplied,  and  is  as  freely  used. 

The  works  comprise  coal  and  iron  mining,  the  reduction  of  the  ores, 
the  fabrication  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  and  steel,  the  construction  of 
machines  and  mechanical  and  manufacturing  engines,  boilers,  metallic 
bridges  and  vessels. 

The  management  is  vested  in  a  board  composed  of  five  members, 
assisted  by  a  director-general. 

The  establishments  comprise  the  offices  for  the  direction,  a  special 
engineering  service  for  the  studies  of  construction,  a  library,  and  a  lab¬ 
oratory  for  analyzing  the  raw  materials.  There  are,  as  respects  the 
working,  eleven  special  divisions,  managed  by  chief  engineers. 

The  foundation  of  the  Seraing  establishments  is  due  to  John  Cock¬ 
erill,  born  at  Haslington,  Lancashire,  on  August  3,  1790.  His  father 
had  in  1799  introduced  at  Liege  the  construction  of  machines  for  wool- 
spinning,  and,  after  having  acquired  there  a  great  fortune,  left,  in  1813, 
his  factories  to  his  two  sons,  James  and  John. 

Coal  and  iron  mining,  the  smelting  of  charcoal  pig-iron,  and  wrought- 
iron  works  had  been  organized  in  the  Liege  territory  for  centuries.  ' 
Besides  husbandry  and  connected  occupations,  the  working  class  of  the 
country  was  mostly  composed  of  coal-miners,  smelters,  blacksmiths, 
cutlers,  nail-makers,  lock  and  gun  smiths.  Materials  and  workmen 
were  not  wanting.  * 

In  1817,  Cockerill  Brothers  bought  from  the  Netherlands  government 
tbe  palace  of  Seraing,  with  its  appendages,  and  established  at  first  works 
for  the  construction  of  steam-engines  and  machines  for  spinning  flax, 
and  afterward  a  flax-spinning  mill. 


132 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


John  Cockerill  came  to  reside  at  Seraing  in  1822,  aud  bought  the  grant 
of  coal-mines  upon  which  the  works  stand,  aud  took  the  proper  meas¬ 
ures  to  introduce  on  the  continent  the  smelting  of  cast  iron  with  coke 
and  the  fabrication  of  iron  according  to  the  English  process. 

Tlie  working  of  the  factory  was  then  chiefly  supported  by  orders  from 
the  Netherlands  government.  In  1824,  magnificent  steam-engines  of  300 
horse  power  were  constructed  under  John  Cockerill’s  supervision  for  the 
men  of- war  of  the  country,  while  the  English  navy  had  engines  of  150 
horse- power  only. 

In  1820,  the  first  coke  blast-furnace,  the  furnaces,  the  rollers,  the  ham¬ 
mers,  the  blast-engines,  and  the  engines  for  the  iron-factory,  were  used. 
The  coal  pits  were  fitted  up  with  powerful  exhausting  and  drawing  ma¬ 
chines. 

The  first  continental  railway  was  decreed  by  the  Belgian  government 
after  the  revolution  of  1830,  and  the  first  locomotive  was  constructed  for 
that  railway  in  1834,  by  the  Seraing  Works,  which,  soon  after,  supplied 
nil  the  engines  for  the  beginning  of  the  Belgian  net-work  of  railways. 

The  Seraing  establishment  continued  to  increase  rapidly  until  the  de¬ 
mise  of  John  Cockerill,  which  happened  in  1840.  It  comprised,  in  1842, 
at  the  formation  of  the  joint-stock  company — 

1st.  The  grant  of  coal-mining,  with  three  collieries  furnished  with  all 
the  pumping  aud  liftiug  engines. 

2d.  Thirty-seven  coke-kilns  of  large  size. 

3d.  Two  blast  furnaces  with  steam-bellows,  and  grants  of  iron-mines. 

4th.  A  vast  iron-smeltery  and  a  copper- fouuderv. 

5th.  xln  iron-factory,  with  35  reverberatory  furnaces, 5  sets  of  rollers, 
the  hammers,  the  divers  steam-engines,  the  tools  and  apparatus  to 
complete  the  fabrication. 

6th.  An  engine  and  boiler  factory,  containing  141  forge-furnaces,  280 
lathes  and  boring-machines,  200  planing,  grooving,  tapping,  and  perfo¬ 
rating  machines,  &c. 

There  were  2,200  employes  aud  workmen. 

The  moving  power  was  equal  to  920  horse  power. 

The  Seraing  establishments  were  placed,  in  1820,  by  John  Cockerill,  un¬ 
der  the  general  superintendence  of  Gustave  Pastor,  his  nephew,  and  the 
latter  continued  his  services  when  the  company  was  formed  until  1866, 
at  which  time  M.  Pastor  withdrew  and  was  replaced  by  M.  E.  Sadoine, 
chief  engineer  of  the  government  navy,  now  the  general  director. 

The  gradual  improvements  of  the  works,  continually  enlarged,  have 
brought  the  productive  powers  of  the  various  divisions  to  their  present 
state.  They  now  comprise— 

Coal-mines. — Four  collieries,  with  8  shafts  for  raising  the  coal  to  the 
top,  ventilation,  exhaust,  letting  down  and  bringing  up  the  workmen 
by  Fahrkunst ;  24  engiues,  together  of  900  horse-power  ;  2,400  workmen 
Since  1S67,  women  work  no  longer  in  the  collieries  of  the  company. 
Annual  production  of  fuel,  350,000,000  kilograms. 


JOHN  COCKERILL  CO. - SERAING. 


133 


Coke-furnaces. — Four  groups  comprising  143  horizontal  kilns,  12 
groups  comprising  216  Appol  kilns,  3  hammers,  and  6  washers ;  6  steam- 
engines  to  pull  out  the  coke,  13  steam  engines  of  168  horse-power  col¬ 
lectively;  140  workmen.  Annual  production  of  coke,  140,000,000  kilo¬ 
grams. 

Iron-mines. — Thirty  mines  in  the  Belgian  provinces  of  Liege  and  Na¬ 
mur,  in  Luxembourg,  and  in  Spain.  Seventeen  engines,  equal  to  306 
horse  power:  800  workmen.  Annual  production  of  the  mines,  150,000,000 
kilograms. 

Blast-furnaces. — Five  blast-furnaces,  with  apparatus  for  heating  the 
air,  and  tapping-sheds  for  ordinary  casting,  .yielding  annually  55,000,000 
kilograms;  4  blast-furnaces  for  steel  pig  now  building;  15  engines,  col¬ 
lectively  of  480  horse-power;  300  workmen. 

Founderies. — Two  iron  fouuderies  and  one  of  copper,  2  workshops  for 
earthen  molding,  steam-cranes,  1,000,000  kilograms  fonndery  frames;  6 
engines,  of  90  horse-power  collectively;  280  workmen.  Annual  produc¬ 
tion,  5,000,000  kilograms. 

Iron  works. — Seventy-five  reverberatory  furnaces,  12  rollers,  7  ham¬ 
mers;  55  engines,  of  1,900  horse-power  collectively;  1,240  workmen; 
40,000,000  kilograms  in  rails,  girders,  bar  and  sheet  iron  as  annual  pro¬ 
duction. 

Steel -ivorks. — Ten  Bessemer  converters  from  5  to  7  tons,  6  of  which 
are  being  mounted  ;  16  reverberatory  furnaces,  7  hammers,  4  rollers  ;  46 
engines,  of  3,079  horse-power  collectively ;  560  workmen  ;  17,000,000 
kilograms  steel  as  annual  production,  before  the  use  of  the  unmounted 
apparatus. 

Forges. — Twelve  reverberatory  furnaces,  7  hammers,  70  forge-furnaces  5 
5  engines,  of  288  horsepower  ;  200  workmen;  1,500,000  kilograms  me¬ 
chanical  pieces  as  annual  production. 

Engine- shops. — Three  hundred  and  sixty-eight  lathes,  mortisers,  plau- 
ers,  perforators,  tap-borers;  5  machines  to  forge  bolts  and  screw-nuts  ; 
2  hydraulic  presses ;  moving-cranes,  stationary  steam-cranes,  and  others ; 
20  engines;  1  hammer  of  264  horsepower;  1,400  workmen;  7,000,000 
kilograms  machines  and  mechanical  apparatus  as  annual  production. 

Bridge  and  holler  building. — Fifty-five  drilling,  arching,  cutting,  plan  - 
ing,  canting,  and  clinching  machines  ;  3  hammers ;  54  forge  furnaces  ;  11 
engines,  of  120  horse  power  collectively;  510  workmen  ;  6,000,000  kilo¬ 
grams  boilers  and  bridges  of  various  kinds  as  annual  production. 

Antwerp  ship-building  yard. — Stock  of  tools  appropriate  for  a  ship¬ 
builder’s  yard,  covered  stocks,  rafts  and  boats,  shear,  slides  and  slips 
for  launching  sea  and  river  steamers  ;  steam-carpentry  and  joinery;  2  en¬ 
gines  of  15  horse-power;  680  workmen:  2,500,000  kilograms  naval  con¬ 
structions  as  annual  production. 

Interior  conveyances  and  forwarding. — Fifteen  locomotive-engines,  from 
10  to  15  horse-power,  employed  on  the  junctions  of  the  interior  rail¬ 
ways  with  the  North  line;  420  workmen  ;  60  horses,  15  of  which  in  the 
collieries. 


134 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


1L2.  Miscellaneous  statistics. — The  area  of  the  works  is  200  acres,  inter-  i 
sccted  with  22  kilometers  railways  of  large  section,  and  12  kilometers 
of  small;  containing,  besides,  a  basin  communicating  with  the  Meuse 
by  a  canal,  and  2  wharves.  . 

In  1872  there  were  8,912  people  occupied,  employes  and  workmen,  for 
all  the  works. 

There  were  251  steam-engines,  of  7,831  horse-power  in  all. 

The  wages  paid  annually  amount  to  8,500,000  francs. 

The  consumption  of  fuel  amounts  to  350,000,000  kilograms. 

The  production  of  the  divisions  is  25,000,000  to  30,000,000  francs. 

The  establishment  owns  on  the  heights  of  Seraing,  in  a  very  healthy  I 
situation,  a  vast  infirmary,  kept  by  nuns;  it  holds  eighty-five  beds.  A 
special  physician  is  attached  to  it.  An  orphan  asylum,  containing  at 
present  forty-one  children  of  both  sexes,  adjoins  it. 

The  establishment  possesses  also  a  dispensary,  which  delivers  medi-  i 
cines  gratuitously  to  the  persons  attached  to  its  works  and  their  families. 

In  each  division  there  is  a  refectory  established  after  the  best  manner,  [i 
for  the  meals  of  the  workmen  and  the  preservation  of  their  food  ;  some  I 

kitchens  are  added  to  several  of  these  refectories,  and  some  baths  are  t 

/ 

put  up  at  the  collieries  for  the  miners. 

Lastly,  a  society  for  relief  and  pensions  is  instituted,  without  being  ; 
compulsory,  for  the  people  of  the  works,  and  the  establishment  accords 
besides,  out  of  its  own  funds,  temporary  relief  and  pensions  to  the  work-  ■ 
men  and  employes  not  concerned  in  that  society. 

The  Seraing  works  have  constructed,  (January  1,  1S73:)  2,109  steam- 
engines,  from  4  to  GOO  horse-power,  for  all  manufacturing  purposes; 
900  locomotive-engines ;  31,500  sets  of  mechanical  apparatus  and  vari¬ 
ous  pieces  for  manufactories,  complements  for  factories,  repairs,  for  I 
mining,  the  reduction  of.ores,  the  fabrication  of  metals,  buildings,  sugar-  > 
works,  plate-glass  manufactories,  paper-mills,  spinning-mills,  trellis  and 
suspension  bridges,  iron-clad  turrets,  &c. 

The  ship-yardsof  Antwerp  and  St.  Petersburg  (the  latter  discontinued )  ! 
have  supplied  navigation  with  282  sea  and  river  steamers,  yachts,  mail- 
steamships,  steam-tugs,  pilot-boats,  light-ships,  dredging- machines,  trans- 
port-ships  for  travelers  and  merchandise,  transatlantic  packets,  floating 
docks  for  iron-clad  frigates  of  the  first  class  and  monitors. 

The  Cockerill  Company  has  facilities  and  implements  sufficient  to  sup¬ 
ply  annually  100  locomotives;  70  steam-engines,  from  4  to  1,000  horse¬ 
power  and  above,  for  maritime  navigation;  1,500  sets  of  mechanical 
constructions,  complete  works,  special  apparatus,  repairs,  &c. ;  6,000 
tons  various  bridges,  turn-tables,  &c. ;  sea  and  river  steamers  of  5,000 
tons  burden  altogether;  besides  the  surplus  not  consumed  in  its  works 
of  fuel,  oi'es,  cast  and  wrought  irou,  rails,  and  steel  above  mentioned. 

At  Liege,  by  the  initiative  of  Cockerill,  senior,  the  first  factory  for 
spinning-machines  was  established  on  the  continent,  and  at  Seraing,  by 
John  Cockerill,  the  first  coke  blast-furnace  and  the  first  puddling-fur- 


JOHN  COCKERILL  CO. - MARINE-ENGINES. 


135 


nace  was  put  into  operation,  and  afterward  the  first  coke-kilns  were 
erected  for  the  making  of  iron  after  the  Englisli  method. 

The  first  steam-engine,  and  afterward  the  first  locomotive-engine,  on 
the  continent  were  constructed  at  Seraing. 

From  1824,  besides  the  large  steam-engines  for  maritime  navigation, 
the  Cockerill  establishment  constructed  very  powerful  steam-engines 
for  the  drainage  of  the  collieries  of  the  Li6ge  Valley,  where  they  are 
still  working. 

The  establishment  has  been  constantly  improving,  and  has  from  its 
foundation  maintained  the  first  rank  for  its  various  productions,  as 
shown  by  its  uninterrupted  growth,  the  steady  increase  of  its  business, 
and  its  success  in  all  the  exhibitions  in  which  it  has  taken  part. 

It  exhibits  at  present  at  Vienna  the  following  constructions  and 
products : 

113.  Paclcet-boat  engine. — Marine  engine  of  220  nominal  horse-power  for 
the  mail-service  of  the  Belgian  government  between  Ostend  and  Dover. 

The  steamers  carrying  the  mail  between  Belgium  and  England  are 
remarkable  for  their  great  and  regular  speed,  their  accommodations, 
and,  above  all,  they  are  appreciated  for  their  nautical  qualities  in  stormy 
weather.  Their  speed  in  calm  weather  reaches  17  knots  an  hour,  and  is 
not  exceeded  by  that  of  any  other  Channel  steamer.  The  average  pas¬ 
sage  during  six  months,  between  Ostend  and  Dover,  has  been  4  hours 
4  minutes. 

This  result  is  not  inferior  to  that  of  the  steam-packets  between  Holy- 
head  and  Dublin,  of  2,000  tons,  with  engines  of  750  horse-power. 

This  speed  is  owing  to  the  perfect  forms  of  the  ships,  to  the  relative 
power,  to  the  combination  and  excellent  make  of  the  engines. 

The  latter  have  given  at  the  official  trials  a  power  stated  at  nearly 
1,600  horses. 

The  brilliant  success  obtained  by  the  first  of  these  ships,  supplied  in 
1866  to  the  Belgian  government,  the  Louise  Marie,  and  the  require¬ 
ments  of  the  mail-service,  induced  the  government  to  cause  seven  of  these 
steamers  to  be  built  without  the  least  change  of  model.  Six  are  running 
regularly,  The  engine  destined  for  the  seventh  is  at  the  exhibition. 

All  the  principal  forged  pieces  are  Bessemer  steel,  coming  from  the 
steel-works  of  the  Cockerill  Company,  such  as  the  shafts,  the  connecting- 
rods,  and  the  columns. 

The  ships  have  been  built  in  the  ship-yard  of  the  company  at 
Antwerp;  the  engines  in  the  works  at  Seraing.  Length  at  water-line, 
200  English  feet;  breadth,  extreme,  20  English  feet;  depth,  13  feet  3 
inches ;  register,  gross,  568  tons ;  draught  with  40  tons  of  coal,  7  feet ; 
register,  net,  505  tons. 

The  dimensions  of  the  engines  are  as  follows: 

Diameter  of  the  cylinders,  58  inches ;  stroke  of  pistons,  4  ft.  6  in. ;  ex 
treme  diameter  of  the  wheels,  21  feet;  breadth  of  the  paddles,  7  ft.  10 
in. ;  pressure  per  square  foot  of  the  boilers,  30  pounds. 

The  magnificent  steamer  Alexandre  II,  built  by  the  company  for  the 


136 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Volga,  is  provided  witli  engines  similar  to  those  exhibited.  That  ship 
is  the  first  “  People’s  Line”  steamer  navigating  the  European  rivers.* 

114.  Blowing-machines  for  blastfurnaces. — The  style  of  vertical  blow¬ 
ing-machine  used  is  peculiar  to  the  Cockerill  Company,  and  has  received 
the  name  of  “Seraing  system.” 

The  first  machine  of  that  system,  witli  higli  pressure,  without  expan¬ 
sion  or  condensing,  was  built  in  1853.  It  has  been  working  twenty  years 
without  requiring  any  other  than  ordinary  repairs. 

Since  that  epoch  this  style  of  engine  has  constantly  been  improved. 
The  condensing  and  expansion  in  two  Woolf-system  cylinders  has  been 
added.  The  results  obtained  have  been  such  that  the  machine  exhibited 
is  the  one  hundred  and  third  of  that  style  constructed  by  the  Cockerill 
Company,  besides  twenty-four  more  now  in  construction  in  the  Seraing 
works. 

The  number  would  be  much  greater  had  the  company  been  able  to 
fulfill  all  the  orders  received. 

The  advantages  of  the  system  come  from  the  direct  action  between 
the  impelling  aud  resisting  power,  from  the  great  length  of  the  strokes 
with  moderate  swiftness  of  the  pistons,  from  the  strong  expansion  ac¬ 
complished  in  two  cylinders,  and  from  the  condensation. 

The  blowing-machines  constructed  by  the  Cockerill  Company  vary 
much  in  size.  The  machine  exhibited  is  of  the  largest  model  hitherto 
built;  but  there  are  some  still  more  powerful  now  in  construction. 

The  wind-cylinder  of  the  machine  exhibited  is  3  meters  in  diameter, 
and  the  length  of  the  piston  stroke  is  2.44. 

In  usual  working,  the  machine  makes  124  revolutions  per  minute,  and 


’The  following  report  from  M.  Delconrt,  chief  engineer  of  the  naval  department, 
gives  an  idea  of  the  working  of  these  engines: 

“Antwerp,  February  6,  1875. 

“  Sir  :  You  request  me  by  your  letter  of  the  4th  instant  to  address  you  a  report  on  the 
working  of  the  oscillating  engiues  of  ‘220  horse-power  of  the  mail-boats  between  Ostend 
and  Dover. 

“I  am  happy  in  beiug  able  to  state  that  those  engines,  some  of  which  have  been 
working  nearly  six  years,  have  highly  satisfied  us,  and  answer  peculiarly  well  our 
special  service. 

“As  you  are  aware,  that  service  requires  a  perfect  regularity  aud  a  speed  maintained 
in  foul  weather.  Never  having  but  a  limited  number  of  boats,  considering  the  rapid 
increase  of  our  intercourse  with  England,  we  have  been  particularly  favored,  insomuch 
that,  except  a  few  contingencies,  the  keeping  in  repair  and  repairing  of  our  engines 
have  never  required  longer  than  the  time  allotted  for  the  usual  stoppage  of  our  steam¬ 
ers,  which  is  never  considerable.  To  give  you  an  idea  of  it,  the  Leopold  steamer  has 
performed  no  fewer  than  896  passages  between  Ostend  and  Dover,  and  vice  versa,  from 
March  4, 1869,  until  the  1st  of  January,  1873,  which  gives  a  distance  gone  over  of  about 
55,000  miles  of  1,355  meters. 

“In  short,  the  engines  of  our  mail-boats,  by  their  simplicity  and  their  excellent 
mouuting,  have  required  but  very  few  repairs,  and  have  allowed  us  to  perform  an  ex¬ 
cellent  uninterrupted  service,  notwithstanding  the  very  small  number  of  our  boats 
considering  the  great  quantity  of  passages  we  had  to  make. 

“I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 


“  To  the  Director-General.” 


“G.  DELCOUR, 

“Chief  Engineer  of  the  Xaval  Department. 


JOHN  COCKERILL  CO. - LOCOMOTIVES. 


137 


with  an  effective  pressure  to  the  boilers  of  4  atmospheres,  it  gives,  per 
minute,  250  cubic  meters  of  wind  with  a  pressure  of  20  centimeters. 

The  Cockerill  Company  builds  also  powerful  vertical  blowing-engines 
for  Bessemer-steel-works,  compressing  the  wind  at  1£  effective  atmos¬ 
pheres. 

The  productions  of  the  Seraing  founderies  being  altogether  remarkable 
for  the  beauty  of  the  workmanship  and  of  the  molding,  and  the  absence 
of  defects,  a  rough  column  of  blowing-machine,  such  as  it  comes  out  of 
the  mold,  is  also  exhibited,  and  is  truly  a  fine  piece  of  casting. 

115.  Locomotive-engines  for  the  railway  company  of  Upper  Italy. — Di¬ 
mensions  of  the  engine  :  number  of  wheels,  all  moving,  6  ;  diameter  of 
wheels,  1.31  meters ;  space  between  wheels,  3.37 ;  diameter  of  cylinders, 
0.45  meter;  stroke  of  pistons,  0.G5.  Furnaces:  interior  height,  1.60 
meters  ;  depth,  1.265  ;  breadth,  1.086.  Brass  tubes  :  number,  195 ; 
length  between  plates,  2.25  meters ;  exterior  diameter,  0.05  meter.  In¬ 
terior  diameter  of  the  boiler,  1.33  meters;  weight  of  the  empty  engine, 
30,674  kilograms ;  weight  of  the  loaded  engine,  34,376  kilograms.  Ex¬ 
treme  dimensions:  length,  8.542  meters ;  breadth,  2.900;  height,  4.260. 

The  locomotive-engine  is  exhibited  as  a  specimen  of  good  construction 
and  of  perfection  of  workmanship. 

The  company  has  supplied  the  railway  company  of  High-Italy  with 
forty-seven  engines  of  this  style,  and  is  now  constructing  twenty-four  for 
the  same  railways. 

Small  locomotive-engines  for  stations  and  service  of  the  worlcs. — The  Cock¬ 
erill  Company  has  constructed  within  three  years  small  locomotive-en¬ 
gines  with  vertical  boilers  for  the  interior  traffic  of  its  works. 

The  excellent  results  obtained,  as  well  for  the  service  as  for  economy, 
have  been  so  successful  that  sixty-three  of  these  engines  have  been  sup¬ 
plied  to  manufacturers,  and  a  dozen  are  in  construction. 

Ten  engines  of  that  style,  besides  more  powerful  ones  previously  con¬ 
structed,  are  employed  for  the  traffic  in  the  Seraing  Works. 

The  company  constructs  three  types  of  these  engines.  The  first  can 
draw,  horizontally,  a  load  (engine  not  included)  of  60  tons  ;  the  second 
draws,  under  the  same  conditions,  90  tons ;  and  the  third,  160  tons.  The 
engine  exhibited  is  of  type  No.  II. 

The  dimensions  are  as  follows:  Number  of  wheels  all  coupled,  4; 
diameter  of  wheels,  0.605  meter ;  space  between  the  axle-trees,  1.400 
meters ;  diameter  of  pistons,  0.200 ;  stroke  of  pistons,  0.250  ;  total  fire- 
surface,  8  square  meters;  contents  of  the  water-tanks,  0.675  meters; 
contents  of  the  coal-bunkers,  0.195 ;  rough  weight,  when  used,  7,500 
kilograms  ;  length,  2.220  meters ;  breadth,  2.110  meters  ;  height  on  rails, 
3.150  meters. 

116.  Perforators  for  mining  or  rocli- drills. — From  the  beginning  of  the 
boring  of  Mount  Cenis,  the  Cockerill  Company  participated  in  that  great 
work. 

The  first  air-compressed  engines  used  at  the  Coscia,  at  Genoa,  as  trial, 
were  constructed  at  Seraing. 


138 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

The  excellent  results  obtained,  the  great  productive  means  of  the 
company,  and  the  active  concourse  that  the  illustrious  author  of  the  bor¬ 
ing  of  the  Alps,  Mr.  G.  Sommeiller,  met  atSeraing,  induced  the  Italian 
government  to  intrust  the  Cockerill  Company  with  the  construction  of 
all  the  mechanical  working-stock,  without  exception,  necessary  for  the 
boring  of  the  great  tunnel. 

The  company  has  supplied  for  the  boring  of  the  Alps  more  than  four 
million  francs’  worth  in  engines  of  all  kinds  ;  wheels,  water-wheels,  wa¬ 
ter-column  engines,  compression-machines,  perforators,  air  and  water 
conveyers,  &e. 

The  construction  of  air-compressed  engines  and  perforation  by  ma¬ 
chinery  has  since  become  a  special  branch,  carried  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection. 

Fifty  compressing-engines  have  been  constructed  in  its  works,  more  » 
than  five  hundred  perforators  have  been  sold  to  manufactories,  and  nu-  j 
merous  machines  of  that  kind  are  now  in  construction.  Mechanical  drill¬ 
ing  has  greatly  increased  of  late.  The  Cockerill  Company  uses  it  in  its  I 
collieries,  and  it  has  supplied  the  Belgian  and  French  collieries,  &c.,  with  i 
many  complete  sets,  and  is  continually  receiving  orders  for  machines  of  I 
that  kind. 

Appreciating  the  experience  acquired  by  the  Cockerill  Company,  and 
acknowledging  the  superiority  of  the  system,  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel 
Company  made  an  agreement  for  the  supply  of  a  part  of  the  compress¬ 
ing  and  perforating  machines  it  requires. 

Two  drilling-machines  are  exhibited. 

The  first  has  a  certain  historical  interest.  It  is  one  of  the  machines  I 
employed  by  Sommeiller  at  Mount  Cenis,  where  it  has  been  for  a  long 
while  in  use. 

The  second  is  a  simplification  and  modification,  made  from  that  of 
Mount  Cenis,  by  MM.  Dubois  and  Francois,  engineers  at  Seraiug.  This  1 
perforating-machine  is  constructed  by  the  Cockerill  Company  for  mines, 
aud  has  been  chosen  for  the  boriug  of  the  St.  Gothard. 

117.  Steel  and  iron  forgings. — The  production  of  large  forgings  (the 
crank-axles  for  locomotives,  the  crank-shafts  for  sea  and  river  steam¬ 
boats,  the  locomotive  and  wagon  wheels,  &c.,  iu  short,  the  mechanical 
forgings  of  all  sizes  aud  shapes)  has  always  been  one  of  the  branches 
for  which  the  Seraiug  works  have  enjoyed  merited  reputation. 

The  fabrication  of  locomotive  aud  wagon-wheels  principally,  forms  a 
special  branch  of  the  large  forges  of  Seraing,  by  a  peculiar  process  for 
which  the  company  has  patents. 

As  specimens  of  its  usual  manufacture,  the  Cockerill  Company  exhib¬ 
its  a  moviug-wheel  of  1.30  meters  diameter,  weighing  7S3  kilograms  ;  a 
wheel  of  locomotive-engine  2.20  meters  diameter  at  the  revolving  circle, 
weighing  731  kilograms:  a  locomotive- wheel,  wrought-irou  plate,  1  me- 

er  diameter,  gross  weight  520  kilograms;  a  box  for  locomotive-engine, 
weighing  79  kilograms;  a  head  of  locomotive-piston,  weighing  75  kilo¬ 
grams;  a  support  for  locomotive-slide,  weighing  95  kilograms. 


JOHN  COCKERILL  WORKS — STEEL  PRODUCTION.  139 


118.  Production  of  the  steel-ioorJcs. — The  Cockerill  Company  lias  long 
had  in  its  establishments  of  Seraing  a  considerable  steel-work  ;  vast 
buildings  for  its  enlargement  will  soon  be  finished. 

That  part  of  the  works  supplies  the  other  parts  of  the  establishment 
for  the  construction  of  machines  and  manufactures  with  special  produc¬ 
tions  of  varied  forms. 

Eails,  tires,  machinery  of  every  kind  and  size,  gun-barrels,  guns,  and 
hoops  for  large-caliber  guns  are  manufactured  there. 

As  specimens  of  finished  mechanical  pieces,  the  Cockerill  Company 
exhibits  the  x>istou-rods,  connecting-rods,  cranks,  crank  shafts,  levers, 
pivots,  &c.,  of  the  marine  engine  which  it  exhibits,  and  also,  as  special 
productions  of  usual  workmanship,  rails,  tires,  springs,  straight  and 
crank  axles,  steel  plates  ;  a  steel  hoop  with  trunnions  for  cast-iron  gun 
of  large  size,  (an 80-pounder,  diameter,  0.2T  meter);  a  steel  hoop  without 
trunnion  for  the  same  gun.  These  hoops  are  destined  for  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  Netherlands.  A  field-piece  ;*  an  assortment  of  gun-barrels  ; 
a  collection  of  various  patterns. 

*  Summing  up  of  the  experiments  made  by  the  Belgian  government  with  a  Bessemer-steel  gun 
of  the  John  Cockerill  Company. — The  experiments  have  been  divided  into  two  series  ; 
the  object  of  the  first  series  was  to  ascertain  the  liarduess  of  the  steel,  the  second  series 
the  resistance  to  the  corrosive  action  of  the  gases  and  powder,  audthe  absolute  resist¬ 
ance  of  the  steel,  (cohesiveness,  resistance  to  bursting.) 

The  gun  was  at  first  bored  caliber  4,  so  as  to  be  able  to  take  off  the  impressions  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  first  firing. 

Ten  shots  with  IX  kilograms  powder,  1  waddiDg,  with  box  for  ball,  weighing  3.3 
kilograms. 

Five  shots  with  the  same  load  and  some  debris  of  projectiles  inclosed  in  linen  bags. 

After  this  firing,  the  piece  was  brought  back  to  the  royal  gun-foundery  to  be  exam¬ 
ined  and  bored  caliber  6,  (95.5  millimeters.) 

No  apparent  damage  could  be  discovered. 

Second  series. — Five  shots  with  1  kilogram  powder,  1  wadding,  1  ball;  5  shots  with 
IX  kilograms  powder,  1  wadding,  1  ball ;  5  shots  with  IX  kilograms  powder,  2  waddings, 

2  balls;  5  shots  with  IX  kilograms  powder,  3  waddings,  3  balls  ;  5  shots  with  IX  kilo¬ 
grams  powder,  4  waddings,  4  balls;  5  shots  with  IX  kilograms  powder,  5  waddings, 

5  balls;  5  shots  with  IX  kilograms  powder,  6  waddings,  6  balls;  5  shots  with  2  kilo¬ 
grams  powder,  6  waddings,  6  balls;  10  shots  with  3  kilograms  powder,  5  waddings,  5 
balls. 

The  experiments  determined  by  the  war-minister  being  terminated,  the  gun  was 
brought  back  to  the  foundery  to  be  examined. 

No  apparent  injury  was  ascertained  by  this  examination. 

The  officers  of  artillery  composing  the  board  asked  the  war-minister  for  his  consent 
to  continue  the  experiments.  The  firing  was  renewed  in  the  following  manner :  5  shots 
with  3  kilograms  powder,  6  waddings,  6  balls;  5  shots  with  3.5  kilograms  powder, 

6  waddings, 6  balls;  5  shots  with  3.5  kilograms  powder,  7  waddings,  7  balls ;  5  shots 
with  4  kilogram#  powder,  7  waddings,  7  balls ;  10  shots  with  4  kilograms  pow'dor,  8 
waddings,  8  halls. 

With  the  load  of  4  kilograms,  8  wmddiugs,  and  8  balls,  the  gun  w* 2 * * * 6 7as  filled  to  the 
muzzle. 

The  gun  was  again  brought  back  to  the  foundery  and  examined.  It  was  ascertained 
that  the  bore  was  very  nearly  intact. 

The  board,  struck  by  the  extraordinary  resistance  of  that  gun,  declared  that  Besse¬ 
mer  steel  was  every  way  proper  for  the  fabrication  of  field-pieces. 


140 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

119.  Models  of  boats  and  floating  lock-gate. — The  works  have  from  their 
beginning  been  engaged  in  constructions  for  river  aud  maritime  naviga¬ 
tion. 

The  ship-yards  of  Antwerp  aud  St.  Petersburg  (the  latter  discon¬ 
tinued)  have  supplied  navigation,  as  previously  stated,  with  282  sea 
and  river  steamers,  which  have  generally  fulfilled,  as  to  solidity,  ele-  \ 
gance  of  form,  complete  internal  arrangements,  means  of  propulsion 
and  accommodations,  all  the  conditions  stipulated  in  the  agreements,  i 
The  two  iron-clad  monitors  with  turrets,  propellers,  and  machine  for 
turrets,  air-exhausters,  gun-carriages,  centrifugal  pumps  aud  accesso-  I 
ries  supplied  to  Russia  in  1S01,  had  been  ordered  on  the  ISth  of  June,  | 
1803.  They  were  forwarded  to  be  mounted  to  St.  Petersburg  at  the  , 
end  of  October,  1803,  and  were  delivered  to  the  imperial  Russian  gov¬ 
ernment  completely  remounted  and  armed,  after  trial,  on  June  13,  18G4> 
(in  less  than  one  year.) 

The  company  can  build  annually  fourteen  sea  and  river  steamers  of 
any  burden. 

The  models  exhibited  belong  to  some  of  its  most  remarkable  con¬ 
structions. 

The  company  exhibits  a  floating  lock-gate  and  some  models  of  steam¬ 
ers. 

The  floating  lock-gate  is  intended  for  the  canal  of  the  Danube  at 
Vienna.  It  is  to  prevent  the  pieces  of  ice  coming  from  the  breaking  up 
of  the  main  river  entering  the  arm  called  the  “canal,”  from  collecting 
there,  and  thus  causing  the  low  parts  of  the  town  to  be  overflowed. 

The  lock-gate  is  133.1  Vienna  feet  in  length,  30  in  breadth,  and  18  feet 
in  height.  The  iron  used  for  its  construction  weighs  300  tons  of  1,000 
kilograms.  It  has  been  constructed  from  the  draughts  of  G.  de  Engerth, 

C.  E..  an  aulic  councilor  and  member  of  the  board  for  the  improvement 
of  the  Danube. 

The  statement  which  this  board  makes  of  its  labors  gives  all  the  de¬ 
tails  concerning  it. 

What  principally  characterizes  the  specialty  of  the  works,  work¬ 
shops,  and  ship-building  yards  of  the  Cockerill  Company  is  the  supply 
of  all  the  working-stock  necessary  to  railways;  of  all  the  implements 
for  metallurgical  works,  snch  as  blast-furnaces,  iron  and  steel  factories, 
or  for  mechanical  works,  steam-engines,  stocks  of  tools,  in  short,  of  all 
steamers,  dredging-machines,  lighters,  machines  necessary  for  the  exe¬ 
cution  of  a  work  such  as  that  of  the  Suez  Canal,  or  of  engines  of  any 
kind,  with  or  without  steam,  propellers,  machines  and  working-stock  for 
the  boring  of  Mount  Cenis  tunnel.  The  company  also’  send  for  such 
undertakings  persons  peculiarly  suited  for  mounting,  putting  in  work¬ 
ing-order,  or  the  supervision  of  the  various  machines  which  they  supply. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE  IRON  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRY  OF  SWEDEN. 

The  completeness  and  extent  of  the  display  ;  General  view  of  the  production  ; 
The  Fagersta  Steel-Works;  List  of  objects  shown;  Analyses  of  the  ores_ 
used:  Composition  of  the  steel  of  various  grades;  Fagersta  steel  gun-bar¬ 
rels;  Notice  of  Kirkaldy’s  experiments  and  memoir  ;  Examples  of  pulling- 

stress  UPON  PLATES  ANNEALED  AND  UNANNEALED;  BULGED  PLATES;  WlKMAN- 

shytta  steel;  Condition  of  the  iron-manufacture  in  Sweden;  Professor 
Ackerman’s  memoir ;  The  distribution  of  iron-ore;  Sources  of  fuel;  Trans¬ 
portation;  English  coke;  Water-power;  Geological  association  of  the 
ores;  Production  of  iron-ores  and  localities;  Methods  and  costs  of  min¬ 
ing  ;  Bog-ore  and  limonite  ;  Pig-iron  ;  Transportation  ;  Bar  iron  and  steel  ; 
Bessemer  steel  ;  Martin’s  steel,  cement  steel,  etc.  ;  Rolling-mills  ;  Statistics 
of  production  ;  Chemical  composition  of  Swedish  ores. 

120.  The  Swedish  iron  industry. — The  Swedish  contribution  is 
characterized  by  the  number  aud  excellence  of  the  specimens  of  ores,  in 
large  square  blocks,  which  form  a  very  appropriate  foundation  for  taste¬ 
fully-arranged  pyramids  of  bar  iron  and  steel.  It  is  the  best  collection 
of  magnetic  and  specular  ores  in  the  exhibition,  and  was  made,  at  the 
cost  of  the  Swedish  Iron  Association,  by  Professor  Ackerman,  author  of 
an  interesting  brochure  upon  the  production  of  iron  in  that  country. 
Bessemer  steel  and  Martin’s  steel,  in  ingots  and  bars,  are  also  prominent 
objects  in  the  collection.  Here,  too,  is  found  a  very  complete  series  of 
samples  of  the  celebrated  Dannemora  steel,  and  specimens  illustrating 
each  stage  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  from  granulated  pig-iron,  pow¬ 
dered  ore,  and  powdered  coal.  There  is  an  extensive  display  also  of 
spiegel  iron  from  Schisshyttan,  containing  from  16  to  20  per  cent,  of 
manganese.  The  production  of  iron-ores  in  Sweden  in  the  year  1871 
reached  662,888  tons;  of  bar-iron,  187,000  tons;  of  Bessemer  steel,  8,000 
tons.  The  production  has  been  steadily  increasing,  and  will  be  much 
greater  for  the  year  1873. 

121.  Fagersta  Steel-Works. — This  well-known  establishment  was 
well  represented  by  the  materials  used  and  the  products,  as  will  be  seen 
by  the  following  list,  which  includes  the  remarkable  series  of  test-speci¬ 
mens  shown  from  the  testing-works  of  Mr.  David  Kirkaldy : 

Bessemer  steel  from  the  Fagersta  Steel-  Works,  manufactured  without  alloy 
ofu  Spiegeleisenf  or  of  other  cast  iron. — (1.)  Iron-ores,  not  roasted;  iron- 


142 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

ores,  roasted;  lime;  pig-iron,  with  the  blast-furnace  slag  appertaining 
thereto. * 

(2.)  Steel  ingot,  IS  “  turn”  (21  inches)  square,  planed ;  series  of  S 
■‘tum’  (9£  inch)  ingots,  fractured,  of  various  degrees  of  hardness, 
with  the  steel  slag  appertaining  thereto;*  series  of  forged  blooms,  frac¬ 
tured  ;  plate  blooms,  fractured. 

(3.)  Pyramid  :  Side  A,  saw-blades;  side  13,  steel  for  machinery,  square 
and  round,  from  J  to  5  ‘‘turn”  (TV  to  5^  inches)  in  diameter;  side  C, 
rails  for  tramways  and  angle-irons;  side  D,  steel  for  springs,  from  1£ 
to  5  “  tum’’  (1^  to  5-fr  inches)  in  breadth. 

(4.)  For  mechanical  and  engineering  works,  heavy  axles,  crank-shafts, 
other  forgings  for  machinery. 

(3.)  Kailway  material:  Axles,  springs,  buffers,  (American  patent.) 

(0.)  a.  Steel  for  tools  and  implements;  b.  Mining  implements,  (bores 
and  sledges;)  c.  Gun-barrels;  d.  Five  gun-barrels,  subjected  to  severe 
testing  experiments  at  Carl  Gustafs  Stad  Gun-Manufactory,  as  de¬ 
scribed  in  the  annexed  statement;  e.  Gun-barrel,  proved  at  the  Husq- 
varna  Gun-Manufactory,  as  described  in  the  annexed  statement ;  /.  A 
series  showing  the  different  stages  in  the  process  of  manufacturing  gun- 
barrels;  (j.  A  series  of  fractures  made  on  steel  bars  of  1  “  tum"(ltf  in¬ 
ches)  square,  of  various  degrees  of  hardness;  h.  A  series  of  Bessemer 
products,  taken  at  different  periods  during  the  blow ;  i.  Plates  for 
heliography :  (a.)  Polished  plates ;  (b.)  Samples  of  heliographed  plates, 
together  with  impressions. 

(7.)  Steel  ot  different  forms,  and  of  various  degrees  of  hardness, 
proved,  as  regards  its  strength,  at  Mr.  D.  Kirkaldy’s  testing  establish¬ 
ment,  London,  by  experiments  in  tension,  beuding,  compression,  torsion, 
&c.  A  statement  of  the  results  is  contained  in  special  tables,  which  are 
distributed  on  application  to  the  secretary  of  the  Swedish  exhibition. 

122.  The  iron-ores  and  limestone  employed  at  the  cliarcoal-blast  fur¬ 
naces  at  Westaufors  and  Fagersta  consist  of  the  following  component 
parts : 


Iron-ore  from  the  mines  of— 

Limestone 

from 

Hedkarra. 

Ostra  Stor- 
tiigten. 

Gran  rot. 

GrOudal. 

27.  40 

3. 10 

6. 35 

10.82 

J.  30 

2.  05 

1.  15 

7. 15 

2. 16 

1.  20 

2.  65 

36.  61 

1.  76 

1.  05 

3.  85 

6.  86 

0.  81 

10.  40 

5.  50 

1.25 

20.  74 

23.  56 

22.  82 

46. 14 

52.  44 

50.  78 

6.  10 

5.  95 

37. 18 

0.016 

0.009 

0.014 

0.  007 

100. 416 

99.909 

99.  064 

99.  877 

‘  For  analysis,  see  Annex  No.  1. 


FAGERSTA  STEEL- WORKS. 


143 


The  average  chemical  composition  formed  by  the  mixture  of  these 
iron-ores  with  the  limestone,  employed  as  flux,  is  as  follows  : 


Per  cent. 

Oxygen. 

Oxygen. 

Silica . . . . 

. ..  11.93 

6.37 

Alumina . 

. . . .  2. 50 

1.16 

Lime . 

...  7.51 

7.53 

2. 14 

Magnesia  . . 

...  2. 76 

1.10 

Protoxide  of  manganese. 

. . .  5.  63 

1.27 

Protoxide  of  iron . 

...  19.76 

4.51 

Sesquioxide  of  iron . . 

....  43.89 

Carbonic  acid . . 

. . . .  6.  02 

Phosphoric  acid . .  0.013 

Such  a  charge  yields,  upon  smelting,  from  48  to  50  per  ceut.  of  pig- 
iron,  which  is  tapped  direct  from  the  blast-furnace  into  the  Bessemer 
converters,  and  consists  on  the  average  of  the  folio wing'component  parts : 


Per  cent. 

Carbon,  combined . . . .  3. 460 

Carbon,  graphitic . 1.289 

Silicon .  0.771 

Manganese  . .  4. 491 

Phosphorus . . .  0. 027 

Sulphur . trace. 


The  blast-furnace  slag  contains  : 


Oxygen. 

Oxygen. 

Silica . 

.  41.96 

22.  83 

Alumina  . . . . 

. . .  7.  02 

3. 27 

Lime . . 

.  25.04 

25.  65 

7.16 

Magnesia  . . . . 

. .  17.75 

7.09 

25.  65 

Protoxide  of 

manganese _  6.  57 

1.48 

15.  78 

Protoxide  of 

iron .  0. 23 

0.  05 

Alkalies _ . 

. not  determined. 

15.  78 

98. 57 


=  1.62 


As  no  alloy  of  specular  iron  ( Spiegeleisen )  or  of  ordinary  cast  iron 
is  employed,  the  “blow”  must  be  stopped  when  the  proportion  of  carbon 
in  the  steel  is  reduced  to  the  proper  degree.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
steel  is  entirely  free  from  red-shortness. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  chemical  compositions  of  the  various 
classes  of  steel  employed  for  the  purposes  specified: 


Carbon. 

Silicon. 

Manganese. 

Phosphorus.  J 

Sulphur. 

(a)  Steel  for  soft  plates,  railway-axles,  &c . 

1  ercent 
0.  085 

Per  cent 
0.  008 

Per  cent 
Trace. 

Per  cent 
0.  025 

Trace. 

(5)  Steel  for  gun-barrels,  shafts,  &o . 

0. 25 

0.  036 

0.  234 

0.  022 

Trace. 

(c)  Soft  steel  for  tools — saws,  &c . 

0.  70 

0.032 

0.  256 

0.  023 

Trace. 

(<i)  Hard  steel  for  tools— chisels,  turning-tools,  &c . 

1.  05 

0.067 

0.  355 

0.028 

Trace. 

144 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Au  analysis  of  the  slag  from  the  converter,  taken  at  the  close  of  the 
process,  shows  its  composition  to  be  as  follows: 


Silica . . . 

Alumina . . 

Lime . 

Magnesia . 

Protoxide  of  manganese 
Protoxide  of  iron . 


4G.  70 
4. 24 
0. 48 
0.17 
32.  37 
15.  63 


99.  59 

“I,  the  undersigned,  hereby  certify,  oil  requisition  to  that  effect,  that 
barrels  manufactured  at  the  Fagersta  Steel-Works  have,  for  about  the 
last  three  years,  been  exclusively  employed  for  the  small  fire-arms  con¬ 
structed  at  the  Swedish  Government  Gun  Manufactory  for  the  supply 
of  the  army,  and  that  such  barrels  are  still  employed  for  the  fire-arms 
now  in  course  of  construction  at  the  said  manufactory. 

“Stockholm,  the  tenth  day  of  April,  1873. 

“  C.  G.  BREITIIOLTZ, 

“  Master  of  the  Ordnance ,  ( “Fill tty  gin as ta re.”) 

“Since  the  commencement  of  the  year  1S71,  the  Husqvarna  Arms 
Manufactory  has  taken  its  requisite  supply  of  gun-barrels  from  the 
Fagersta  Steel-Works,  and  found  the  said  barrels,  both  as  regards 
material  and  make,  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 

“  On  behalf  of  the  Husqvarna  Arms  Manufactory  Company,  (Limited,) 
“  VICTOR  ANKARCRONA,  Managing  Director 

123.  Fagersta  steel  gun-barrels. — The  following  is  the  report  of 
the  proving-experiments  upou  barrels  manufactured  at  the  Fagersta 
Steel- Works,  made  at  the  Carl  Gustaf’s  Stad’s  Gun  Manufactory,  in  the 
mouth  of  May,  1S72: 

“The  barrels  were  proved  in  theproviug-houseof  the  manufactory  with 
gunpowder  from  the  Aker’s  Gunpowder-Mills,  of  the  make  of  1865.  The 
testing-balls  employed  weighed  6  ‘  ort,’  (7  drams  11  grains  avoirdupois,) 
and  were  0.42  ‘  decimal  turn’  inch)  in  diameter. 

“  First,  three  barrels,  ISTos.  1,  2,  and  3,  turned  and  bored  as  delivered 
from  the  steel-works  to  the  guu-manufactory,  were  loaded  and  discharged. 

“  In  previous  experiments  with  barrels  from  the  Fagersta  Steel- Works, 
it  had  been  found  that  no  remarkable  effect  was  produced  until  1  ball 
and  a  charge  of  9  ‘ort’  (1  ouuce  2  drams  2  scruples  7  grains)  were 
employed.  The  experiments,  therefore,  commenced — after  the  ordinary 
proof,  a  testing-ball  and  a  charge  of  4.5  ‘ort,’  (5  drams  1  scruple  3 
grains) — with  the  above-mentioned  ball  and  a  charge  of  9  ‘ort,’  (1 
ouuce  2  drams  2  scruples  7  grains;)  after  which  the  number  of  balls 
was  increased  to  9,  with  the  same  charge.  The  result  was,  that  in  two 
of  the  barrels  the  power-gas  did  not  force  out  the  balls,  but  escaped 


FAGERSTA  STEEL  GUN-BARRELS.  145 

through  the  touch-hole.  These  barrels  were  reloaded  and  discharged 
with  the  same  result. 

“After  the  lead  had  been  melted  away  from  the  inside  of  these  bar¬ 
rels,  the  experiments  were  continued  with  all  three ;  the  balls,  however, 
being  placed  at  the  muzzles.  This  proof  commenced  with  1  ball  and  a 
charge  of  0.5  ‘  ort,7  (1  scruple  16  grains,)  and  ceased  when  the  charge 
had  been  increased  to  6  ‘ort7  (7  drams  11  grains)  and  the  number  of 
balls  to  5. 

“  In  the  following  minutes  the  results  of  the  experiments  are  more  fully 
stated. 

“  Subsequently,  3  finished  barrels,  Nos.  ISOS,  2511,  and  2635,  were 
loaded  and  discharged. 

“Barrel  No.  1808,  after  having  been  subjected  to  the  ordinary  proof,  was 
discharged  with  the  usual  sharp  cartridge,  and  a  testing-ball,  placed  27 
‘turn7  (31^  inches)  from  the  chamber-end  of  the  barrel.  The  only 
result  was,  that  a  considerable  protuberance  was  produced  at  the  seat 
of  the  ball. 

“Barrel  No.  2511  (rejected  on  account  of  defective  make)  was  sub¬ 
jected  to  a  similar  proof,  with  the  same  result. 

“  Barrel  No.  2635  burst  in  the  proof.  In  this  experiment  a  testing-ball 
was  emjdoyed,  and  the  charge  was  increased  from  1  ‘ort7  (1  dram  12 
grains)  to  16  ‘  ort,7  (2  ounces  3  drams  10  grains,)  when  the  barrel  burst, 
after  having  borne  fourteen  times  the  charge  for  which  it  was  con¬ 
structed. 

“  Carl  Gustaf’s  Stad,  the  25th  day  of  May,  1872. 

“  F.  G.  TBEFFENBERG, 

“  Lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Gota  Artillery , 

“  Working- Officer  at  the  Carl  Gustaf’s  Stad  Gun-Manufactory ,77 

10  I 


146 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Minutes  taken,  May,  1872,  at  the  proving  of  gun-barrels  ( Xos .  1,  2,  and  3)  manufactured  at 

the  Fagersta  Steel  Works. 


Number  of 
discharges. 

Weight  of  the 
chargehn  Swe¬ 
dish  "ort,"  (1 
ort  =  1  dram 
12  grains, 
avoirdupois.) 

Number  of 
balls. 

Observations. 

1 

4.5 

1 

Barrels  unnfl'ected. 

o 

9 

1 

A  slight  enlargement  was  produced  in  all  the  barrals,  at  the 
seat  of  the  ball. 

3 

9 

O 

1 

4 

0 

3 

The  above-named  enlargement  was  increased,  and  the  cali- 

5 

9 

4 

her  on  each  side  of  the  seat  of  the  ball  was  also  somewhat 

(3 

9 

5 

increased ;  in  addition  to  which,  at  the  fourth  discharge 

7 

9 

c 

of  barrel  No.  3,  a  protuberance  was  produced  before  the 

8 

9 

7 

seat  ot  the  ball. 

9 

9 

8 

J 

10 

9 

9 

f  he  powder  ^as  escaped  through  the  touch-holes  of  barrels 
Nos.  1  and  2,  without  the  balls  being  removed  from  their 
seats :  while  in  barrel  No.  3  the  balls  were  discharged. 

11 

9 

9 

Only  barrels  Nos.  1  and  2  were  loaded  and  discharged,  with 
the  same  results  as  in  the  preceding  proof. 

With  the  balls  at  the  muzzles  of  the  barrels. 

1 

0.5 

i 

The  nowder  gas  escaped  through  the  touch  hole. 

The  balls  were  discharged  ;  the  barrels  unaffected. 

o 

1 

i 

3 

1 

2 

Do. 

4 

/ 

1 

3 

An  enlargement  was  produced  in  the  barrels  at  the  seats  of 
the  balls. 

5 

1 

*  4 

The  powder-gas  escaped  from  the  touch-hole  of  barrel  No.  2. 
The  V>alls  were  discharged  from  barrel  No.  2. 

i> 

4 

7 

o 

5 

The  powder-gas  escaped  from  the  touch-hole  of  barrel  No.  2. 

8 

3 

5 

The  powder-gas  escaped  from  the  touch-hole  of  barrel  No.  1. 

9 

4 

5 

A  protuberance  was  produced  in  barrel  No.  3  at  the  seat  of 
the  ball. 

10 

5 

5 

A  protuberance  was  produced  in  barrel  No.  1  at  the  scat  of 
the  ball. 

11 

6 

5 

A  protuberance  was  produced  in  barrel  No.  2  at  the  seat  of 
the  ball. 

Carl  Gustafs  Stad,  25th  May,  1872. 


F.  G.  TREFFENBERG, 
Lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Gbta  Artillery, 
Working  Officer  at  the  Carl  Gustafs  Stad's  Gun-Manufactory. 


■  “On  the  27th  of  March,  1SG9,  a  steel  gau-barrel  manufactured  at  the 
Fagersta  Steel-Works  was  subjected  to  testing-experiments  at  the  Hus- 
qvana  Gun-Manufactory,  in  the  presence  of  the  undersigned,  and  during 
the  progress  of  the  experiments  the  following  observations  were  noted  : 

“1st  proof:  A  charge  of  guupower  14  ‘lod,’  (5  drams  1  scruple  16 
grains  avoirdupois,)  1  testing-ball. 

“2d  proof:  A  charge  of  gunpowder  3  ‘lod,’  (1  ounce  3  drams  12 
grains,)  2  testing-balls. 

“3d  proof:  A  charge  of  gunpowder  3  Mod,’  (1  ounce  3  drams  12: 
grains,)  3  testing-balls. 

“  The  above  three  proofs  were  discharged  without  any  remarkable 
result. 

“4th  proof:  3Mod’(l  ouuce  3  drams  12  grains)  of  gunpowder,  4 
testing-balls.  Kesult:  The  powder-gas  escaped  through  the  touch-hole, , 
the  balls  remaiued  in  the  barrel,  and  had  to  be  removed  by  melting. 

“5th  proof:  44  Mod,’  (2  ounces  2  scruples  S  grains)  4  testing-balls. 
I7o  effect  on  the  barrel. 

“  Gth  proof:  1J  Mod’ (5  drains  1  scruple  16  grains)  of  gunpowder. 


FAGERSTA  STEEL- — KIRKALDY’s  EXPERIMENTS.  147 

One  ball  was  forced  into  a  position  of  ‘verktum’  (7£  inches)  from 
the  muzzle.  Result :  A  protuberance  in  the  form  of  an  egg  was  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  barrel,  at  the  seat  of  the  ball. 

“7th  proof:  3  ‘lod’  (1  ounce  3  drams  12  grains)  of  gunpowder.  A 
ball  was  driven  into  a  position  of  1  1  verktum’  (1  inch)  from  the  muzzle. 
Result :  The  same  as  in  the  previous  proof,  viz,  the  barrel  was  enlarged 
at  the  seat  of  the  ball. 

“8th  proof:  3 ‘lod’ (1  ounce  3  drams  12  grains)  of  gunpowder.  The 
ball  at  the  muzzle.  Result :  The  enlargement  above  described,  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  seventh  proof,  was  extended  by  the  eighth  proof  almost 
to  the  muzzle. 

“  Notwithstanding  the  barrel,  after  the  discharge  of  each  of  the  above 
proofs,  was  carefully  examined,  no  other  results  could  be  discovered 
than  those  above  described. 

“Lastly,  it  should  be  observed  that  the  balls  employed  weighed 
originally  G.65  £ort,’  (7  drams  2  scruples  18  grains,)  but  after  they  had 
been  forced  into  their  positions,  and,  consequently,  part  of  their  sub¬ 
stance  had  fallen  off,  they  only  weighed  5.50  ‘ort,’  (G  drams  1  scruple 
15  grains.) 

“  Husqvarna,  dated  as  above,  and  signed  by  B.  Munck,  colonel,  re¬ 
tired;  Emil  Ankarcrona,  managing  director  of  the  Husqvarna  Gun- 
Manufactory  ;  0.  E.  Norstrom,  lieutenant-colonel ;  A.  J.  Gustafsson,  in¬ 
specting  armorer ;  J.  Holmberg,  gunsmith  ;  Anders  Herrlin,  inspecting 
officer.” 

124.  Kirkaldy’s  experiments  upon  Fagersta  steel.-— Four 
large  glass  cases  in  the  rotunda  are  filled  with  the  specimens  of 
Fagersta  steel  in  different  forms,  just  as  they  came  from  the  test¬ 
ing-machines  of  Mr.  David  Kirkaldy  in  London.  They  exhibit  the 
effects  of  pulling,  shearing,  and  twisting  stress,  and  are  described  and 
illustrated  in  an  elaborate  memoir  by  Mr.  Kirkaldy,  entitled  “Results 
of  an  experimental  inquiry  into  the  mechanical  properties  of  steel  of 
different  degrees  of  hardness  and  under  various  conditions ;  manufac¬ 
tured  by  Christian  Aspelin,  Esq.,  Westanfors  and  Fagersta  Works, 
Sweden.”* 

This  memoir  is  elegantly  printed  and  illustrated,  and  is  not  only  im¬ 
portant  to  engineers  and  those  using  steel  in  construction,  but  is 
extremely  interesting  to  the  physicist.  As  an  example  of  the  nature  of 
the  investigation  and  of  the  results  obtained,  diagrams  (Figs.  59  and  GO) 
of  two  of  the  steel  plates  are  here  given. 

These  plates,  before  being  subjected  to  strain,  were  10  inches  wide 
at  the  reduced  part,  and  both  edges  were  accurately  parallel  for  10 
inches  of  length,  and  accordingly  equal  to  the  breadth  or  width  at  the 
reduced  part.  The  seven  holes  at  each  end  for  connecting  the  plate  to 

*  By  David  Kirkaldy.  Illustrated  by  plates  and  wood-cuts.  London,  Testing  and 
Experimental  Works,  Southwark  street,  S.  E.  1873.  4°.  Pp.  29,  with  tables  and 
illustrations. 


148 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


the  massive  steel  links  of  the  testing-machine  were  carefully  and  ac¬ 
curately  made  in  line,  and  to  fit  the  steel  pins  exactly.  In  order  to 
develop  or  make  manifest  the  change  of  form  of  the  plates  when  under 
stress,  some  of  the  plates  had  circles  and  others  diagonal  lines  drawn  on 
the  surface.  The  distortion  of  these  lines  shows  the  extent  of  the  yield¬ 
ing  of  the  plate  in  its  different  parts. 


0  0  0  0 
0  0  0 


0  0  0 
0  0  0  0 


Fig.  59.— H.  1927.— Diagrams  of  steel  plates  broken  by  pulliug  stress. 


FAGERSTA  STEEL - KIRKALDY’s  EXPERIMENTS, 


149 


Fig.  59,  with  the  diagonal  lining,  represents  the  annealed  plate,  (EF 
1927  of  the  series,)  and  the  plate  (Fig.  CO)  upon  which  the  circles  were 
drawn  (EL  1924)  was  not  annealed.  Both  plates  were  half  an  inch  thick. 
The  results  are  tabulated  with  others  in  the  annexed  table. 


150 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


T25.  Deportment  of  rolled  Fagersta  steel  plutes  under  pulling-stress. 


LARGE  SPECIMENS— TEX  INCHES  WIDE.  LENGTH^  BREADTH. 


Description. 

|  ^  "5 

S  r«  !  C 

z 

X  • 

x  ~ 

x 

3!  — 

X 

E  * 

•2 

E 

'Z  ^ 

Extensions, 
sets  at— 

Appearance  o  f 
fracture. 

X  — 

— 

i’S 

X  — 

Xo.in.  H.  Inches. 

Sq.  in. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct. 

Pr.  ct.  Pr.  ct. 

f 

1.  4  1906  9.  95 x.  129 

1.203 

53,300 

74,915 

71.  1 

43.1 

0.  00  10.  6 

100  percent. silkv. 

1.  j  1912'  9. 95 x. 250 

2.4S7 

37,900 

60  1-0 

62.  7 

48.5 

0.  22  28.  2 

Do. 

U11  annealed  ^ 

1.  5  1918  9.  95  x. 360 

3.781 

29,500 

51,456 

57.3 

59.3 

7.  33  36.  1 

Do. 

1.  J  1924  9.  95  x. 495 

4.925 

31.100 

55,e03 

55.7 

50.0 

5.  62  36.  4 

Do. 

1 

1.  i  1930  9.  95 x. 625 

6.210 

2*.  000 

52,924 

52.9 

55.  1 

6.  66  37.  2 

Do. 

r 

2.  J  1909  9. 95  x. 124 

1.233 

35,500 

57,405 

61.8 

57. 1 

1.  11  22.9 

Do. 

2.  i  1915  9. 95 x. 255 

2.537 

33.000 

54,543 

62.0 

60.9 

3.90  1  33.8 

Do. 

Annealed ..  1 

2.  H  1921  9. 95  x. 360 

3.761 

2*  M0 

51,076 

56.  6 

63.4 

7.  39  35.  8 

Do. 

2.  4  1927  9. 95 x. 490 

4.875 

27,830 

51,330 

54.  2 

61.0 

8.  70  38.  5 

Do. 

1 

2.  |  1933  9. 95  x. 628 

6.240 

25,5  JO 

50,432 

50.6 

02.0 

9.98  34.4 

Do. 

There  were  several  very  interesting  examples  of  the  effects  upon  steel  I 
plates  by  pushing  them  through  apertures  of  less  tliau  their  own  diarn-  ( 
eter,  giving  cup  or  bell  shaped  objects,  highly  sonorous,  and  suitable 
for  gong-bells.  This  lot  of  specimens  formed  Series  G  of  Kirkaldy's  me¬ 
moir,  and  he  describes  them  as  follows  : 

uOn  the  effect  of  bulging-stress  on  rolled  steel  plates  of  various  thick*  i 
nesses. — The  specimens  for  the  above  test  were  disks,  twelve  inches  di¬ 
ameter,  cut  out  in  a  lathe,  and  pressed  through  an  aperture  ten  inches  | 
diameter  in  my  testing-machine,  the  end  of  bulger  being  turned  to  a  | 
radius  of  five  inches.  The  two  wood-cuts  which  accompany  the  tabulated  j 
report  of  the  results  Series  G,  show  the  form  of  the  specimen  previous  I 
to  and  after  experiment.  Ten  pieces  were  tested  as  rolled  unanuealed,  i 
and  ten  after  being  heated  and  annealed. 

“  The  following  table  exhibits  the  stress  required  to  force  the  sped-  I 
mens  of  the  various  thickuesses  through  the  aperture  : 


Thickness.  J  i  i  g  i  |  i 

TXnannealed . pounds-..  215,605  162.735  104,045  71,800  35,3.97  I 

Annealed . do _  198,005  154,230  95,605  59,425  25,435  I 


•'All  the  specimeus  stood  the  ordeal  without  the  slightest  sign  of  any  , 
crack  or  defect  in  the  manufacture.  The  clear  tone  giveu  out,  on  being 
struck,  by  all  the  specimens  after  being  bulged,  excepting  those  that 
buckled  owing  to  their  thinuess,  proves  the  soundness  of  the  material, 
and  consequently  its  special  suitability  for  some  engineering  purposes, 
as  well  as  for  bells  and  gongs.  It  is  only  superior  ductile  materials  that 
will  stand  this  test  without  cracking  or  showing  signs  of  laminations  or 
blisters.  Circles  were  drawn  on  one  of  the  flat  disks,  H.  1904,  and  it  is 
curious  to  observe  the  change  in  their  form  according  to  their  position, 


WIKMANSHYTTA  CAST  STEEL. 


151 


some  parts  being  distended,  while  tjie  portion  toward  the  circum¬ 
ference  is  compressed  ;  the  original  circumference  of  the  specimen 
being  37.68  inches,  and  that  of  the  aperture  31.40 ;  difference,  6.28 
inches,  or  16.6  per  cent.,  which  is  the  amount  of  compression  at  the  oute 
edge  of  the  bowl.  The  material  at  the  inner  edge  is  still  more  com¬ 
pressed,  the  amount  varying  with  the  thickness.  Thus  we  find  in  the 
five-eighth-inch  plate  the  inner  diameter  is  8.9  inches;  circumference, 
27.94;  difference,  9.74  inches,  or  25.8  per  cent.;  and  the  depth  3.44 
inches  at  the  center  of  the  bowl.” 

126.  Wikmanshytta  steel. — The  Wikmanshytta  cast  steel  is  claimed 
to  be  especially  valuable  for  mint-dies  and  for  tools,  as  attested  by  sev¬ 
eral  certificates,  two  of  which,  from  Joach.  Ackerman,  the  chief  director 
of  the  royal  mint,  containing  interesting  details  regarding  the  temper¬ 
ing  and  wear  of  dies,  are  translated : 

“  Upon  application  made  to  me  to  that  effect,  I  do  hereby  certify  that 
cast  steel,  made  at  the  iron-work  Wikmanshytta,  has  been  almost  ex¬ 
clusively  employed  for  coin-stamps  in  the  royal  mint  of  this  place  for 
upward  of  two  years,  and  was  found  quite  as  proper  to  that  purpose 
as  the  several  kinds  of  foreign  cast  steel,  both  English  and  German, 
which,  during  the  ten  preceding  years,  have  been  imported  for  the  use 
of  the  mint,  as  being  the  then  best  known  steel  for  the  same  purpose. 
In  the  last  five  months  of  the  year  1S64,  when  copper  coin  only,  of  three 
different  sizes,  was  manufactured,  the  stamps  or  dies  of  Wikmanshytta 
cast  steel  sustained  upon  an  average  30,048  strokes  each,  and  it  should 
here  be  observed  that  such  copper  coin  is  somewhat  harder  than  the 
Swedish  silver  coin  of  six  ounces.  As  something  extraordinary ,  I  beg  to 
state  that  one  pair  of  stamps  —for  pieces  of  4  riksdaler— have  respectively 
sustained  the  following  number  of  strokes  by  the  mint-press,  viz,  that 
for  the  reverse  side  of  the  coin  90,000,  and  that  for  the  obverse  side 
more  than  130,000  strokes,  without  either  showing  the  slightest  sinking 
or  crack  ;  and  both  of  them  were  at  last  rejected  owing  merely  to  the 
fact  of  the  flatter  places  in  the  engraving  having  become  worn  and  in¬ 
distinct  by  being  repeatedly  polished.  Of  the  eight  different  degrees  of 
hardness,  wherein  the  Wikmanshytta  cast  steel  is  assorted,  that  marked 
with  No.  1  has  been  found  to  be  the  most  proper  for  coiners’  stamps. 

“  Stockholm  the  18th  of  March,  1865.” 

“I,  the  undersigned,  do  hereby  certify  that  during  the  last  fixe  years 
no  other  cast  steel  than  that  of  Wikmanshytta,  marked  O.  R.  U.  I.,  has 
been  employed  for  coin-stamps  in  the  royal  Swedish  mint  at  this  place, 
and  that  the  said  cast  steel,  as  to  strength  and  durability  of  the  stamps, 
is  found  to  be  superior  to  the  English  cast  steel  of  the  best  known 
kiuds  and  marks,  which  were  previously  employed  at  the  mint  for  the 
same  purpose  ;  and  that  it  is  quite  as  good  as  the  famous  Krupp’s  cast 
steel,  which,  especially  manufactured  for  coin-stamps,  was  employed  for 
more  than  one  year,  whereupon  it  was  again  given  up  on  account  of  its 
high  price.  In  the  course  of  a  coining,  commenced  some  days  ago,  of 


152  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

brass  pieces  of  5  ore,  with  the  same  alloyage  as  that  of  the  imperia 
French  brass  coin,  a  pair  of  stamps  have  already  sustained  75,000 
strokes  without  showing'  the  slightest  defect.  Many  years  ago  some 
large,  hardened  pieces,  belonging  to  our  coining-presses,  were  made 
of  the  same  kind  of  cast  steel  from  Wikmanshytta,  and  were  fitted  into 
the  presses,  instead  of  like  pieces  of  other  steel  which  were  worn  out  or 
split,  and  the  same  have  proved  to  be  durable  and  are  still  perfectly 
faultless.  The  individual  actually  intrusted  with  the  process  of  tem¬ 
pering  the  coin-stamps,  and  who  is  a  clever  and  intelligent  smith,  oper¬ 
ates  as  follows:  The  stamps  (one  or  two  to  three  stamps  together)  are 
packed  up  into  a  hardening-box  of  irou  plate,  in  a  fine  charcoal  powder, 
and  are  surrounded  with  clay  uppermost  at  the  mouth  of  the  box,  still 
so  that  their  bottoms  or  lower  surfaces,  which  are  turned  up,  rest  free 
and  uncovered.  They  are  then  heated  by  a  coal-fire  in  a  small  draught- 
furnace,  and  when  they  have  the  proper  temperature,  which  is  ascer¬ 
tained  by  their  color,  they  are  taken  up  and  are  refrigerated  with  pure 
water  in  a  liardening-tub,  from  the  bottom  whereof  a  feeble  dash  of 
water  rises  against  the  piece  to  be  hardened  through  the  water  standing 
in  the  tub,  to  the  height  of  about  0.75  foot.  The  stamp  is  plunged  into 
thd  water  only  little  by  little,  in  the  first  place  almost  nothing  but 
the  neck,  and  then  the  other  part  gradually,  but  the  bottom  itself  is 
cooled  more  slowly,  without  being  plunged  down  into  the  water.  After 
being  fully  refrigerated,  the  stamp  is  annealed  in  the  following  way; 
that  is  to  say,  a  suitable  thick  iron  ring,  heated  to  a  slight  degree 
of  redness,  is  slowly  drawn  over  the  stamp  and  is  kept  there  until  the 
engraved  surface  has  assumed  a  yellow  straw-color,  whereupon  the  ring 
is  taken  off,  the  tempering  having  then  been  finished. 

“Stockholm,  the  19th  November,  1SG7.1’ 

This  cast  steel  is  produced  by  the  Uchatius  method.  Granulated  pig- 
iron  is  mixed  with  charcoal  aud  powdered  iron-ore  of  great  purity  and 
richness.  It  is  melted  in  graphite  crucibles. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  IRON -MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 

127.  The  condition  of  the  iron-manufacture  iu  Sweden  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  year  1873  is  the  subject  of  an  important  memoir  by  Prof. 
Richard  Ackerman,  assistant  in  the  Mining  Academy  at  Stockholm, 
prepared  to  accompany  and  elucidate  the  exhibition  of  Swedish  ores, 
iron,  and  steel.  The  memoir  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  a  part  of 
the  exhibition,  and  this,  together  with  its  general  value  to  the  industry 
of  iron,  justifies  the  presentation  of  a  translation  in  this  place. 

128.  Ackerman’s  memoir — translation. — Although  the  Swedish 
iron-manufacture  has  been  developing  steadily,  both  as  to  the  quality 
and  as  to  the  quantity  of  the  iron  produced,  still,  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  at  present  Sweden  no  longer  holds  the  prominent  place  among 
irou-producing  countries  as  formerly.  This,  as  will  be  shown,  has  been 
brought  about  chiefly  by  natural  conditions,  which  have  hindered  the 


IRON-MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 


153 


iron-industry ;  still,  Sweden  keeps  pace  with  many  other  countries  more 
densely  populated  and  richer  in  coal.  Sweden,  however,  is  just  now  in 
a  state  of  transition  to  a  new  period  of  development,  during  which, 
it  is  reasonable  to  hope,  the  iron-manufacture  will  be  brought  to  as  high 
a  degree  as  is  possible  in  a  country  which  has  no  mineral  fuel  in  the 
neighborhood  of  its  deposits  of  ore. 

Far  from  the  quality  of  the  Swedish  iron  having  deteriorated,  it  has 
become,  in  consequence  of  improved  methods  of  production,  not  only 
purer  and  more  uniform  and  dense,  but  also  has  been  produced  in 
greater  quantity  than  formerly;  for  example,  the  production  in  1870 
was  more  than  one  and  one-half  times  greater  than  in  I860.  In  compar¬ 
ison  with  many  other  countries  it  is  still  very  small,  in  addition  to  which 
is  the  fact  that,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  iron  destined  for  exportation 
has  hitherto  been  produced  only  in  the  form  of  pig,  bloom,  bar,  or  re¬ 
fined  iron.  The  Swedish  iron  is  therefore  only  occasionally  brought  to 
market  in  manufactured  forms,  and  the  manufacture  of  iron-ware,  with 
the  exception  of  nails,  has  never  been  great  enough  to  supply  the  neces¬ 
sities  of  the  country  itself. 

129.  Distribution  of  iron-ores  in  Sweden. — The  cause  of  Sweden’s  pro¬ 
ducing  so  little  iron  does  not  lie  in  the  lack  of  ores,  for  the  country,  on 
the  contrary,  is  rich  in  iron-ore,  although  its  profitable  occurrence  is  lim¬ 
ited  to  certain  districts. 

The  greatest  and  most  extensive  deposit  of  ore  is  found  in  a  belt  run¬ 
ning  from  northeast  to  southwest,  which  comprises  the  southern  part 
of  the  provinces  of  Gefleborgaud  Kopparberg,  the  northwestern  part  of 
Westmanland,  the  northern  part  of  the  province  of  Orebro,  and  the 
eastern  of  Wermland.  Including  in  this  belt  Winkaru,  in  the  province 
of  Kopparberg,  no  other  deposit  of  importance  is  met  with  to  the  north, 
till  as  far  as  Korrhotten,  where,  indeed,  at  Gelliwara,  and  in  other  places, 
a  great  abundance  of  ore  is  found.  In  consequence,  however,  of  injurious 
compounds,  and  the  scanty  population  of  these  regions,  up  to  this  time 
the  mines  have  been  worked  to  only  a  very  slight  extent.  South  of  this 
belt  there  are  very  important  mines,  as  Dannemora,  in  the  province  of 
Upsala,  and  several  others  in  the  provinces  of  Stockholm,  Soderman- 
land,  and  Ostergotland.  Further  still,  near  the  southern  end  of  the 
Wetter-see,  in  the  province  of  Jdukoping,  occurs  a  great  deposit,  that  of 
the  Taberg.  This  province  borders  on  that  of  Kronoberg,  rich  in  bog- 
iron  ores,  which  are  also  met  with  in  several  other  provinces,  though  in 
smaller  quantity. 

Although  the  richness  in  ore  is  thus  very  considerable,  most  of  the 
mines  at  present  are  not  in  a  condition  to  yield  greater  quantities  of  ore 
annually,  this  condition  being  in  turn  dependent  upon  the  fact  that  the 
demand  for  ore  has  been  hitherto  so  limited  that  the  necessary  quantity 
could  easily  be  furnished  with  the  old  apparatus.  These  relations  are 
about  to  undergo  an  essential  alteration,  and  the  continually  increasing 
consumption  of  ore  will  surely  demonstrate  soon  the  necessity  for  a  more 
rational  mining-system. 


154 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


The  first  condition  of  sensible  mining  is  that  each  mine  shall  belong 
to  not  more  than  one  company,  while  it  now  happens  that  one  mine  is 
often  divided  into  several  parcels,  each  one  of  which  is  worked  rather 
independently,  and  without  proper  connection  with  the  other  parts,  by 
the  different  proprietors.  Indeed,  within  the  last  few  years  many  such 
pits  opened  on  one  mine  have  come  into  the  possession  of  one  company; 
but  there  is  much  to  be  done  in  this  direction  before  the  mining-system 
can  reach  such  a  point  as  to  guarantee  for  the  future  a  sure  production 
of  ore,  both  extensive  and  cheap. 

130.  The  sources  of  fuel. — In  order  to  bring  about  a  greater  pro¬ 
duction  of  iron,  it  is  not  enough  to  possess  rich  sources  of  ore;  the 
amount  of  fuel  necessary  for  the  smelting  aud  further  working  of  the 
iron  must  also  be  present.  It  is  precisely  the  small  supply  of  this  im¬ 
portant  element  in  iron-making  which  limits  the  iron-production  of 
Sweden,  for  mineral  coal  occurs  only  in  the  most  southerly  part  of  the 
country,  at  Selioneu,  and  possibly  also  in  Southern  Halland.  The  de¬ 
posits  of  coal  occurring  there  belong,  apparently,  to  the  Liassic,  or  per¬ 
haps  to  the  upper  and  most  recent  part  of  theTriassic  formation  ;  which 
of  the  two  cannot  be  determined  with  certainty  from  the  petrifactions 
hitherto  found. 

It  is  not  impossible  in  Schonen  that  coal  may  be  present  under,  or 
perhaps  in,  the  calcareous  formation;  how  it  is  related  to  it  is  not  yet 
fully  made  out.  At  Iloganiis,  aud  in  a  few  other  places  in  the  north¬ 
western  part  of  Schoueu,  coal  was  found  as  early  as  the  seventeenth 
century,  in  small  quantity  to  be  sure;  so  in  the  earliest  times  extensive 
and  thorough  explorations  of  the  coal-formation  of  these  regions  were 
begun.  In  the  remaining  part  of  Sweden,  unfortunately,  one  cannot 
hope  to  meet  with  coal,  since,  with  the  exception  of  the  regions  named, 
the  rocks  which  form  the  body  of  the  country  belong  partly  to  the 
Laurentian  or  primitive  formation,  and  partly  to  the  Silurian  system, 
while  the  later  deposits,  except  a  few  metamorphic  areas,  belong  exclu¬ 
sively  to  the  latest  geological  age. 

The  iron-ores  (magnetite  and  hematite  or  specular  ore)  which  are  usu. 
ally  met  with  elsewhere  in  Sweden,  do  not  occur  in  Schonen;  though  it 
is  by  no  means  impossible  that  in  searching  for  coal  an  argillaceous 
iron-ore*  may  be  found,  and  in  that  case,  if  the  coal  of  Schonen  should 
prove  suitable  for  the  blast-furnace,  this  province  would  enter  upon  a 
flourishing  iron-industry.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  no  important  deposit  of 
argillaceous  iron-ore  be  found,  still  the  coal  of  Schonen,  if  on  better  ac¬ 
quaintance  it  justifies  the  hopes  now  placed  in  it,  would  be  of  essential 
value  to  the  irou-mauufacture  of  Sweden,  although  the  considerable 
distance  (about  530  kilometers)  of  that  province  from  the  great  iron  ore 
belt  would  essentially  lessen  its  value. 

*  An  inconsiderable  deposit  of  such  ore  has  been  already  discovered  at  Hbgauas, 
which  gave  by  the  crucible-assay  39.5  per  cent,  of  pig-irou  with  0.13  per  cent,  of  phos¬ 
phorus. 


IRON-ORES  IN  SWEDEN - TRANSPORTATION. 


155 


In  the  future,  be  it  as  it  may,  Sweden  is  still  pre-eminent  in  the  work¬ 
ing  of  her  ores,  both  with  the  fuel  which  the  forests  and  peat-bogs  afford 
and  that  imported  from  other  countries,  for  the  refining  of  the  iron  pro¬ 
duced. 

131.  Transportation. — The  deposits  of  ore  are  by  no  means,  as  has  been 
shown,  uniformly  distributed  over  the  wholecountry;  the  densely  wooded 
Norrland,  for  example,  is  wholly  lacking,  as  far  as  is  now  known,  in 
abundance  of  ore,  with  the  exception  of  the  province  of  Gefleborg,  and 
the  deposits  at  Gellivara,  Lousavara,  aud  a  few  other  places  in  the  north¬ 
ern  part  of  the  country.  The  same  holds  good  also  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree  for  many  other  forest-regions  of  the  country. 

It  is,  moreover,  an  undeniable  truth  that  an  important  iron-industry 
cannot  come  into  existence  without  convenient  and  ready  means  of  in¬ 
tercourse,  even  in  a  country  rich  in  coal.  This  must  be  the  case  to  a  much 
greater  degree  when  the  fuel  necessary  for  the  working  of  the  ore  must 
be  brought  from  great  distances,  as  here,  where  it  consists  entirely  of 
forest-products.  It  is  also  a  simple  thing  commonly  to  unite  large 
deposits  of  coal  with  neighboring,  or  at  least  uot  very  far  distant,  depos¬ 
its  of  ore  by  means  of  railroads;  b  it  scattered  forest-regions  lying  far 
from  the  mines  are  not  so  easily  traversed  by  railways  in  order  to  bring 
the  products  of  the  former  to  those  of  the  latter,  and  this  is  especially  diffi¬ 
cult  in  a  thinly-populated  country  like  Sweden.  In  this  country,  with  an 
area  of  415,001)  square  kilometers,  or  S,079  square  miles,  of  which  37,380 
square  kilometers,  or  679  square  miles,  are  water,  according  to  the  census 
of  1871  there  were  only  4,204,177  inhabitants,  by  far  the  greatest  part  of 
whom  dwelt  in  the  southern  half  of  the  country.  Taking  away  the  pro¬ 
vince  of  Gefleborg, the  remaining  part  of  JSTorrland,  withau  areaof  243,700 
square  kilometers,  or  4,425  square  miles,  has  no  more  than  378,754  inhab¬ 
itants.  The  southern  and  smaller  part  of  Sweden,  in  1871,  had  less  than 
3,820,000  inhabitants,  and  it  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  it  was  long 
feared  that  uq  railroad  would  be  profitable  here.  Experience  has  shown 
that  this  fear  was  groundless,  and  very  important  railways  have  been 
finished  during  the  last  year. 

At  the  end  of  1871  there  were  1,885  kilometers  of  railroad  in  opera¬ 
tion  ;  of  these,  however,  1,187  kilometers  were  main-trunk  railways,  and 
only  occasionally  touched  the  ore-districts,  but,  as  main  routes,  aimed  to 
unite  certain  important  places  as  directly  as  possible.  On  the  other 
hand,  during  the  last  year  so  many  new  railway-works  were  finished 
that  at  the  end  of  the  year  1872  about  2,100  kilometers  of  new  railroads 
were  in  jirocess  of  building,  of  which  a  very  considerable  part  were  min¬ 
ing  railways. 

Considering  Sweden  in  a  measure  well  provided  with  railways,  still 
the  iron-production,  as  regards  quantity,  cannot  iucrease  greatly  in  com¬ 
parison  with  other  countries,  unless  a  hitherto  unknown  greater  deposit 
of  ore  be  discovered  near  the  coal  in  Schoneu  ;  for  only  on  this  supposi¬ 
tion  can  the  expense  of  a  production  of  ordinary  iron  in  great  quanti 


156 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  ie73. 


ties  for  the  market  of  the  world  be  possible  iu  Swedeu.  Without  such 
a  discovery  of  ore  iu  Schoneu,  Swedeu  must  limit  herself  henceforth  to 
the  production  of  the  so-called  ‘‘quality-iron.”  The  impossibility  of  found¬ 
ing  an  iron-manufacture  which  shall  be  important  in  the  present  time 
is  much  greater  for  Sweden,  since  there  the  second  growth  of  the  forest 
takes  place  much  more  slowly  than  in  various  other  countries. 

Since  the  forest- products,  by  greatly  increased  facilities  of  communi¬ 
cation,  obtain  a  higher  value,  the  forests  will  be  better  cared  for  iu  the 
future,  and  the  revenue  obtained  from  them  will  be  greater  than  now. 
In  the  more  remote  forest-districts  the  peasant  has  done  nothing  at  all 
for  the  second  growth  of  the  wood  ;  but  even  under  the  supposition  of 
the  fulfillment  of  what  has  just  been  said,  it  still  remains  impossible  to 
build  up  a  great  iron  industry  with  charcoal  alone.  Each  kilometer  of 
forest  in  the  neighborhood  of  our  works,  when  it  receives  the  best  care, 
yields  annually  only  275  cubic  meters  of  hard  wood,  while  a  square  kil¬ 
ometer  of  forest,  as  ordinarily  cared  for  by  the  Swedish  peasant,  if  it 
has  not  been  wasted,  yields  often  not  more  than  105  cubic  meters  of 
hard  wood  annually,  and  from  a  solid  mass  of  wood  is  obtained,  accord¬ 
ing^  the  care  in  burning,  00  to  100,  often  only  GO  to  70,  per  cent,  in 
volume  of  coal.  If  7.S  cubic  meters  of  charcoal  (coal-dust,  &c.,  included) 
are  reckoned  to  the  ton  of  pig-iron,  aqd  if  in  the  future  as  good  care  is 
bestowed  upon  the  forests  in  general. as  is  now  given  to  a  few  forest- 
properties,  a  wood-area  of  2.S  hectares  will  be  required  to  supply  the 
fuel  necessary  for  the  production  of  the  quantity  of  iron  mentioned. 

132.  Use  of  English  coke. — There  is  a  possibility  of  the  amount  of 
iron  produced  increasing  considerably  by  the  use  of  English  coke  for 
the  blast-furnace,  and  then  refining  the  pig-iron  thus  obtained  by  the 
Bessemer  process.  An  important  advantage  over  the  English  cannot 
be  claimed  for  such  a  Bessemer  product ;  it  would  be  equal  to  it,  how¬ 
ever,  and  quite  good  enough  for  rails,  &c.  Such  a  production  of  pig- 
iron,  based  on  English  coke,  has  been  seriously  considered  in  Sweden, 
and  could  be  accomplished  much  more  easily  than  the  project  of  export¬ 
ing  Swedish  ore  to  Englaud,  for  the  production  of  pig-iron.  This  is 
partly  because  the  freight  to  England  is  much  higher  than  the  return 
freight,  and  partly  because  fully  one  and  a  half  times  as  great  a  weight 
of  ore  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  pig-iron  as  of  good  coke. 

Although  the  old  iron  works,  with  the  help  of  coke  from  England,  or 
possibly  from  Schoneu,  could  compete  with  the  English  Bessemer  pro¬ 
duct  in  a  wider  range  than  formerly,  still  it  is  not  possible  to  produce  in 
this  way  an  article  equal  to  the  ordinary  English  in  price,  and  it  will 
remain  noue  the  less  impossible,  therefore,  for  the  old  manufacturing 
regions  to  develop  an  iron-production  actually  great  as  regards  quantity. 
Iu  this  there  is  no  obstacle  to  preveut  the  amount  produced  hitherto 
increasing  considerably,  after  the  completion  of  railroads  now  building, 
and  also  others:  and  it  will  first  become  possible  through  these  railroads 
to  leave  the  beaten  way,  that  of  producing  bar-iron  almost  exclusively, 


IRON-MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN— WATER-POWER.  157 


iu  order  at  the  same  time  to  make  railroad-material,  skeet-irou,  &c.,  iu 
greater  quantity. 

From  what  has  been  said  already,  the  important  advancement  of  the 
iron-production  through  railways  must  be  evident;  but  the  further 
proof  of  this  matter  is  the  fact  that  the  forest-districts  lying  near  the 
larger  mines,  which  have  been  worked  for  a  long  time,  through  excess¬ 
ive  cutting,  have  become  iu  the  lapse  of  time  very  much  cut  away,  and 
the  consequence  is  that  the  charcoal  needed  for  the  smelting  of  the  ore 
must  be  brought  from  ever-increasing  distances.  With  the  aid  of  good 
communication,  however,  the  amount  of  charcoal,  which  in  the  immedi¬ 
ate  neighborhood  is  beginning  to  fail,  can  not  only  be  restored,  but,  by 
moderate  cutting  of  the  forest,  far  more  coal  than  formerly  can  be  made, 
since  in  many  distant  forest-regions  the  forest,  until  lately,  has  been 
wholly  valueless,*  and  therefore  has  been  very  badly  cared  for,  so  that 
it  has  not  yielded  nearly  the  income  which  it  might  have  done  b}r  judi¬ 
cious  economy.  Iu  addition  to  this,  it  has  been  customary  at  distant 
saw-mills,  with  strange  wastefulness,  to  burn,  as  useless,  not  only  all  the 
sawdust,  but  also  all  other  rubbish,  like  bark,  slabs,  ends,  &c. 

It  has  been  intimated  above,  and  is  shown  more  clearly  by  the  follow¬ 
ing  statistics,  that  the  Swedish  iron-works  have,  with  few  exceptions, 
produced  till  now  almost  exclusively  bar-iron,  or,  in  other  words,  mer¬ 
chant-iron.  This  circumstance  may  appear  strange  to  a  foreigner  who 
is  accustomed  to  seeing  a  ready  ware,  or  at  least  partially-refined  iron, 
produced  at  the  works;  but  the  chief  cause  of  this,  also,  is  to  be  sought 
for  in  the  insufficient  means  of  communication  of  the  mining-districts. 
Pig-iron  and  bar-iron  can  be  manufactured  with  profit  in  very  small 
quantity,  while  this  is  not  so  much  the  case  with  railroad-material, 
since  larger  and  more  costly  mills  are  necessary  for  that  work,  and  they 
must  have  a  considerable  production  in  order  to  defray  the  first  cost. 
For  this  it  is  indispensably  necessary  that  considerable  quantities  of  raw 
material  can  be  brought  to  one  point  at  a  moderate  price,  which  cannot 
be  accomplished  without  good  means  of  communication ;  in  addition  to 
which  is  the  fact  that  a  railway-connection  is  more  necessary  for  iron¬ 
works  which  produce  ready  wares  than  for  those  which  manufacture 
only  merchant-iron,  since  the  time  of  delivery  is  not  usually  so  strongly 
limited  for  the  latter  as  for  the  finished  goods. 

133.  Waterpower. — It  is  fortunate  for  the  iron-manufacture  of 
Sweden  that  the  country  is  rich  in  water-power,  small  streams  occurring 
in  numberless  quantity,  on  account  of  which  all  iron-works  are  located 
at  water-falls.  In  the  mining-districts  also  quantities  of  water  occur 
which  afford  thousands  of  horse-power,  and  when  these  are  connected 
by  railroads  with  the  mines  and  forest-regions  they  will  afford  the  most 
suitable  situations  for  greater  iron-works,  especially  when  great  saw- 

*  Iu  some  regions,  even  in  the  last  year,  charcoal  has  sold  for  1.75  fraucs  per  cubic 
meter,  while  at  certain  mines  it  brought  7  fraucs  per  cubic  meter;  and  under  the  pres¬ 
ent  favoring  circumstances  it  costs  in  some  places  14  to  17  francs  per  cubic  meter. 


158 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


mills,  as  is  now  aud  then  tbe  case,  are  already  situated  on  tlie  same  fall, 
for  the  iron-works  can  then  use  the  refuse  of  the  saw-mills  without  extra 
cost  for  transportation.  Many  iron-works  intended  for  the  production 
of  railroad-material  aud  sheet  iron  have  been  located  in  such  places 
within  the  last  two  years,  and  it  is  the  intention  to  have  them  completed 
at  the  same  time  with  the  railroads  leading-  to  them. 

The  demand  of  the  world's  market  for  Swedish  bar-iron  is  in  fact  very 
limited,  for  it  is  much  too  good  for  most  purposes,  and  its  value  can 
therefore  be  properly  estimated  only  for  certain  uses,  as  for  making  the 
best  steel  and  a  few  manufactured  wares  like  wire,  horse-nails,  &c.  A 
cheaper  and  poorer  iron,  on  the  other  hand,  answers  for  most  purposes, 
and  as  inconsiderable  as  the  amount  of  production  of  the  Swedish  iron 
has  hitherto  been,  it  has  still  been  able  to  satisfy  all  demands  under  or¬ 
dinary  circumstances ;  therefore  an  increased  production  of  so  expen¬ 
sive  a  merchant-iron  as  the  Swedish  for  many  years  would  only  bring 
about  a  lowering  of  the  price  of  iron.  If  an  essential  iucrease  of  the 
Swedish  iron-production  is  to  bring  an  actual  advantage,  it  is  indispen¬ 
sably  necessary  that  new  works  for  the  production  of  other  kinds  of  iron 
than  bar-iron  be  built ;  aud  this  has,  as  has  been  remarked,  actually 
happened,  and  also  many  of  the  old  bar-iron  works  are  beginning  to 
change  to  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  and  railroad-iron.  The  other 
works,  which  remain  as  formerly,  will,  in  consequence  of  this,  be  able 
to  depend  upon  so  much  the  more  certain  sale  of  their  product  in  the 
future. 

After  these  more  general  considerations  we  will  now  pass  to  a  more 
definite  statement  of  the  condition  in  which  the  Swedish  iron-manufac- 
ture  is  at  present. 

134.  Geological  association  of  the  iron-ores  of  Sweden. — The  iron-ores  of 
Sweden  are  chiefly  magnetite  and  hematite,  which  are  classed  together 
as  mine-ores,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  bog-ores  and  limonite  which 
also  occur,  but  are  worked  only  iu  the  province  of  Smaland. 

The  magnetic  ores  by  no  means  always  correspond  to  the  formula 
Fe30^,  but  with  one  molecule  of  sesquioxide  can  contain  more  or  less  than 
one  of  protoxide.  Sometimes  more  or  less  hematite  is  intermingled,  as 
in  the  ore  from  Stora-Bispberg.”  Sometimes  the  maguetite  is  so  mixed 
with  hematite  that  it  is  hard  to  say  to  which  class  it  belongs.  In  some 
mines,  also,  these  two  kinds  of  ore  occur  iu  beds  side  by  side,  as  at 
Griingesberg  and  Dalkarlsberg ;  usually,  however,  they  are  separate, 
so  that  the  same  mine  only  affords  one  of  the  two  ores. 

The  mine-ores,  or  the  magnetite  and  hematite,  belong  to  the  Lauren- 
tian  or  primary  formation,  and  never  occur  in  with  gaugue  or  veinstone, 
but  as  actual  beds  or  strata,  which  have  the  same  strike  and  dip  as  the 
surrounding  rocks.  Many  deposits  of  ore  possess  no  great  extent,  but 
soon  thin  out;  if,  however,  the  strike  of  the  rock  is  followed,  sooner  or 
later  a  new  deposit  is  met  with,  aud  in  this  way  the  same  bed  of  ore 
can  often  be  followed  for  a  myriameter.  Other  beds  of  ore,  on  the  other 


IRON-ORES  OF  SWEDEN.  159 

hand,  often  have  a  continuous  extension  in  the  direction  of  the  strike,  of 
many  hundred  meters,  with  a  varying  breadth. 

The  beds  are  sometimes  sharply  cut  off  and  more  or  less  displaced  by 
transverse  beds,  so-called  u  skblar,”  of  chlorite-slate,  trap,  or  granite. 
Also,  the  thickness  of  the  bed  is  very  irregular,  varying  from  an  incon¬ 
siderable  thickness  to  30  or  40  meters.  It  is  also  very  common  to  find 
the  bed  accompanied  by  several  parallel  strata  of  ore,  which  are  sepa¬ 
rated  by  more  or  less  barren  rock. 

The  main  mass  of  the  solid  rock  of  Sweden  consists  of  granite  and 
gneiss;  considerable  quantities  of  mica-slate  are  met  with,  and,  in  addi¬ 
tion,  hornblende-slate,  “helleflinta”  diorite,  and  granular  limestone  very 
often  occur. 

The  iron-ores  lie  sometimes  immediately  in  gneiss,  as  at  Grangesberg, 
in  the  province  of  Kopparberg,  and  Norberg,  in  Westmanland ;  the 
gneiss  itself  is  so  poor  in  feldspar  that  it  has  been  takeu  by  some  for  mica- 
slate.  When  the  ore  lies  in  gneiss,  the  transition  from  barren  rock  to  that 
containing  ore  is  often  very  indistinct,  and  the  ore  then  consists  of  a  gneiss 
whose  other  constituents  besides  quartz  are  made  up  more  or  less  of 
iron-ore.  This  is  often  the  case  with  blood-stone,  which  consists  usually 
of  alternate  layers  of  tolerably  pure  hematite  and  gneiss  rich  in  quartz, 
and  having  iron-ore  intersprinkled  in  it.  These  occur  alternately,  and 
the  whole  then  consists  of  often  many  hundred  parallel  streaks  of  ore? 
between  which  stripes  of  quartz  or  gneiss  lie.  The  smaller  the  latter 
are  in  proportion,  to  the  former,  the  richer  the  ore  is. 

Often  these  ore-deposits  do  not  lie  immediately  in  gneiss,  but  are  sur¬ 
rounded  by  other  rocks  which  themselves  lie  in  gneiss.  The  envelope 
of  the  most  considerable  ore-beds  consists  of  helleflinta,  as  at  Danne- 
mora,  in  the  province  of  IJpsala,  or  of  a  helleflinta-like  gneiss,  “eurite,” 
as  at  Persberg,  in  Wermland.  The  ores  are  sometimes  surrounded  by 
mica-slate,  as  at  Dalkarlsberg,  in  Orebro,  and  finally  they  are  occasion¬ 
ally  imbedded  in  granular  limestone,  as  at  Klackberge  in  Norbergs,  in 
Westmanland,  and  at  Langvik,  in  the  province  of  Kopparberg.  For 
the  rest,  the  occurrence  of  lime  in  the  ore-beds  is  very  irregular.  Finally, 
it  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  ore-beds  are  often  limited  by  peculiar  min¬ 
eral  masses,  so-called  “  skolar,”  in  the  hanging  wall  and  in  the  foot- 
wall,  which  consist  usually  of  chlorite  and  talc. 

The  dip  of  the  Swedish  ore-beds,  like  that  of  the  surrounding  rock,  is, 
in  consequence  of  the  many  flexures  of  the  strata,  very  various;  usu¬ 
ally,  however,  it  approaches  more  nearly  the  vertical  than  the  horizontal 
plane.  In  addition  to  this  side-dip,  the  ore-beds  have  very  often  a  dip 
in  the  direction  of  the  strike.  As  in  the  direction  of  the  strike,  so  also 
sometimes  downward,  the  beds  thin  out,  but  if  the  dip  is  followed  down, 
a  new  mass  of  ore  is  usually  met  with  sooner  or  later. 

The  blood-stone  sometimes  contains  almost  no  other  strata  than 
quartz.  Commonly,  however,  it  is  more  or  less  mixed  with  other  min¬ 
erals,  as  pyroxene,  hornblende,  chlorite,  epidote,  garnet,  and  calx-spar. 


160 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


This  is  still  more  the  case  with  the  magnetic  ores,  which  are  usually 
less  acid,  “dry,”  or  rich  in  silica  than  hematite.  Among  the  last  named 
there  are  many  which  must  be  mixed  with  30  per  cent,  or  more  of  lime¬ 
stone  in  order  to  produce  a  bisilicate  slag  in  the  blast-furnace,  to  accom¬ 
plish  which,  the  magnetic  ores  seldom  require  more  than  10  to  20  per 
cent.  Often  they  need  only  a  very  small  addition  of  limestone;  and 
there  are  many  ores  which  are  self-fluxing,  that  is,  they  are  associated  with 
the  above-named  and  other  minerals  in  such  proportions  that  they  need 
no  mixing  with  other  ore,  or  with  flux,  for  the  blast  furnace.  To  these,  i 
among  others,  belong  the  Dannemora  ore.  Some  ores  are,  finally,  rich 
in  lime,  and  are  therefore  mixed  with  the  quartz-bearing  “dry ’’ores; 
on  account  of  which  they  are  called  “  Gattiruugssteine.”  These  lime- 
bearing  ores  are,  with  few  exceptions,  magnetic,  and  often  very  inanga- 
niferous,  like  the  ore  from  Langvik,  which  contains  about  8  per  cent.  : 
protoxide  of  manganese,  and  the  maguetite  from  Klackberge,  in  Nor- 
berg,  of  which  the  Granrot  ore  contains  7  to  10  per  cent.  Mu  O. 

The  iron  richest  in  manganese,  among  those  hitherto  worked  in 
Sweden,  is  the  magnetic  ore  of  the  neighboring  Svartberg,  used  at  ' 
Scbisshyttan,  in  the  province  of  Kopparberg,  for  the  production  of  spie- 
gef  iron.  This  ore  contains  13  to  20  per  cent,  of  protoxide  of  manganese, 
which  is  caused  by  the  bed  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  knebelite.* 
Among  the  very  manganiferous  iron-ores  belongs  the  magnetite  of  the 
Penning-Grube,  in  the  province  of  Gefleborg,  containing  12  to  14  per 
cent.  Mil  O,  and,  likewise,  an  ore  lately  discovered  in  the  Southern  Hag. 
Grube,  in  Norberg,  with  over  30  per  cent.  Mu  O. 

The  amount  of  iron  in  the  Swedish  ores  varies  between  30  and  70  per 
cent. ;  it  is,  however,  usually  about  43  or  30  per  cent.  Since  lime-bearing 
ores  are  rarer  than  those  with  quartz,  sometimes  ores  occurring  in  lime¬ 
stone,  and  having  only  20  per  cent,  or  less  of  iron,  are  worked  ;  they  are, 
however,  always  mixed  with  richer  ores  containing  quartz  before  smelt¬ 
ing. 

Occasionally  the  ores  are  so  rich  in  talc  that  not  only  limestone  must 
be  added  before  smelting,  but  also  silica.  Quartz  alone  is  seldom  used 
for  this  purpose,  but  ores  containing  quartz  are  added,  of  which  there 
is  seldom  any  lack. 

The  “mine-ores”  contain  usually  very  little  phosphorus,  and  among 
those  most  free  from  phosphorus  are  the  ores  from  Danueinora,  in  Upsala- 
with  0.003  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  and  from  Persberg,  in  Wermlaud, 
with  0.004  to  0.005  per  cent,  phosphorus.  Usually  the  amount  of  phos¬ 
phorus  varies  between  0.003  and  0.03  per  cent. ;  although  there  are  some 
with  a  tenth  of  1  per  ceut.,  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  richest  iron- 
ores  in  the  parish  of  Grangardes  aud  the  neighborhood,  and  also  with 
some  of  the  peculiarly  rich  iron-ores  high  up  iu  Xorrbotteu,  as  the 
Kerunawara  and  Gelliwara  ores.  Iu  some  of  these  ores  as  much  as  1.5 

*  Kuebelite,  a  silicate  of  iron  and  manganese,  containing  about  35  per  cent,  of  oxide 
of  manganese. — W.  P.  B. 


IRON-ORES  OF  SWEDEN. 


161 


per  cent,  of  phosphorus  is  found.  Ores  which  contain  more  than  0.15 
per  cent,  of  phosphorus  have  been  heretofore  only  occasionally  worked, 
and  then  only  when  mixed  with  those  free  from  phosphorus.  In  most 
cases  the  phosphorus  seems  to  come  from  intermixed  apatite,  and  with 
i  reference  to  some  of  the  Griingesberg  ores,  rich  in  this  mineral,  it  has 
been  proposed  to  treat  them  in  the  wet  way,  in  order  to  change  the 
apatite  into  superphosphate. 

The  ores  most  free  from  phosphorus  are  usually  employed  for  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  iron  for  steel-manufacture,  and,  since  the  most  of  the  Swed¬ 
ish  iron  used  in  England  is  destined  to  serve  as  material  for  steel-man¬ 
ufacture,  its  value  has  hitherto  depended  mainly  on  the  absence  of  phos¬ 
phorus.  As  the  Swedish  iron  has  become  more  uniform  and  dense  since 
the  introduction  of  the  Lancashire  method,  it  has  obtained  a  more  ex¬ 
tended  use  for  the  finer  kinds  of  manufacture,  and  the  iron  produced 
with  the  greatest  carefulness  has  latterly  brought  almost  as  high  a  price 
as  the  better  kinds  of  cement-iron.  The  value  of  the  iron  intended  for 
manufacturing  purposes  is  not  nearly  so  dependent  on  the  absence  of 
phosphorus  as  is  the  case  with  cement  iron,  but  if  there  is  only  a  few 
hundredths,  or,  at  most,  only  0.10  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  then  only 
the  compactness  and  uniformity  of  the  iron  are  considered,  which  prop¬ 
erties  are  of  most  value  for  manufacturing  purposes,  and  for  this  reason 
ores  which  contain  only  a  few  hundredths  of  a  per  cent,  of  phosphorus 
are  most  advantageously  used  for  the  production  of  this  kind  of  iron. 

Besides  the  ores  most  free  from  phosphorus,  the  manganiferous  ores 
are  advantageously  employed  for  the  production  of  cement-iron,  and  it 
is  the  main  point  to  choose  the  most  suitable  ores  for  steel-production, 
while  less  care  can  be  used  in  the  refining  process  since  compactness 
and  uniformity  are  less  necessary  properties  of  the  cement-iron.  The 
contrary  is  the  case  in  the  production  of  manufacturing  iron,  since  here 
these  properties  play  the  most  important  part,  and  the  perfection  of  the 
same  is  dependent  on  the  care  which  is  employed  in  the  refining;  still 
it  can  by  no  means  be  said  that  an  ore  having  still  less  phosphorus 
would  not  be  of  value  for  certain  manufacturing  purposes,  and,  in  fact, 
ores  much  more  nearly  free  from  phosphorus  are  used  in  Sweden  for  the 
production  of  merchant-iron. 

The  mine-ores  are  almost  always  intermixed  with  more  or  less  pyrite, 
and  sometimes  with  other  metallic  sulphides,  yet  in  most  cases  any  con¬ 
siderable  amount  of  sulphur  in  the  ore  can  be  removed  by  careful 
roasting.  For  this  purpose  shaft-furnaces,  heated  by  the  gas  from  the 
blast-furnace,  are  almost  exclusively  employed,  and  among  the  best  of 
these  are  those  constructed  by  E.  Westman,  in  which  so  high  a  tempera¬ 
ture  may  be  obtained  that  the  most  difficultly  fusible  ores  sinter  to¬ 
gether.  These  roasting-furnaces,  which  are  shown  in  drawings  and 
described  in  “  Ausfiihrliches  Hcindbuch  der  Uisenhiittenlcunde  von  J.  Percy, 
bearbeitet  von  H.  Wedding,  2  Abtheilung ,  p.  485,”  have,  on  account  of 
their  great  superiority,  supplanted  the  old  gas-roasting  furnaces,  and 
now  many  ores  which  were  before  wholly  useless  can  be  employed. 

11 1 


162 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Some  iron-ores  contain  much  titanium;  yet  the  titanium  is  usually 
considered  an  unwelcome  constituent  of  the  ore,  since  it  makes  it  so 
difficult  of  reduction,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  in  smelting  titan- 
iferous  ores  is  so  great.  Amoug  these  ores  the  magnetite  from  Taberg,  i 
in  the  province  Jonkbping,  deserves  special  mention,  since  it  is  different 
from  the  other  Swedish  ores  in  mauy  respects,  ft  is  not,  like  most  | 
other  iron-ores,  collected  together  by  itself,  but  the  grains  of  ore  occur 
so  finely  iutersprinkled  in  a  dark  serpentine  that  it  is  impossible  to  sep¬ 
arate  them  from  it.  This  ore  forms  a  whole  mountain  of  120  meters 
height  and  about  2,000  meters  length,  yet  the  amount  of  iron  is  not  | 
greater  than  about  30  per  cent.  Besides,  this  ore  coutaius  fully  0  per  < 
cent,  of  titanic  acid  and  some  vanadium,  which  was  first  discovered  by 
Sefstrom  in  iron  which  was  made  directly  from  this  ore. 

More  accurate  information  in  regard  to  the  composition  of  mauy  I 
Swedish  iron-ores  may  be  obtained  from  the  tables  of  analyses: 

135.  Production  of  iron-ore. — In  the  year  1871  the  yield  of  mine-ores  J 
was  647,119,0004kilograms,  as  follows: 

Iu  the  province  of  Norrbotteu,  (Gelliwara,)  21,205  kilograms. 

I4  the  province  of  Wester-Xorrland,  (Ulfb,)  928,855  kilograms. 

Iu  the  province  of  Jemtland,  15,736  kilograms. 

In  the  province  of  Gefleborg,  22,414,697  kilograms, 

viz,  13,235,200  kilograms  from  Nyiing,  iu  the  parish  Thorsaker. 

989,600  kilograms  from  the  Erik-Ers-Grube,  in  the  parish 
Thorsaker. 

1.980.700  kilograms  from  Penning  Grube,  in  the  parish  Thor-  | 

saker. 

1.177.700  kilograms  from  the  Sjbhag-Grube,  in  the  parish 

Arsuuda. 

1,745,400  kilograms  from  the  Rodaug-Grube,  in  the  parish 
Ostra  Fernebo. 

In  the  province  of  Upsala,  33,132,273  kilograms, 

viz,  21,405,500  kilograms  from  Danuemora,  iu  the  parishes  Films 
and  Uannetnora. 

1,003,700  kilograms  from  Eaguhild,  in  the  parishes  Films  and 
Danuemora. 

1,173,300  kilograms  from  Steering,  in  the  parish  Morkarla. 
3,991,200  kilograms  from  Ramhall,  (Hammariu,)  iu  the  parish 
Aluuda. 

3,143,S00  kilograms  from  Sahlsta,  iu  the  parish  Lena. 

1,798,000  kilograms  from  Bruuna,  iu  the  parish  Lena. 

In  the  province  of  Stockholm,  29,3G7,6SS  kilograms, 

viz,  3,474,700  kilograms  from  Vigelsbo,  in  the  parish  Yahlb. 

2.934.600  kilograms  from  the  Sandgrube,  in  the  parish  Bbrstil- 
5,146,100  kilograms  from  Skedika  and  Grind,  iu  the  parish  Bor- 

stil. 

1.385.600  kilograms  from  Bjorsta,  in  the  parish  Harg. 


IRON-ORES  OF  SWEDEN - PRODUCTION. 


163 


2,S07,000  kilograms  from  the  Slottsgrube,  in  the  parish  Sbderby. 
Carl. 

4.995.700  kilograms  from  Herrang,  in  the  parish  Hiifvero. 

7.842.200  kilograms  from  Uto,  m  the  parish  Osterlianninge. 

In  the  province  Kopparberg,  178,046,656  kilograms, 

viz,  1,020,200  kilograms  from  the  Dvarnbacks-Gruben,  in  the  parish 
Leksaml. 

21.142.200  kilograms  from  Yinkiirn,  in  the  parish  Svardsjo. 
1,053,400  kilograms  from  the  Sjb-Grube,  in  the  parish  Svardsjo. 

1.839.700  kilograms  from  Skinnariing,  in  the  parish  Yika. 

859,100  kilograms  from  Harmsarf,  in  the  parish  Kopparberg 

3.100.400  kilograms  from  Hastberg,  in  the  parish  Stora  Tuna. 
9,055,200  kilograms  from  Eomme,  in  the  parish  Stora  Tuna. 

2.674.400  kilograms  from  Brafall,  in  the  parish  Stora  Tuna. 
12,870,800  kilograms  from  Stora-Bispberg,  in  the  parish  Siiter. 

1,080,400  kilograms  from  Yestra-Bispberg,  in  the  parish  Siiter. 

1.531.600  kilograms  from  the  Tiigt-Grube,  in  the  parish  Siiter. 

3.469.400  kilograms  from  Knappkiirn,  in  the  parish  JSedemora. 

1.359.900  kilograms  from  the  Oster-Grube,  in  the  parish  Gustaf. 

12.554.500  kilograms  from  Rellingsberg,  in  the  parish  Husby. 

2.505.900  kilograms  from  Rullshyttan,  in  the  parish  Garpenberg" 

1.324.400  kilograms  from  Liingvik,  in  the  parish  Garpenberg. 
2,683,000  kilograms  from  Svartfjiill,  in  the  parish  Garpenberg. 

24.859.200  kilograms  from  Ormberg,  in  the  parish  Grangiirde. 
5,086,600  kilograms  from  Griingesberg,  in  the  parish  Grangiirde. 
4,629,000  kilograms  from  Risberg,  in  the  parish  Grangiirde. 

1.605.100  kilograms  from  Fiibobacken,  in  the  parish  Grangiirde. 

7.820.600  kilograms  from  Fionas,  in  the  parish  Ludvika. 

2.129.200  kilograms  from  Fredmundberg,  in  the  parish  Ludvika. 
7,598,000  kilograms  from  Griisberg,  in  the  parish  Ludvika. 

9.318.500  kilograms  from  Haksberg,  in  the  parish  Ludvika. 

4.338.100  kilograms  from  Ostanberg,  in  the  parish  Norrbiirke. 

7.360.400  kilograms  from  Nyberg,  in  the  parish  Norrbiirke. 
3,282,300  kilograms  from  Gesberg,  in  the  parish  Norrbiirke. 

4.999.600  kilograms  from  Svartberg,Marniis,in  the  parish  Nor  r - 

barke. 

7.481.900  kilograms  from  the  Svartberg,  Svart-Grube,  in  the 

parish  Norrbiirke. 

884,800  kilograms  from  Siksjoberg,  in  the  parish  Norrbiirke. 

1.275.900  kilograms  from  the  Sliit-Grube,  in  the  parish  Norr- 

biirke. 

2.344.500  kilograms  from  Hillang,  in  the  parish  Norrbiirke. 

In  the  province  of  Westmanland,  92,225,667  kilograms, 

viz,  27,716,600  kilograms  from  Risberg,  in  the  parish  Norberg. 

16.112.500  kilograms  from  Morberg,  in  the  parish  Norberg. 

20.138.500  kilograms  from  Klackberg,  in  the  parish  Norberg. 


164  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

6,044,000  kilograms  from  Uddevalla,  in  the  parish  Norberg. 
1,457,800  kilograms  from  the  Badstagn-Grube,  in  the  parish 
Norberg. 

94S,400  kilograms  from  the  Norr-Grube,  in  the  parish  Nor- 
berg. 

4.191.300  kilograms  from  the  Ny-Grube,  in  the  parish  Norberg. 
2,750,800  kilograms  from  the  Finn-Grube,  in  the  parish  Skinn- 

skatteberg. 

3.585.300  kilograms  from  Bastnas,  in  tho  parish  Skinuskatte- 

berg. 

1,003,500  kilograms  from  the  Knlle-Grube,  in  the  parish  Skiun- 
skatteberg. 

2,21G,700  kilograms  from  the  Backe-Grube,  in  the  parish  Skinn- 
skatteberg. 

3.431.500  kilograms  from  Lugndal  and  Springan,  in  the  parish 

Sala. 

1.264.400  kilograms  from  Aby,  in  the  parish  Sala. 

Jn  the  province  of  Unbro,  135, GOO, 051  kilograms, 

viz,  4,014,000  kilograms  from  Lomberg,  in  the  parish  Nya  Koppar-j  i 
berg. 

7.431.900  kilograms  from  Svartvik,  in  the  parish  Nya  Koppar- 

berg. 

995,200  kilograms  from  the  Limbergs,  Moss-Grube,  in  the 
parish  Nya  Kopparberg. 

7,005,900  kilograms  from  Strossa,  in  the  parish  Ramsberg. 

2.479.700  kilograms  from  Blanka  and  the  Karr-Gube,  in  the 

parish  Ramsberg. 

14,290,100  kilograms  from  Stripa,  in  the  parish  Linde. 

2.505.400  kilograms  from  Gronvold,  in  the  parish  Linde. 

2.595.400  kilograms  from  Bredsjo,  in  the  parish  Hjulsjb. 

2.114.300  kilograms  from  Anueniis  in  the  parish  Hjulsjo. 

1.410.500  kilograms  from  the  Stora  Bjbrnhbjde-Grube,  in  the 1 1 

parish  Ujulsjo. 

3.408.400  kilograms  from  Hiigborn,  in  the  parish  Grythytte. 
14,057,400  kilograms  from  Dalkarlsberg,  in  the  parish  Nora. 

3.522.300  kilograms  from  Vikers,  in  the  parish  Nora. 

8.467.700  kilograms  from  Pershyttan,  in  the  parish  Nora. 
27,676,000  kilograms  from  Striberg,  in  the  parish  Nora. 

6.592.100  kilograms  from  Ryngshyttan,  in  the  parish  Nora. 

8.141.100  kilograms  from  Klacka,  in  the  parish  Nora. 

2.792.500  kilograms  from  Fogdehyttan,  in  the  parish  Nora. 

2.576.900  kilograms  from  Hvilare,  in  the  parish- Nora. 

2.926.100  kilograms  from  Slotterberg,  in  the  parish  Jernboas 

3.423.700  kilograms  from  Finushyttan,  in  the  parish  Jernboas 
In  the  province  Werinland,  121,252,392  kilograms, 

viz,  13,487,100  kilograms  from  Nordmark,  in  the  parish  Nordmark. 


IRON-MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 


165 


11,560,100  kilograms  from  Taberg,  in  the  parish  ISTordmark. 

5.382.200  kilograms  from  Finnmossan,  in  the  parish  Nordmark. 
8,327,800  kilograms  from  the  Eug-Grube,  in  the  parish  Fermbo. 

52,972,000  kilograms  from  Persberg  and  Yngshyttan,  in  the 
parish  Fermbo. 

5.886.200  kilograms  from  L&ugban,  in  the  parish  Fermbo. 
3,330,300  kilograms  from  Kroppa,  in  the  parish  Kroppa. 

In  the  province  Sodermanland,  19,231,386  kilograms, 

viz,  4,529,400  kilograms  from  Hogsjo  and  Staf,  in  the  parish  Floda. 
3,412,600  kilograms  from  Sofia,  Wilhelmina,  and  Mosstorp,  in 
the  parish  Skoldinge. 

2,564,700  kilograms  from  Kantorp,  in  the  parish  Skoldinge. 

1.275.900  kilograms  from  Porthfil,  in  the  parish  G&singe. 

3.621.900  kilograms  from  Forola,  in  the  parish  Svartuna. 
1,833,000  kilograms  from  Gilliuge,  in  the  parish  Svartuna. 

In  the  province  Ostgothland,  (Yatorp,  in  the  parish  Skallsvik,)  4,450,169 
kilograms. 

In  the  province  Galrnar,  382,770  kilograms. 

In  the  province  Jonkoping,  9,910,128  kilograms,  of  which  9,457,300  kilo¬ 
grams  were  from  Taberg,  in  the  parish  M&usarp. 

In  the  province  Kronsberg,  19,266  kilograms. 

In  the  iron-mines,  there  were  employed  in  the  year  1871  4,191  steady 
workmen,  436  periodical  workmen,  312  women  and  children — total, 
4,939  persons. 

136.  Methods  and  costs  of  mining.— The  miners  work  by  contract, 
and  in  a  few  places  are  paid  according  to  the  amount  of  ore  obtained, 
but  usually  according  to  the  length  of  drift  excavated.  Sometimes 
these  two  methods  are  combined  in  such  a  way  that  the  owners  of  the 
mine  pay  according  to  the  amount  of  ore  obtained,  and  the  money  is 
divided  among  the  workmen  according  to  the  length  of  each  drift. 
Usually  the  miners  earn  from  2  to  4  francs  a  day ;  sometimes,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  still  more.  Usually  it  is  very  difficult  to  fix 
the  income  of  the  miners  accurately,  for  most  of  them  enjoy  certain 
advantages  in  addition  to  their  mere  wages,  like  free  lodgings  and  firing, 
land  for  potatoes,  fodder  for  a  cow,  &c.;  only  the  workmen  which  at 
present  have  about  4  francs  are  without  these  advantages. 

Usually  the  same  workman  manages  the  drill  as  well  as  the  hammer, 
only  in  a  few  places  does  he  make  use  of  a  special  striker.  The  drifts 
are  usually  only  24  millimeters  wide,  and  cost  for  drilling  downward  1 
to  2.5  francs  per  meter,  according  as  the  workman,  in  addition  to  his 
mere  wages,  enjoys  other  advantages  or  not;  for  drilling  upward — “dry- 
boring” — it  costs  twice  as  much.  Drill  and  hammer  are  now  always  steel. 
For  blasting,  either  gunpowder,  dynamite,  or  “  ammonia-gunpowder,” 
which  latter  consists  of  a  mixture  of  about  20  per  cent,  nitro-glycerine 
with  nitrate  or  picrate  of  ammonia  and  charcoal-powder,  is  used.  Pur- 
nitro-glycerine  has  been  used,  and  at  some  mines  is  considered  the  best 


166 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


blasting  agent;  the  many  accidents,  however,  which  the  latter  has 
occasioned  have  had  such  an  influence  on  its  use  that  it  is  almost  pro¬ 
hibited. 

The  amount  of  work  done  by  each  miner  is  naturally  very  various,  i 
since  it  depends  partly  on  the  degree  of  hardness  of  the  ore,  or  more 
properly  the  bed,  partly  on  the  kind  of  work  and  wages,  and,  finally,  on 
the  blasting  agents  used,  which  must  be  determined  by  the  character  of 
the  mine.  The  following  numbers  may  be  taken  as  the  average: 
Usually  1.5  to  2  meters,  sometimes  3  meters,  are  excavated,  per  day  and 
man  ;  in  drilling  upward,  however,  only  about  1  meter,  and  0.5  to  l.G 
cubic  meters,  or  about  1 ,300  to  3,S00  kilograms  of  loose  ore  are  obtained. 
Per  kilogram  of  dynamite  and  ammonia-powder,  10  to  1G  tons  of  loose  i 
ore  are  obtained,  and  per  kilogram  of  gunpowder,  5  to  G  tons.  The  cost  | 
for  the  ore  brought  up  and  separated  amounts  to  from  2.9  to  10  francs  | 
per  ton. 

Concerning  the  method  of  mining,  that  of  mining  by  levels  is  most  I 
common.  A  shaft  is  sunk  through  the  loose  layers  of  earth  possibly  ] 
present,  and  dee])  enough  into  the  ore-bed  that  the  part  of  it  passed 
through  will  form  a  sale  roof,  if  side-galleries  are  to  be  established,  i 
The  main  shaft  is  continued  downward,  if  the  ore  is  to  be  taken  out  by  I 
levels,  (Strosscnhaus,)  leaving,  however,  the  necessary  supports  or  piers  I 
to  retain  the  walls  of  the  mine. 

The  space  excavated  is  usually  left  open  and  empty;  but  in  a  few  1 
mines,  whose  walls  cannot  be  held  by  supports  or  piers,  but  must  be  | 
strongly  timbered  on  account  of  cracks  and  brittle  places,  they  have  I 
begun  to  fill  up  the  space  with  dead  rock,  and  then  take  out  the  ore  N 
from  the  top  of  the  level,  ( Firstenbau .) 

The  last-named  method  is  unnecessary  in  most  of  the  Swedish  mines  I 
on  account  of  the  solidity  and  strength  of  the  rock,  but  it  will  probably 
come  into  use  iu  the  future  more  than  at  present,  since  many  mines 
have  become  unsafe  through  lapse  of  time.  A  circumstance  that  con¬ 
siderably  hinders  the  use  of  this  method  in  Sweden  lies  iu  the  fact  that 
the  amount  of  dead-rock  necessary  for  filling  up  is  almost  never  found  . 
in  the  mine,  since  about  half  of  the  whole  mass  of  rock  taken  out  is  I 
requisite. 

When  the  ore  is  raised  from  the  mine  vertically,  either  wooden  buckets 
bound  with  iron,  or  those  made  of  Bessemer  steel,  are  employed,  which 
hold  0.1G5  cubic  meter,  or  about  425  kilograms,  of  ore,  and  which  are 
provided  with  wire-ropes  for  hoisting.  When  the  ore  is  brought  out  at 
an  angle,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  tramways  or  railways  with  little 
cars  are  used,  which  likewise  are  attached  to  wire-ropes.  The  water  is 
raised  by  means  of  suction  and  lifting  pumps,  arranged  under  each 
other,  each  of  which  is  niue  meters  long;  in  deeper  mines,  however, 
the  more  suitable  force-pumps  are  found  iu  use,  with  a  forcing-power  of 
about  180  meters.  The  greatest  vertical  depth  of  any  of  the  Swedish 
iron-mines  at  present  is  230  meters. 


IRON-MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 


167 


In  the  smaller  mines  one  engine  sometimes  raises  both  the  ore  and 
the  water;  commonly,  however,  different  motors  are  used  for  these  pur- 
;  poses.  Since  Sweden,  as  has  been  remarked,  abounds  in  rivers,  at  most 
of  the  mines  water-power  occurs,  and  in  order  to  transmit  the  power 
from  the  water-fall  to  the  mine,  sometimes  wooden  shafts,  sometimes 
ropes,  are  used.  Such  shafts,  w'hich  sometimes  have  a  length  of  nearly 
3,000  meters,  are  very  common  for  the  transmission  of  power  to  the 
pumps,  but  are  seldom  used  for  raising  the  ore;  when  the  distance  to 
the  nearest  water-fall  is  too  great  for  the  employment  of  ropes,  for  the 
latter  purpose  steam-power  is  used.  Also  for  pumping  water  the  latter 
power  must  sometimes  be  employed,  and  there  were  in  the  year  1871, 
among  all  the  mines  of  Sweden,  fifty-six  steam-engines  in  use,  most  of 
which,  however,  had  only  ten  to  sixteen  horse  power. 

That  both  the  number  and  the  power  of  the  engines  must  be  in¬ 
creased  is  a  natural  consequence  of  the  increasing  depth  of  the  mines, 
and  also  of  the  increasing  demand  for  ore  ;  for  a  water-power  which  is 
sufficient  to  raise  ore  from  an  inconsiderable  depth  will  be  inadequate 
for  greater  quantities  of  ore  and  greater  depths. 

Owing  to  the  above-mentioned  causes,  the  auuual  consumption  of 
ore  has  been  so  small  in  proportion  to  the  richness  of  Sweden  in  ore, 
that  enough  could  be  obtained  without  difficulty,  usually,  and  the  price 
of  ore  at  most  of  the  mines  has  been  so  small  (6.50  to  9.80  francs  per 
ton)  that,  with  few  exceptions,  the  aim  of  the  proprietors  of  the  mines 
has  been  to  supply  the  small  amount  annually  required  with  the  least 
possible  expense.  Such  a  method  of  procedure  is  in  most  cases  irrecon¬ 
cilable  with  a  rational  system  of  mining,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  such  a 
system  can  ever  be  possible  so  long  as  the  same  ore-bed,  standing  nearly 
vertical,  is  not  worked  by  one  single  company,  but  belongs  to  several 
different  owners,  each  of  whom  works  his  own  shaft,  and  who  may  easily 
come  into  collision  with  each  other  down  below  the  surface.  Besides, 
the  available  water-power  in  many  great  mining-districts  is  not  suffi¬ 
cient  for  raising  immense  quantities  of  ore;  it  stands  to  reason,  how¬ 
ever,  that  a  much  greater  effect  could  be  produced  with  it  if  the  mines 
stood  in  connection  with  each  other,  so  that  the  raising  of  the  ore  and 
the  water  could  be  concentrated  in  a  few  single  shafts,  instead  of  every 
separate  shaft  having  its  own  hoisting  and  pumping  apparatus,  as  is 
now  often  the  case. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the  prospects  of  a  better  future  for 
the  iron-industry,  opened  by  the  high  price  of  iron  at  present,  and  still 
more  by  the  railroads  in  process  of  construction,  have  caused  a  consid¬ 
erable  rise  in  the  price  of  iron-ores,  which  are  now  sold  for  24  to  30 
lraucs  and  more  per  ton  ;  in  addition  to  this,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  in¬ 
creased  value  of  the  mines  will  lead  to  a  more  rational  mining-system 
than  that  hitherto  in  use,  and  many  signs  indicate  that  this  hope  will 
soon  be  fulfilled. 

137.  Bog-iron  ore  and  limonite. — The  bog-ores,  which  consist  of 


168 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


hydrated  sesquioxide,  are  formations  of  the  latest  time,  and  are  con¬ 
tinually  forming  now.  They  occur  in  many  provinces,  and  formerly  were 
used  for  the  direct  production  of  wrought  iron.  They  occur  iu  the 
greatest  quantity  iu  the  province  of  S  mid  and,  and  are  worked  almost 
alone  in  this  province;  since  they  usually  contain  several  tenths  of  a 
per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  cast  iron  only  is  made  from  them. 

The  bog-ores,  which,  according  to  their  appearance,  are  called  “  Pul- 
ver-,”  “Perlen-,”  “Pfenning-,”  or  “Kuchen-ore,”  form  beds  0.75  meter  thick, 
and  occur  usually  iu  marshy  places  a  short  distance  from  the  shores  of  tha 
lakes.  After  the  lakes  are  covered  with  ice  they  are  taken  out  with 
long-handled  shovels  and  steel  sieves.  The  deposit  gradually  forms 
again,  so  that  in  about  twenty  years  a  new  bed  has  formed  iu  the  same 
place.  Owing  to  the  necessity  of  obtaining  the  ore  iu  the  winter,  this 
can  never  be  of  very  great  importance. 

In  the  year  1S71  15,709,444  kilograms  of  bog-ores  were  obtained,  as 
follows:  127,590  kilograms  in  the  province  of  Skaraborg;  555,527  kilo¬ 
grams  in  the  province  of  Calmar;  8,911,SG4  kilograms  iu  the  province 
of  Jonkoping;  and  0,174,403  in  the  province  of  Kronoberg. 

138.  Production  of  pig-iron. — As  early  as  1S30  there  was  a  “  stiick- 
ofen”  or  high  bloomary  furnace  in  operation  in  the  province  of  Jemtlaud, 
but  since  this  time,  a  few  experiments  excepted,  wrought  iron  lias  not 
been  produced  directly  from  the  ore  ;  but  the  iron-ores  are  first  reduced 
to  pig-iron  in  a  cupola-furnace. 

Formerly  the  cupola-furnaces  had  but  1  tuyere  and  were  9  meters  high; 
latterly,  most  of  them  are  increased  in  height,  and  are  provided  with  2 
to  4  tuyeres,  anil  the  newly-built  furnaces  have  a  height  of  from  12  to  10 
meters.  The  height  of  the  cupola-furnaces  at  preseut,  therefore,  varies 
between  9  and  10  meters,  and  their  internal  diameter  between  1.5  and 
1.9  meters  at  the  top  ;  2  and  2.9  meters  at  the  belly  ;  0.S  and  1.4  between 
the  tuyeres.  The  internal  capacity  of  the  furnace-shafts  varies  betweeu 
23  and  90  cubic  meters.  Usually  two,  sometimes  three  or  four,  tuyeres 
are  used ;  iu  a  few  furnaces  there  is  still  only  one  tuyere.  The  diameter 
of  the  tuyeres  is  usually,  in  two-tuyere  furnaces,  betweeu  47  and  00  mil¬ 
limeters.  The  pressure  of  the  blast  varies  betweeu  24  and  90  millime¬ 
ters  of  mercury ;  it  is  generally  30  to  00  millimeters.  Blasts  ranging 
from  cold  air  up  to  air  at  400°  C.  are  used ;  iu  general,  however,  it  is 
scarcely  200°  C. 

Charcoal  is  used  almost  exclusively  as  fuel  in  the  cupola-furnaces.  It 
is  mixed  with  wood  iu  a  few  furnaces,  especially  in  Smalaud,  0.2 1  cubic 
meter  of  oak  wood  corresponding  to  about  1  Swedish  tou,  or  0.105  cubic 
meter  of  pine  charcoal ;  at  most,  every  third  ton  of  coal  is  replaced  by 
wood  in  this  way.  At  Schisshyttau,  where  speigel  iron  is  produced, 
Mr.  Keiller  has  lately  begun  to  employ  wood  iu  greater  quantities,  and 
the  furnace  has  been  built  up  to  17.S  meters  for  the  purpose,  the  upper 
3.5  meters  of  which  form  an  apparatus  for  converting  wood  into  char¬ 
coal,  which  is  heated  by  a  part  of  the  gases,  which  are  very  rich  under 


IKON-MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 


169 


such  proportions.  Besides  wood,  coke  and  some  charcoal  are  used,  and 
the  blast  is  intended  to  have  a  pressure  of  1.18  millimeters  of  mercury, 
and  a  temperature  of  about  500°  0.  In  a  few  spiegel-iron  furnaces  char¬ 
coal  mixed  with  English  coke  is  used,  without  the  addition  of  wood. 

The  coal  is  made  almost  entirely  from  pine  and  fir,  and  every  ton 
(0.165  cubic  meterl  contains  about  21.3  kilograms  of  actual  carbon. 
The  consumption  of  coal  varies  between  5  and  8  cubic  meters  per  ton 
of  pig-iron.  In  the  furnaces,  however,  which  work  the  very  poor  and 
titaniferous  ore  from  Taberg  in  Sm&land,  it  rises  to  15.5  cubic  meters. 
The  ordinary  consumption  of  coal  is  5.8  to  6.6  cubic  meters  per  ton  of 
pig-iron,  or,  when  reckoned  by  weight,  75  to  85  kilograms  clear  carbon 
to  100  kilograms  pig-iron. 

The  ore  is  roasted  in  pieces  the  size  of  one’s  fist,  or  twice  as  large, 
and  then  crushed  between  rollers  or  in  a  Blake  stone-crusher  to  the 
size  of  a  walnut.  The  charges  of  ore  are  made,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  furnace,  of  6  to  10  tons,  or  0.99  to  1.65  cubic  meters  coal,  and  great 
care  is  used  in  charging,  so  that  most  of  the  ore  lies  where  the  most  gas 
comes  up,  which  is  usually  along  the  walls.  In  proportion  to  a  cubic 
meter  of  coal,  more  of  a  poor  ore  can  be  charged  than  of  a  similar  but 
richer  ore  ;  yet  not  enough  of  the  poor  ore  can  be  added  so  that  the 
consumption  of  fuel  per  kilogram  of  pig-iron  produced  will  not  be 
greater  than  for  the  rich  ore.  If  the  unusual  proportions  which  the 
ore  from  Taberg  requires  are  excepted,  the  charges  give  commonly  40 
to  50  per  cent,  of  pig-iron,  and  per  cubic  meter  of  coal  260  to  450  kilo¬ 
grams  of  ore  and  limestone  are  charged.  These  differences  are  by  no 
means  occasioned  by  the  amount  of  iron  in  the  charge,  but  also  by  the 
ease  or  difficulty  of  reducing  the  ore,  so  that  usually  considerably  more 
of  the  hematite  (blood-stone)  can  be  charged  than  of  the  magnetite,  which 
is  not  so  easily  reduced.  In  addition  to  this,  the  charge  of  ore  per 
cubic  meter  of  coal  can  be  greater,  and  therefore  the  consumption  of 
fuel  per  ton  of  iron  less,  in  the  larger  furnaces  than  in  the  small  ones; 
and  naturally  in  a  furnace  in  which  a  higher  temperature  of  blast  is 
employed  more  ore  can  be  added.  Finalty,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the 
carbonization  in  different  places  is  conducted  with  very  different  care¬ 
fulness,  and  good  coal  can  naturally  bear  more  ore  than  loose  and 
brittle  coal. 

According  to  the  capacity  of  the  furnace,  the  descent  of  the  charge  is 
more  rapid  in  the  smaller  furnaces  than  in  the  more  capacious  ones.  In 
the  largest  furnaces,  only  a  small  change  in  the  state  of  the  contents  of 
the  shaft  takes  place  in  twenty-four  hours,  while  iu  the  smaller  ones  they- 
are  renewed  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  times.  The  absolute  change  of 
the  charge,  or  the  number  of  cubic  meters  of  coal  consumed  in  the  uuit 
of  time,  is  in  each'case  greater  in  the  more  spacious  than  in  the  smaller 
furnaces.  In  the  smallest  furnaces,  weekly,  30  to  64  tons,  in  the  medium¬ 
sized,  64  to  85,  and  in  the  largest,  85  to  130  English  tons  of  pig-iron  are 
produced. 


170 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  furnace-gas  is  generally  employed  for  roasting  the  ore  and  heat¬ 
ing  the  blast,  and  in  such  iron  works  as  have  a  lack  of  water-power,  it 
serves  also  for  heating  the  steam-boiler.  If  a  Westman  roasting-fur- 
nace  is  used,  and  a  moderately  high  temperature  of  blast  is  required, 
then  the'  gas  is  only  sufficient  for  the  two  first-mentioned  purposes. 
The  whole  of  the  gas  is  not  available,  but  a  part  escapes  through  the 
top  of  the  furnace,  which  is  usually  open.  The  gas  which  is  used  is 
taken  out  either  by  cylinders  reaching  2.3  to  3  meters  below  the 
top,  or  through  three  or  four  gas-conductors,  opening  about  a  third 
of  the  height  of  the  furnace,  or  3.3  to  5  meters  below  the  top.  A  few 
furnaces  are  provided  with  covers,  but  from  the  way  in  which  the  charg¬ 
ing  is  managed,  they  remain  open  a  third  of  the  time.  Only  at  Scliiss- 
hyttan  is  a  mouth  closed  according  to  the  bell-and  hopper  principle 
employed. 

Most  of  the  pig  is  destined  for  the  “  hearth-finery  ”  according  to  the 
.so-called  Lancashire  method,  and  for  this  purpose  an  iron,  poor  in 
silicon  and  without  adhering  sand,  is  desired  ;  so  the  ordinary  pig-iron 
is  not  cast  in  sand-molds,  but  in  forms  in  which  it  receives  the  shape, 
of  broader  and  flatter  pigs.  Such  iron  is  usually  desired  mottled,  and 
for  that  purpose  the  charges  are  so  mixed  as  to  give  about  a  bisilicate 
slag.  For  the  production  of  iron  destined  for  the  manufacture  of  bar- 
iron,  more  basic  mixtures  are  desired,  and  therefore  greater  quantities 
of  limestone  and  manganiferous  ores  are  employed  than  in  the  charging 
for  merchant-iron,  which  can  often  be  somewhat  acid. 

The  pig-iron  destined  for  the  Bessemer  fiuing  is  usually  blown  gray, 
nevertheless,  however,  with  more  basic  charges  than  the  above-men¬ 
tioned  or  Lancashire  pig-iron. 

In  the  district  of  Dannemora  an  almost  white  iron,  with  small  gray 
spots  like  hail-stones,  which  is  cast  in  sand  in  the  form  of  pigs  of  4  to  0 
meters  in  length,  is  desired  for  theWallon  fining  process.  The  charges 
used  in  the  production  of  this  iron  are  the  most  basic  of  any  in  Sweden, 
with  the  exception  of  those  required  for  spiegel  iron.  They  approach 
much  more  nearly  the  singulo-silicate  than  the  bisilicate,  but  no  lime, 
stone  is  added  to  them,  because  the  Dannemora  ores  are  so  rich  in 
lime  and  magnesia  that  it  happens  that  with  the  low  temperature  of 
the  blast  employed  at  Dannemora,  (from  unwarmed  to  100°  C.,)  the 
smelting  cannot  be  accomplished  without  the  addition  of  silica. 

Ordinary  mottled  Swedish  pig  for  hearth-fining  contains,  generally, 
about  4  per  cent,  carbon,  0.1  to  0.4  per  cent,  silica,  and  0.0L  to  0.03  percent, 
sulphur,  and  also  0.01  to  0.03  per  cent.,  sometimes  even  0.13  per  cent., 
phosphorus.  The  amount  of  silicon  in  the  Bessemer  pig  is  usually 
about  1  per  cent.  ;  in  a  few  places,  however,  it  is  only  0.7  per  cent. 

At  a  few  furnaces,  as  at  Schisshyttan  and  Finusbo,  manganiferous 
spiegel  iron  is  produced.  These  two  furnaces  lie  in  the  province  of 
Kopparberg,  and  work  the  Svartberg  ores  containing  knebelite.  The 
charges  are  made  as  basic  as  possible,  and  for  the  production  of  a  high 


IRON-MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN - TRANSPORTATION.  171 


temperature  the  charcoal  is  mixed  with  some  coke.  The  spiegel  from 
Schisshyttan  contains  occasionally  17  per  cent,  of  manganese. 

Pig-iron  for  ordinary  castings  is  generally  made  from  trisilicate 
charges,  but  this  is  not  very  important,  for  cast  iron  is  imported  from 
England  and  Scotland.  On  the  other  hand,  at  a  few  furnaces,  a  cast  iron 
is  produced  superior  on  account  of  its  great  hardness,  as  at  Finspong, 
where  the  cast  iron  is  used  for  cannons,  projectiles,  car-wheels,  &c.,  and 
at  Aukarsrum,  where  the  cast  iron  is  used  for  projectiles  and  car-axles. 

Finally  pig-iron  is  also  produced  for  malleable  castings ;  for  example 
at  Aker  and  at  Kihlafors. 

The  blast-furnace  slag  serves  quite  often  as  a  building-material,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  cast  in  iron  molds,  and  it  is  very  common  to  employ 
slag-bricks  for  the  outer  wall  both  of  the  cupola-furnace  and  the  roast- 
ing-furnace;  sometimes,  indeed,  the  whole  furnace-shaft  is  built  of  this 
material. 

139.  Means  and  methods  of  transportation. — In  consequence  of 
the  difficulty  of  bringing  together  to  one  place  great  quantities  of  char¬ 
coal  and  ore,  there  have  been  at  one  place  only,  namely,  Finspong,  two 
furnaces  till  within  the  last  year;  and  at  most  of  the  iron-works  the 
material  has  not  been  sufficient  to  maintain  the  single  furnaces  in  unin¬ 
terrupted  activity  for  the  whole  year.  All  the  material  must  be  brought 
to  the  majority  of  the  Swedish  furnaces  on  sleds,  and,  therefore,  the 
blowing  does  not  begin  till  sleighing  comes.  The  duration  of  the  cam¬ 
paign  depends  in  great  measure  upon  the  character  of  the  winter;  for 
the  better  and  longer  the  sleighing  is,  the  more  material  can  be  brought. 
However,  it  has  been  possible  at  only  a  few  places  to  obtain  during  the 
winter  enough  coal  and  ore  to  continue  the  campaign  till  sleighing 
begins  again  the  next  year,  but  it  ceases  usually  about  the  beginning 
or  middle  of  the  following  summer,  and  then  the  furnace-hands  are 
employed  about  the  harvest,  &c.  There  are  examples,  however,  of  the 
campaign  continuing  uninterruptedly  for  six  years,  as  at  Borgvik,  iu 
Wermland. 

At  a  few  of  the  old  iron-works,  which  have  better  communication, 
during  the  last  year  new  furnaces  have  been  erected  beside  the  old 
ones,  so  that  now  not  only  at  Finspong  are  there  two  furnaces,  but  also 
at  Westanfors,  Sandviken,  Hofors,  Dalkarlshyttan,  and  Forsbacka. 
Besides,  at  a  few  others  of  the  older  works  a  second  furnace  is  being 
built,  and  at  some  of  the  greater  Bessemer  plants,  determined  upon 
during  the  last  year,  though  not  yet  completed,  it  is  the  plan  to  erect 
three  or  four  blast-furnaces. 

Through  improved  means  of  communication  the  manufacture  of  pig- 
iron  is  continually  becoming  more  independent  of  the  character  of  the 
winter;  yet  good  and  not  too  short  sleighing  will  always  be  the  chief 
requisite  for  a  considerable  iron-production,  for  the  charcoal-heaps  in 
the  interior  of  the  forest  are  usually  attainable  only  when  the  rivers  and 
lakes  are  covered  with  ice  and  the  snow  has  made  the  trackless  wilder- 


172 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ness  passable.  Therefore,  in  most  cases  the  coal  can  be  brought  to  the 
railroads  or  other  ways  of  communication  only  during  this  time. 

For  man,  horse,  and  cart,  the  price  is  3.5  to  7  francs  a  day ;  under 
the  present  favorable  conjunction,  however,  12  francs  and  even  more. 
For  further  transport,  it  costs  per  kilometer  for  1  ton  20  to  GO  centimes, 
while  the  freight  for  ore,  coal,  and  iron  on  the  government  railways  is 
for  1  Swedish  mile  =  1.411  geographical  miles,  or  10.GSG  kilometers,  1.30 
francs  per  ton;*  10  Swedish  miles,  G.53  francs  per  ton;  20  Swedish 
miles,  10.45  francs  per  ton  ;  30  Swedish  miles,  14.37  francs  per  ton ;  40 
Swedish  miles,  1G.98  francs  per  tou  ;  50  Swedish  miles,  20.58  francs  per 
ton ;  GO  Swedish  miles,  24.17  francs  per  ton  ;  70  Swedish  miles,  27.76 
francs  per  ton ;  but  when  the  distance  is  more  than  twenty  miles,  often 
a  discount  of  20  per  cent,  is  allowed. 

The  furnace-hands,  like  the  miners,  often  have  lodgings  and  other 
advantages,  and  their  rnei'e  wages  are  less,  therefore,  the  greater  the  for¬ 
mer  are ;  they  are  paid  by  contract,  usually  2  to  5  francs  for  the  furnace- 
master  and  1.75  to  2.75  francs  for  the  other  hands. 

The  cost  of  workiug  is  from  4.90  to  G.50  francs  per  ton  of  pig-iron, 
including  the  roasting  and  breaking  of  the  ore. 

Dumber  of  furnaces  and  production. — During  the  year  1871, 
there  were  207  blast-furnaces,  which  together  were  in  operation  37,471 
days  :  293,116,971  kilograms  of  iron  in  pigs,  5,810,489  kilograms  of  cast 
ware,  or  in  all  29S,917,4G0  kilograms  of  iron  were  produced,  and  at  the 
works  themselves  3,812  hands  were  employed. 

140.  Wrought  iron  and  steel. — The  lining  method  most  gener¬ 
ally  used  in  Sweden  is  that  kind  of  hearth-fining  commonly  called  the 
Lancashire  method.  It  is  a  process  which  is  carried  on  in  small  covered 
hearths,  and  the  bloom-iron  obtained  from  the  same  is  afterward  welded 
in  separate  furnaces.  The  hearths  have  usually  two  tuyeres,  soine- 
imes,  however,  only  one,  which  stand  opposite  each  other,  and  each 
opening  in  the  two-tuyered  hearth  is  about  3.5  square  centimeters  in 
size.  The  pressure  of  blast  is  about  SO  millimeters  of  mercury,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  same  is  between  100  and  200°  C.  For  each  bloom 
90  kilograms  of  pig-iron  are  usually  added,  but  this  number  varies  iu 
different  places  between  GS  and  12S  kilograms.  Two  to  three  men, 
who  alternate  with  others,  are  constantly  employed  iu  the  working, 
which  is  continued  day  and  night  for  sis  days  iu  the  week,  in  which 
same  iu  each  hearth  G,800  to  12,S00  kilograms  of  bloom-iron  are  pro¬ 
duced,  with  a  loss  of  about  13  per  cent,  of  pig-iron,  and  a  consumption 
of  fuel  of  4.G  to  G.G  cubic  meters  of  coal,  that  is,  after  reception  iu  the 
coal-shed,  per  tou  of  bloom-iron. 

The  blooms  in  the  larger  iron- works  are  compressed  under  trip-ham¬ 
mers  of  3,400  to  4,300  kilograms'  weight,  which  are  entirely  of  cast 
iron ;  iu  the  smaller  works,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  drawn  under 
wooden-haudled  breast-hammers  -of  only  850  kilograms’  weight,  or 
sometimes  under  steam-hammers  of  650  to  1,300  kilograms’  weight, 

*  1  ton  here,  as  elsewhere  in  this  memoir,  generally  is  equal  to  1,000  kilograms. 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL  OF  SWEDEN.  173 

In  many  places  lately  rolls  have  been  set  up,  with  the  aid  of  which 
the  compressed  bloom  is  rolled  out,  without  reheating,  into  bars,  partly 
for  refined-iron  manufacture  and  partly  for  the  production  of  cast  steel. 
Usually,  however,  the  blooms  compressed  under  the  hammer  are  al¬ 
lowed  to  get  completely  cold  before  they  are  heated  to  welding-heat  in 
separate  ovens,  in  order  to  draw  them  finally  under  the  hammer  or 
through  the  rolls.  A  piling-up  does  not  take  place  except  with  the  cut¬ 
off  ends  and  waste  iron,  but  each  bloom  is  welded  by  itself,  and  this 
welding  occurs  in  the  smallest  works,  sometimes  in  forging-fires,  but 
usually  in  gas  furnaces.  It  is  to  be  noticed  here  that  the  working  of 
the  forges  is  generally  continuous,  so  to  speak,  for  it  does  not  happen, 
as  in  other  countries,  that  the  furnace  is  for  once  filled  up  with  blooms 
and  then  left  to  itself  till  all  the  blooms  together  have  reached  a  weld¬ 
ing-heat,  but  the  furnace  is  very  long,  and  the  blooms  are  introduced 
cold  into  the  end  farthest  from  the  fire-hearth,  and  are  pushed  forward 
by  degrees  toward  the  warmer  part  of  the  furnace,  as  other  blooms  are 
taken  out  at  a  welding-heat,  till  they  are  brought  near  the  fire-bridge, 
where  they  obtain  a  full  welding-heat  and  are  finally  taken  out.  When 
a  welding-hot  bloom,  therefore,  is  taken  out,  all  the  others  are  pushed 
forward,  aud  the  space  at  the  cooler  end  of  the  furnace  is  filled  with  a 
new  cold  bloom,  and  so  it  goes  on  uninterruptedly. 

As  fuel  in  the  gas-furnaces,  in  a  few  places,  charcoal  alone  is  used ; 
usually,  however,  it  is  mixed  with  mineral  coal,  peat,  or  wood  ;  some¬ 
times,  also,  one  of  these  three  last-named  fuels  is  used.  The  furnaces  are 
different  in  their  construction,  according  to  the  fuel  for  which  they  are 
intended  ;  most  of  them  are  variations  of  the  old  Ekman  furnace;  lately 
they  have  given  place  somewhat  to  the  Lundin  welding-furnaces.  They 
are  Siemens  regenerating-furnaces  in  combination  with  condensers  to 
remove  the  water  present  in  the  fuel,  which  in  these  furnaces  consists 
exclusively  of  air-dried  saw  dust,  wood,  or  peat. 

The  action  of  the  welding-furnace  is  very  different,  according  as  the 
bloom  is  drawn  by  means  of  the  hammer  or  rolls,  for  in  the  latter  case 
the  whole  bloom  is  heated  and  drawn  at  once,  while  in  the  former  first 
one  end  is  drawn  and  then,  after  reheating,  the  other.  A  welding-furnace, 
with  apparatus  for  drawing  by  means  of  hammers,  turns  out  weekly 
25,500  to  55,300  kilograms,  while  one  with  rolls  in  the  same  time 
will  produce  51,000  to  85,000  kilograms.  The  consumption  of  fuel  in 
a  welding-furnace  per  ton  of  bar-iron  is  essentially  less  in  the  rolling 
than  in  the  hammering  process,  aud  generally  varies  between  1.9  and 
3.7  cubic  meters  charcoal,  or  0.25  to  0.G  cubic  meters  hard  coal.  In  the 
Lundin  welding-furnace,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  usually  1.8  to  2.5  cubic 
meters  wood,  or  3  to  4.3  cubic  meters  of  air-dried  peat,  or  about  6.8  cubic 
meters  of  saw-dust,  per  ton  of  bar-iron. 

Finally,  the  loss  of  iron  through  the  welding  is  less  in  rolling  than  in 
hammering;  in  the  former  it  is  about 9  per  cent.,  and  in  the  latter  12 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  blooms. 


174 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Rolling-mills  are  naturally  unsuitable  for  small  iron- works,  which, 
however,  can  derive  advantage  from  them  by  discontinuing  their  old 
hammering-process,  and  instead,  producing  only  blooms  which  can  be 
worked  by  one  rolling-mill  common  to  several  such  fining-mills.  In  this 
way  the  rolling-mill  of  Smidjebackeu  up  to  the  year  1S71  had  roiled  the 
most,  but  in  that  year,  however,  Rofors  had  the  greatest  production, 
namely,  0,128,150  kilograms  of  bar  and  refined  iron. 

Besides  the  Lancashire  method,  the  so-called  Franche-Comte  finery- 
process  is  employed,  especially  iu  small  iron-works  in  whose  neighbor¬ 
hood  there  is  no  rolling-mill.  In  the  mauuer  in  which  it  is  here  con¬ 
ducted  it  is  similar  to  the  first,  only  the  welding  of  the  blooms  occurs 
in  the  same  hearth.  In  this  process  the  loss  is  somewhat  less  than  in 
the  Lancashire  method,  in  which  the  welding  takes  place  in  separate 
furnaces;  on  the  other  hand,  the  production  is  not  so  great,  being  only 
3,S00  to  4,300  kilograms  of  bar-iron  weekly  for  each  hearth.  The  great 
fault  is  that  the  consumption  of  coal  is  so  great,  it  being  about  9.7  cubic 
meters  of  charcoal  per  ton  of  bar-iron,  sometimes  even  rising  to  11.6 
cubic  meters  or  more,  which  will  soon  cause  the  discontinuance  of  this 
method,  when  improved  communication  shall  have  increased  the  value 
of  charcoal  in  the  remote  districts. 

In  the  Dannemora  district  the  old  Wallou  process  is  employed,  iu 
which  two  hearths  are  usually  worked  together  in  such  a  way  that  the 
bloom  produced  in  one  is  welded  in  the  other,  and  then  drawn  under 
the  hammer.  The  two  hearths  afford  8,500  to  10,700,  sometimes  even 
12,700,  kilograms  of  bar-iron  weekly,  with  a  consumption  of  charcoal  of 
from  19  to  23,  sometimes,  however,  only  15,  cubic  meters  per  ton. 

In  a  few  places,  finally,  other  fining  methods  are  employed,  but  those 
named  are  the  only  ones  which  now  have  any  importance  for  Sweden. 
Among  them  all,  the  Lancashire  method  affords  the  most  uuiform  and 
densest  iron,  which  again  depends  upou  the  control  which  a  well-regu¬ 
lated  furnace  has  over  the  hands.  If  the  welding  is  done  iu  a  hearth- 
furnace,  it  is  much  easier  for  the  smith  to  draw  a  bar  free  from  flaws 
on  the  outside  from  a  bloom  which  is  not  uniform,  than  when  the  weld¬ 
ing-furnace  is  used,  for  there  the  different  parts  of  the  bloom  are  ex¬ 
posed  to  a  more  uniform  heating.  Since  uniformity  and  compactness 
are  chief  requisites  of  a  good  merchant-iron,  naturally  the  Lancashire 
method  is  the  most  suitable  fining-process  for  the  production  of  such 
iron. 

Of  the  Wallou  iron  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  characterized  by  its  not 
being  uniform,  or  by  a  mixture  of  weak  and  hard,  almost  steel-like, 
iron.  It  is  used  exclusively  for  steel-production,  and  then  the  non- 
uniformity  is  not  very  injurious,  while  the  value  is  really  determined  by 
the  “  body  ”  caused  by  the  properties  of  the  ore  used  for  the  production 
of  the  iron.  Indeed,  it  appears  as  if  the  non-uniformity  of  the  Wallou 
iron  was  a  good  property  iu  the  eyes  of  the  English  steel-manufacturers, 
since  they  are  opposed  to  changing  this  method.  If  the  real  cause  of 


WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL  OF  SWEDEN. 


175 


this  is  sought  for,  it  must  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  hard,  steely 
parts  shorten  somewhat  the  time  required  to  burn  this  iron  to  steel. 

The  mere  wages  of  the  forgers  are  governed  by  the  amount  produced, 
and  the  contract  is  so  drawn  up  that  only  one,  (the  master,)  or  more 
often  two,  (the  master  and  his  helper, each  of  whom  oversees  his  work,) 
are  responsible  for  the  result,  and  must  pay  fines  when  the  loss  of  iron 
or  consumption  of  coal  exceeds  certain  limits;  on  the  other  hand,  how¬ 
ever,  they  obtain  special  pay  for  coal  saved  and  higher  wages  for  the  so- 
;  called  “  overiron  ”  than  for  the  iron  which  they  must  produce  from  a 
certain  amouut  of  pig-iron,  according  to  contract.  In  addition  to  vari¬ 
ous  advantages,  the  master  and  his  helper  have  usually  2,100  francs 
annually,  but  they  must  pay  their  own  help. 

In  the  Lanschire  method,  the  cost  of  working  amounts  to  10  to  13 
francs  per  ton  of  bloom-iron,  and  for  the  welding  and  drawing,  to  about 
10  to  16  francs  per  ton  of  bar-iron,  less  for  rolling,  and  more  for  hammer¬ 
ing. 

During  the  year  1871,  in  the  whole  country,  with  827  active  hearths, 
1S7,791,612  kilograms  of  bar  and  refined  iron  were  produced,  and 
6,073  workmen  were  employed. 

111.  The  pudding-process  is  employed  at  only  a  few  iron-works  which 
manufacture  their  own  iron,  namely:  At  Motala,  Surahammar,  Nyby, 
Gunnebo,  and  Kallinge.  The  fuel  used  in  the  pudding-furnace  is 
usually  English  mineral  coal,  only  at  Surahammar  and  Nybv  wood  is 
employed. 

At  Motala,  in  a  few  puddling-furnaces  a  weak  blast  is  used  under  the 
grate,  and  before  it  is  brought  into  the  ash-pit  its  temperature  is  raised 
by  being  conducted  around  the  furnace-walls  and  under  the  bottom. 
By  measure  the  furnaces  use  about  0.95  cubic  meters,  or  730  kilo¬ 
grams,  of  mineral  coal  per  ton  of  puddled-iron  ;  on  the  average,  the  con¬ 
sumption  of  coal,  after  receiving  into  the  coal-shed,  is  fully  1.2  cubic 
meters,  or  960  kilograms,  per  ton  of  bloom-iron,  about  17  tons  of 
which  are  produced  weekly  from  each  furnace.  Surahammar  uses  about 
6  cubic  meters  of  air-dried  pine  wood  per  ton  of  puddled  iron. 

At  Motala  experiments  are  being  tried  with  Dank’s  self-acting  pud¬ 
dling-furnace.  As  the  puddling  has  hitherto  been  conducted,  the  cost 
of  working  has  been  about  11  francs  per  ton  of  bloom-iron. 

The  welding-furnaces  at  Motala  are  exclusively  heated  with  mineral 
coal,  and  most  of  them  are  provided  with  blast  according  to  Whitten - 
Strom’s  construction.  The  Wittenstrom  welding-furnace,  which  is  used 
elsewhere  in  some  other  iron-works,  is  in  fact  only  a  modification  of  the 
Ekman  furnace,  but  not  the  above  mentioned  with  the  so-called  “  coal- 
tower,”  but  that  for  wood.  The  main  difference  is  that  the  fire-hearth 
of  the  last-named  furnace  has  no  grate,  like  the  Wittenstrom,  and  that 
the  blast,  which  in  the  Ekman  furnace  is  introduced  through  the  end- 
wall  of  the  fire-hearth,  in  the  other  enters  under  the  grate. 

112.  Bessemer  process. — The  Bessemer  process  has  been  used  in 
Sweden  since  its  beginning,  but  in  the  year  1871  not  more  than  8,038,- 


176 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


254  kilograms  of  Bessemer  metal  were  produced,  and,  although  this  pro¬ 
cess  seems  very  suitable  for  Sweden,  since,  on  the  one  hand,  most  of  the 
Swedish  ores  are  well  adapted  for  it,  and,  on  the  other,  the  consumption 
of  fuel  for  the  metal  produced  by  this  process  is  only  about  half  as 
great  as  for  the  Lancashire  iron,  still  the  Bessemer  process  has  not, 
till  of  late  years,  received  a  general  recognition.  The  main  cause  of 
this  lies,  doubtless,  in  the  fact  that  this  method  requires  such  costly  ap¬ 
paratus,  and  on  this  account  is  not  suitable  for  iron-works  with  a  small 
production;  in  addition,  the  Bessemer  process  is  not  well  adapted  for 
the  production  of  bar-iron,  but  requires  the  manufacturing  or  improv¬ 
ing  of  the  ingots  produced  for  ready  wares.  The  last-named  circum¬ 
stance  should  be  no  hinderance  to  the  spread  of  the  Bessemer  process, 
for  a  considerable  increase  of  the  Swedish  iron-industry  can  only  be  ob¬ 
tained  by  producing  some  other  kinds  of  irou  than  bar  iron,  for  the  de¬ 
mand  for  this  in  the  world’s  market  is  usually  very  limited.  In  the  last 
year  Sweden  has  sold  to  foreign  countries  almost  no  other  kinds  of  iron 
than  bar-iron  and  refined  steel,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary,  for  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  the  Bessemer  process,  to  create  a  new  market,  which 
naturally  hinders  the  spread  of  this  process.  All  the  large  iron  works 
completed  lately,  lying  on  the  projected  railways,  are  intended  for  the 
Bessemer  manufacture,  and,  in  addition,  in  the  year  1S72,  four  Besse¬ 
mer  works,  Forsbacka,  Abackshyttan,  Langshyttan,  and  Iggesund, 
have  been  completed,  and  two  others,  Liingbanshyttan  and  Ulfshyttau, 
nearly  so,  and,  finally,  many  iron  works  which  have  hitherto  used  the 
Lancashire  method  are  erecting  Bessemer  works. 

In  the  year  1S71  there  were  seven  Bessemer  works  in  operation,  but 
the  production  at  three  of  them,  which  have  small  upright  furnaces,  was 
very  slight,  from  all  of  them  not  amounting  to  more  than  397,740  kilo¬ 
grams.  The  rest,  or  7,G49,5L4  kilograms,  was  produced  at  Sandviken, 
Westanfors,  Svartniis,  and  Biieka,  where  the  English  movable  furnaces 
are  used.  All  the  Bessemer  works  erected  during  the  previous  year 
have  movable  furnaces,  and  it  is  very  improbable  that  hereafter  any 
stationary  Bessemer  furnaces  will  be  built. 

In  all  the  Swedish  Bessemer  works,  as  hitherto  conducted,  the  pig-iron 
is  taken  directly  from  the  blast-furnace  without  remelting.  In  the  mova¬ 
ble  furnaces  (converters)  charges  of  2,300  to  3,900  kilograms  are  em¬ 
ployed.  The  converters  have  six  to  seven  brick  tuyeres,  each  of  which 
has  six  to  seven  holes,  with  a  diameter  of  11  to  18  millimeters.  The 
pressure  of  blast  is  usually  between  GOO  and  900  millimeters  of  mercury, 
and  the  whole  process  is  finished  generally  in  4  to  10  minutes.  With 
the  exception  of  Sandvicken,  where  steam  is  partly  used,  all  the  larger 
Bessemer  works  use  water-power  entirely.  The  blowing-engines,  both 
at  the  above-named  works  and  those  lately  erected,  are  from  350  to 
over  500  horse  power. 

At  some  Bessemer  works  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  spiegel  iron  is  added 
toward  the  close  of  the  process ;  in  others,  however,  which  work  more 
manganiferous  ores,  no  addition  of  spiegel  is  necessary,  since  as  soft  au 


STEEL-WORKS  AND  ROLLING-MILLS  OF  SWEDEN.  177 

iron  as  desired  may  be  produced  in  them  without  danger  of  redshort- 
uess. 

Of  the  weight  of  pig-iron  used,  85  to  89  per  cent.  Bessemer  ingots  is 
generally  obtained,  and  only  a  few  per  cent,  of  waste. 

143.  Martin  steel ,  cement-steel ,  &c. — Since  the  year  1868,  at  Munk- 
fors,  cast  steel  has  been  produced  in  a  Siemens  regeuerating-fur- 
nace  with  a  Lundin  condenser,  according  to  the  method  of  Martin. 

|  Also,  at  Lesjofors,  such  steel  has  begun  to  be  produced,  and  experiments 
on  a  smaller  scale  have  been  commenced  at  some  other  works. 

The  furnaces  are  small,  holding  only  800  to  1,300  kilograms.  For  fuel 
air-dried  wood  is  used ;  6  to  7.4  cubic  meters  per  ton  of  melted  steel  or 
iron.  The  most  noticeable  fact  is  that  in  this  way  uniformly-soft  iron 
can  be  produced  successfully,  which  is  rolled  into  nail-iron  or  wire. 

At  Wiksnanshyttan  cast  steel  is  produced  by  the  Uchatius  method, 
from  granulated  pig-iron  mixed  with  powder  of  rich  ore  and  a  little 
charcoal.  The  fusing  takes  place  iu  graphite  crucibles  in  ordinary 
English  furnaces  heated  with  coke.  The  steel  produced  in  this  way  is 
suitable  for  such  purposes  as  require  great  compactness  with  considera- 

Ible  hardness,  as  for  dies,  hammers,  &c. 

Hitherto  cement-steel  has  been  pretty  generally  produced,  which  is 
drawn  before  it  goes  into  the  market  under  various  names.  At  Sura- 

Ihammar  and  Motala  puddled  steel  is  also  produced,  and  at  Graningo 
some  raw  steel  is  made  on  the  hearth.  In  addition,  cast-steel  works 
have  been  erected  at  Osterby  for  melting  in  crucibles  in  a  Siemens- 
Lundin  furnace,  using  wood  as  fuel. 

The  iron  and  steel  manufacture  is  not  yet  great  enough  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  the  country  itself;  it  is  hoped,  however,  that  in  a  few 
years  quite  different  relations  in  this  respect  will  come  about,  for  all  the 
greater  Bessemer  works  mentioned  below  are  intended  for  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  rails  and  other  railroad  material,  together  with  sheet-iron. 

144.  Rolling-mills. — The  foremost  of  the  rolliug-mills,  hitherto  in 
operation,  for  sheet-iron  is  Motala,  and  next  Surahammar  and  Kloster 
are  the  greatest,  although  at  the  last  mentioned  only  thin  plate, like 
wire-plate,  &c.,  is  made.  At  Surahammar  puddled  iron  is  used  exclu¬ 
sively  for  the  manufacture  of  plate:  at  Motala  the  Bessemer  irou  from 
this  and  other  iron-works  is  used.  At  Kloster  the  Lancashire  iron  was 
formerly  employed,  but  they  have  in  view  now  the  plan  of  using  the 
Bessemer  iron  from  Langshyttau,  which  belongs  to  the  same  company. 

Irpn  rails  of  the  ordinary  dimensions  at  present  can  be  produced  at 
only  two  works,  namely,  Motala  and  Smedjebacken.  At  the  first-named 
works,  during  the  year  1871  there  were  rolled  out— 


Kilograms. 

Bessemer-steel  rails . . . .  1, 190,  200 

Puddled-iron  rails . . . .  76,  400 

Puddled-iron  rails  with  heads  of  Bessemer  steel .  870,  900 


Total .  2,137,500 

12  i 


178 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


At  Smedjebacken,  iu  the  same  year,  1,083,792  kilograms  of  rails  were 
rolled,  119,084  kilograms  of  which  were  from  the  Bessemer  steel  from 
from  Backa,  and  the  rest  from  Lancashire  iron. 

Car-wheels  of  wrought  iron  are  manufactured  only  at  Surahainmar, 
where  tires  of  puddled  steel  are  also  made ;  Sandviken  is  the  only  place, 
however,  where  tires  have  been  made  in  large  quantity,  and  from  Besse¬ 
mer  steel  hitherto. 

At  Surahainmar  car-axles  of  puddled  steel  are  made,  and  at  a  few 
machine-shops  machine-axles  from  iron-waste  are  made;  but  the  chief 
places  for  the  production  of  large  axles  at  present  are  Motala,  where 
they  can  be  obtained  either  of  Bessemer  or  puddled  steel  as  desired  ; 
and  also  Fagersta  and  Sandviken,  which  make  them  only  of  Bessemer 
steel. 

Nails  are  manufactured  at  many  works  and  iu  very  different  ways, 
but  this  manufacture  is  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent  in  the  prov¬ 
inces  of  Blekinge  and  Ostgothland,  where  they  are  made  mostly  by  cut¬ 
ting  out  of  plate,  and  next  in  Wermland,  where  they  are  produced 
mainly  by  machines  from  wire.  Besides  this,  many  nails  are  manufac¬ 
tured  by  hand. 

A  part  of  the  Bessemer  metal  of  YVestanfors  is  worked  at  Fagersta, 
which  belongs  to  the  same  proprietor,  to  gun -barrels,  saws,  and  springs; 
but  Eskilstuna  is  the  chief  place  for  the  manufacture  of  small  articles 
of  iron  and  steel,  like  locks,  tools,  knives,  arms,  &c. 

Wire  is  drawn  at  many  works,  as  Kolsva,  Bofors,  Degerfors,  Gunnebo, 
Eesjbfors,  and  Munkfors;  but  Lesjofors  is  the  main  place  for  wire-draw¬ 
ing,  and  part  of  the  wire  is  employed  on  the  spot  for  the  manufacture 
of  rope  and  nails. 


145.  Table  showing  the  amount  of  ore  obtained  and  llic  manufacture  of  pig  and  wrought  iron , 
steel  and  manufactured  wares,  in  the  gears  1860,  1865,  1870,  and  1871,  as  far  as  it  has 
been  announced  by  the  Iiogal  Commercial  College. 


18110. 

1865. 

1870. 

1871. 

Kiloqs. 

395, 115. 000 
22.  2-28,  000 

Kilogs. 

496,  821,  000 
20,  312, 000 

Kilogs. 

617,  037,  000 
13,  756,  000 

Kiloqs. 
617, 119,  000 
15,  769,  000 

Total  iron-ores . 

Pi  Of  . 

117,373,  000 

517, 136,  000 

630,  793,  000 

602,  888,  000 

179.  912,  000 
5,  237,  000 

221,  389,  000 
5,  350,  000 

293,  278,  000 
7,  218,  000 

293, 118, 000 
5,  800, 000 

Cast-iron  waios  produced  directly  at  the  blast¬ 
furnace. 

Total  cast  iron . 

185, 149,  000 

226.  739,  000 

300,  496,  000 

298.  918,  000 

130,  932,  000 

21,  239,  000 

148,  512,  000 
f  4,  425,  000 
2,  988,  000 
\  5,  986,  000 

5,  957,  000 
[  7,  852,  000 

193,  908,  000 
6,  637,  000 
5,  550,  000 
5,  735,  000 
4,  787,  000 
10,  304,  000 

187.  792,  000 
*8,  038,  000 
4,  013,  000 
6,  504,  000 
6,  138,000 
14,  362,  000 

Bessemer  ruetal . ) 

0  htr  steel . 

Plate . ! 

Nails . | 

Implements  and  sundries . J 

*  This  number  does  not  correspond  witli  that  of  the  Commercial  College,  for  the  production  of  Wes- 
tanfors  Svavtuas,  and  Btieha,  for  1871,  is  not  included  in  the  latter. 


Table  showing  the  export  and  import  of  ore,  pig,  cast,  and  wrought  iron,  steel,  and  manufactured  wares  in  the  gears  1860,  1865,  1870,  and  1871. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 


179 


Table  showing  the  ore  obtained  and  the  iron  manufactured,  as  well  as  the  number  of  hands,  in  the  different  provinces  during  the  gear  1871,  as  published  bg  the 

.  liogal  Commercial  College. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


180 


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Table  showing  the  ore  obtained  and  the  iron  manufactured,  as  well  as  the  number  of  hands,  in  the  different  provinces, 


IRON  AND  STEEL  MANUFACTURE  IN  SWEDEN. 


181 


These  numbers  do  not  correspond  with  those  of  the  Commercial  Colb-ge,  for  the  production  of  Westanfors,  Svartniis,  and  Biicka  is  omitted  in  the  latter. 


182 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


14G.  Locality  of  greatest  production. — It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing 
table  that  the  greatest  production  of  ore  is  in  th  e  province  of  Ivoppar- 
berg,  and  then  follow  Orebro,  Wermland,  and  Westmanland. 

The  largest  production  of  pig-iron  is  in  Orebro.  Among  the  provinces 
rich  in  ore,  Westmanland  has  the  smallest  production  of  pig-iron,  uot 
only  absolutely  but  relatively  to  its  production  of  ore.  This  is  owing  to 
the  fact  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  ore  obtained  from  its  largest  mine, 
Norberg,  is  taken  to  other  provinces,  as  Gefleborg,  Kopparberg,  Ostgoth- 
land,  Calmar,  West-Norrland,  and  Westerbotten,  while  the  inhabitants 
of  Westmanland  use  a  great  part  of  their  abundance  of  coal  for  hearth- 
firing  the  pig-iron  obtained  from  the  provinces  Kopparberg  and  Orebro. 
Also,  in  the  provinces  of  Wermland  and  Kop]  aiberg,  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  pig-iron  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  ore  obtained, 
since,  as  has  been  mentioned,  a  part  of  the  ore  of  these  provinces  is 
taken  to  the  blast-furnaces  in  the  provinces  of  Orebro  and  of  Kop¬ 
parberg,  and  many  other  furnaces.  By  far  the  greatest  part  of  the 
ore  obtained  in  the  piovinces  of  Upsala  and  Stockholm  is  taken  to  other 
provinces,  as  Norrland,  and  to  Ostgothland  and  Calmar.  The  last' 
named  provinces,  which  aic  poor  in  ore,  fetch  their  ore  both  from  the 
Norberg,  in  the  province  of  Westmanland,  which  has  been  already  men¬ 
tioned,  and  also  from  the  region  of  Nora,  in  the  province  Orebro,  from 
Griingesberg,  and  many  other  places  in  the  province  of  Kopparberg. 

Although  the  manufacture  of  bar-iron  is  grea  test  in  the  province  of 
Orebro,  yet  it  does  not  correspond  to  the  product  ion  of  pig-iron;  for  a 
great  part  of  the  pig-iron  is  sold  as  such  partly  to  other  provinces,  partly 
to  foreign  countries.  The  same  holds  good,  though  in  a  less  degree,  of 
the  province  of  Kopparberg,  whence  pig-iron,  for  the  purpose  of  con¬ 
version  into  wrought  iron,  is  imported  into  the  provinces  of  Ostgoth- 
laud,  Westmanland,  West-Norrland,  Calmar,  &c.  The  production  of 
bar-iron  is  greatest  in  the  provinces  of  Wermland  and  Orebro,  and  next 
following  them  Gefleborg,  Westmanland,  and  Kopparberg. 

As  has  been  shown  above,  considerable  interchange  of  ore  and  pig. 
iron  takes  place  between  the  different  provinces.  This  is  partially  ac¬ 
counted  for  by  the  fact  that  many  works,  in  consequence  of  lack  of  fuel 
and  other  circumstances,  can  be  carried  on  more  a  dvantageously  in  other 
places  than  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  mine;  part  ly  also  because  some 
mines  lie  so  near  the  boundary  of  the  prov  ince  that  the  transportation 
of  the  ore  from  one  province  to  another  is  a  small  matter.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  transportation  would  he  wholly  unnecessary  if  many  works 
had  not  been  in  the  beginning  located  disadvantageous^',  and,  there¬ 
fore,  many  alterations  for  the  better  may  be  expected  when  those  uow 
building,  and  possibly  also  other  means  of  communication,  shall  have 
beeu  completed. 

147.  Chemical  composition  of  Swedish  ores. — The  following 
tables  contain  the  results  of  analyses  of  the  principal  iron-ores  of  « 
Sweden;  the  locality,  name  of  the  chemist,  and  a  reference  to  the  origi¬ 
nal  publication: 


Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores. 


ANALYSES  OF  SWEDISH  IRON-ORES. 


183 


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184 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


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ANALYSES  OF  SWEDISH  IRON-ORES. 


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Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores — Continued. 


186 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


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ANALYSES  OF  SWEDISH  IRON-ORES, 


187 


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Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores — Coutiuued. 


188  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ANALYSES  OF  SWEDISH  IRON-ORES. 


189 


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190 


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192 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


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194 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


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Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores — Continued. 


ANALYSES  OF  SWEDISH  IRON-ORES.  195 


Tho  analysis  is  given  in — 

Anal.  -  Buchd.  Bergsclmlo 

No.  2,  118. 

(  Anualen  desEisen-Compt. 

i  1861,  p.250. 

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A.  d.  E.  1862,  p.  361. 

A.-B.  d.  B.  No.  2121. 

* 

A.-B.  d.  B.  No.  1079. 

A.  d.  E.  1860,  p.  476. 

Oxygon  content  of  the  slag-forming 
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IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF  NORIIBOTTEN. 

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IN  THE  PROVINCE  OF  GEFLE110RG. 

Parish  Voxm. 

Gyrnfis,  Konst-Grubo . 

Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores — Continued. 


196 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


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198 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


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Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores — Continued. 


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Analyses  of  Swedish  iron-ores — Continued. 


204 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


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ANALYSES  OF  SWEDISH  IRON-ORES. 


205 


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206 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


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CHAPTER  VI. 


|  • 

SPAIN,  RUSSIA,  AND  SIBERIA. 

SPANISH  IKON-MINES  ;  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  OBJECTS  ;  EXTENT  AND  CONDITION  OF 
THE  IRON-INDUSTRY  OF  THE  RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  IN  1871 ;  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  ; 

Product  of  iron-ores  and  of  cast  iron;  Ikon  and  steel;  List  of  iron¬ 
works  in  the  Russian  Empire;  Production  of  coal;  List  of  collieries; 
Petroleum  and  chromic  iron  ;  Other  minerals  and  metals. 

148.  Spain. — A  number  of  tbe  iron-mines  of  Spain  were  represented. 

(by  samples.  It  is  well  known  that  a  large  amount  of  money  has  been 
invested  in  Spanish  iron-mines  by  British  capitalists.  Although  it  has 
been  provided  by  legislative  authority  that  no  export  duty  shall  be  im¬ 
posed  upon  ores  before  the  year  1881,  an  attempt  was  made  to  collect  a 
duty  of  about  25  cents  a  ton,  but  this  failed  through  the  protests  of  the 
English,  French,  and  German  governments.  A  duty  of  about  13  cents 
is  exacted  by  the  municipality  of  Bilbao.  The  capacity  of  production 
and  of  export  of  Spanish  ores  is  important  to  the  iron-industry  of  the 
United  States,  especially  as  a  certain  amount  of  these  ores  are  imported 
for  the  manufacture  of  spiegel  iron. 

The  number  and  distribution  of  the  i»on-mines  of  Spain,  together 
with  the  production  for  the  years  1869  and  1S70,  are  shown  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  tabular  statement : 


Provinces. 


IAlraeria _ 

Badajcs . 

Biscay . 

Burgos . 

Cordoba.... 

Gerona . 

Guadalajara 
Guipuzco' . . . 

Levu . 

Logrono _ 

Liwo . 

Mai  (aga . 

Murcia . 

•  Navarre _ 

Orense . 

Oviedo . 

'  Santander... 

Seville . 

Tarragona  .. 

Teruel . 

Toledo . 


1869. 

1870. 

No.  of 

Produce  in 

No.  of 

Produce  in 

mines. 

quintals. 

mines. 

quintals. 

6 

87,  200 

6 

87,  600 

6 

24,000 

6 

28,  000 

75 

1,648,  000 

75 

2,  503,  575 

2 

3,  318 

3 

7,  500 

1 

4,  000 

1 

2,  000 

2 

2,  238 

8 

1,962 

4 

4,  051 

29 

184,  970 

29 

159,  000 

10 

13,  950 

10 

9,319 

5 

36,  320 

5 

18,  029 

I 

9,  443 

1 

10,  880 

7 

103,  860 

8 

200,  070 

14 

135,  500 

14 

157,  528 

8 

114,  740 

8 

77,  640 

1 

5  359 

56 

335,  492 

49 

694,  525 

36 

345,  387 

29 

352,  420 

6 

32,  077 

6 

32,  392 

3 

500 

1 

250 

2 

8,  400 

o 

11,  000 

3 

14,  000 

6 

12,  180 

3,  113,  405 

4,  365,  870 

Total 


208 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


149.  The  iron-manufactures  of  Russia.— Tlie  iron  aud  steel 
display  from  Russia  is  arranged  very  tastefully  in  the  alcoves  betweeu 
the  high  columns  of  the  main  nave.  Upon  a  crimson-cloth  background, 
surmounted  by  a  gilded  imperial  crown,  the  manufactures  of  the  im¬ 
perial  works,  consisting  of  sword-blades  aud  other  material  of  war,  are 
skillfully  displayed,  as  if  they  were  trophies.  Parts  of  cannon,  steel  shot 
and  shell,  chain-cables,  rails,  and  bar-iron  are  grouped  at  the  base, 
together  with  huge  masses  of  the  ore.  The  display  by  Poutiloff  is  sim¬ 
ilarly  arranged,  but  consists  chiefly  of  steel  aud  iron  rails  radially  dis¬ 
posed  above  a  monumental  mass  of  ores.  In  Prince  Demidoff’s  exhibi¬ 
tion  the  iron-ores  are  grouped  with  polished  masses  of  malachite.  Broken 
steel  ingots,  and  copper  ingots,  also  broken  to  show  the  grain,  stand  side 
by  side.  There  is  also  a  hue  group  of  polished  iron  rods,  tied  iu  knots, 
without  showing  a  crack  or  Haw,  and  of  rails  twisted  into  ringlets,  to 
prove  their  extreme  toughness  and  uniformity. 

The  famous  sheet-iron  of  the  country  is  shown  iu  sheets  of  all  sizes  and 
degrees  of  thickness,  and  specimens  the  size  of  visiting-cards  have  been 
freely  distributed.  Among  the  more  instructive  and  novel  parts  of  the 
collections  are  models  of  iron  works  showing  the  roofs  supported  upon 
a  series  of  semicircular  iron  arches  springing  from  the  level  of  the  floor; 
a  series  of  drawings  of  Rachette’s  furnaces,  and  maps  showing  the  extent 
of  the  mineral  industries  of  the  empire.  The  iron-metallurgists  of  Rus¬ 
sia  are  not  behind  those  of  Europe  in  the  introduction  of  new  and 
improved  methods.  Great  advances  have  been  made  in  the  production 
of  cast  steel  on  a  large  scale,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  guns  of 
large  caliber,  several  of  which  are  exhibited  from  the  works  of  Oboukoff. 
The  largest  is  a  12-inch  rifled  breech-loader,  weighing  SI, 000  pounds. 
There  are  fine  groups  of  railway  tires,  axles,  aud  other  railroad-material, 
from  the  same  establishment.  Rachette’s  system  of  furnaces  is  ex¬ 
tensively  used,  and  is  said  to  give  remarkable  results.  The  Bessemer 
and  Siemens-Martin  processes,  for  the  production  of  steel,  are  successfully 
introduced. 

149.  /Statistics. — An  interesting  resume :,  by  the  mining  engineer 
Skalkovsky,  of  the  mining-industry  of  Russia,  with  statistical  tables  of 
the  production  of  iron  aud  other  metals,  was  distributed  by  the  Russian 
commission,*  and  is  the  source  of  the  following  data  aud  general  obser¬ 
vations.  The  iron-industry  was  diminishing.  In  1S70  there  were  1,283 
works  in  operation,  aud  1,174  iu  1871.  Of  steel,  536,080  pounds  were 
produced  iu  1870,  and  442,241  in  1S71.  The  production  of  cast  iron  was 
slightly  greater  in  1871  than  iu  1870,  as  shown  in  the  following  table, 
giving  a  general  view  of  the  extent  and  condition  of  the  iron-industry 
of  Russia  in  1870  aud  1871  : 

Cast  iron,  (poudst) .  21,959,326  22,  004,  51S 

Wrought  iron,  (ponds) . . . .  15,  217,  908  14,  958,  597 

*  Tableaux  statistiques  de  l' Industrie  des  Mines  en  Eussie  en  1871,  par  C.  Skalkovsky, 
Ingmieur  dcs  Mines.  St.  Petersburg,  1873.  8vo.,  pamphlet,  pp.  40. 

t  The  Russian  poucl  is  equivalent  to  10.3808  kilograniS. 


PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 

IN  RUSSIA. 

209 

1870. 

1871. 

steel,  (pouds) . 

536,  086 

442,  241 

ron  and  steel  works,  (number) . 

214 

214 

ligh  furnaces,  (number) . . „ 

245 

222 

(diddling  furnaces,  (number) . 

445 

•  431 

tefining-furnaces,  (number) . . . 

692 

667 

Gorges,  (number) . . . 

924 

818 

Steel-furnaces,  (number) . . 

495 

372 

The  imports  and  exports  of  iron  and  steel  in  1872  were  as  follows : 


Imports,  pouds. 

Exports,  pouds. 

Europe. 

Asia. 

Europe. 

Asia. 

•  2,  923,  305 
13,  890,817 
812,  355 

14,  947 
262,  714 

5 

46,  084 
4,  853 

4,  211 

A  full  list  is  given  of  the  iron-works  of  the  empire,  with  their  produc¬ 
tion  for  the  year  1871.  The  two  following  tabular  statements  are  con¬ 
densed  from  the  list : 

Table  of  production  of  iron-ore  and  of  cast  iron  in  the  Russian  Empire  in  1871,  (in  ponds.) 

[One  Russian  poud  =  10.  3808  kilograms.] 


O 

> 

Ores  ex¬ 
tracted. 

Ore  and 

Cast 

iron. 

O 

o 

Establishments. 

slag 

smelted. 

Pig-iron. 

Various 

objects. 

12 

4,  216,  593 
142,  300 
27,  094,  488 

8  381  938 

5,  055,  954 
161,  720 
25,  287,  043 
7,  147,  711 
69,  862 
1,  373,  587 
538  903 

2, 120, 121 
50,  661 
11  181  017 

150,  370 
11,  051 
1,  807,  436 
855,  238 
10,  803 
22,  348 
30  888 

2 

55 

2G 

2,  309,  725 

8  180 

1 

53,  671 

1,  370,  512 
538,  903 

8 

2 

Private  -works,  western  and  southern  provinces. 

323,  729 
274,  581 
177,  863 

1, 178,  576 

1,  230, 181 

3 

1,  058,  115 
5,  444,  397 

2,  522,  751 

593',  470 

5,  261,  453 
3,  077,  449 

26,  630 

31 

235,  111 

15 

50,  823,  668 

48,  567,  152 

18,  854,  634 

3, 149, 875 

22,  004,  509 

Table  of  production  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  Russian  Empire  in  1871,  (in  pouds .) 


[One  Russian  poud  =  16.  3808  kilograms.] 


Establishments. 


13 

2 

98 

19 

1 

2 

13 

4 

36 

25 


Crown  works . 

Cabinet  of  His  Imperial  Majesty . 

Private  works,  TJra  1 . 

Private  works  about  Moscow . 

Private  works,  Caucasus . . 

Private  works,  Siberia . . 

Works  not  under  the  mining  administration 

Crown  works,  Poland . 

Private  works,  Poland . 

Private  works,  Finland . 


Ear -iron. 

Sheet-iron. 

Steel. 

585,  385 
17, 108 
5,  254,  076 

1,  650,  864 

1  217 

139,  529 
1,220 
2,  456, 192 
106,011 

112, 070 
251 
70,  975 

123,  381 
2,  648,  818 
129  960 

16,  932 
228,  198 

1,  055 
48,  278 
1,560 

616 
193,  704 

890,  524 
658,  289 

64,  625 

11,  959,  622 

2,  998,  975 

442,  241 

Total 


210  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

The  Russian  Mining  Journal,  1S72,  presents  a  statement  of  the  pro-  | 
duction  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  in  the  Ural  district  for  each  successive  • 
ten  years,  commencing  from  1797,  as  follows  :  * 


Cast  iron.  Wrought  iron. 


Period. 


1707-1807. 

1807-1817. 

1817-1827. 

1827-18:17 

1837-1847 

1817-1857 

1857-1807 


Pouds. 


6, 135,  312 

6,  307,  108 
0,  830,  560 

7,  510, 167 
6, 113,  758 
0,  923, 167 

12, 180,  a27 


Tons. 

Pouds. 

Tons. 

103,  791 

3,  820,  067 

61,  613 

101,  713 

3,  993,  111 

61,405  1 

1 10,  268 

1,  566.  263 

73, 681  | 

121.  760 

1,  987,  351 

60,  111 

136,  028 

5,  830,  761 

91,  011 

ICO,  055 

7,  016,  205 

113,648  1 

201,  303 

8,  021,  561 

129, 380  I 

15U.  Iron  works  in  the  Russian  Empire. — The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  imperial,  royal,  and  private  iron-works  in  the  Russian  Empire, 
with  their  production  of  iron  and  steel  in  the  year  1S7I :  t 

Production  of  iron-ore  and  of  cant  iron. 


Works. 


A. —  Crown  works. 

1.  Kamensky . 

2.  Zlatooiistofsky . 

3.  Satkinsky . 

4.  Koucinsky . 

5.  Koucbvinsky . 

<>.  Barantchinsfcy . . 

7.  Verkhn iO-Touriusky . 

8.  Peskovsky . 

9.  Licitcliausky . 

10.  Kontckosersky . . . 

11.  Soudiarvsky . 

12.  Valazmiusky . . 

Total . 

B. —  T forks  pertaining  to  the  cabinet  of  the 
Emperor. 


13.  GonriOvsky . 

14.  Petrovsky . 

Total . 

C. — Private  work,  Ural. 

13.  Xigouie  Saldinsky . 

16.  Nigenic-Taghilsky . 

17.  Yerkhni6-Saldinsfcy . 

18.  Vicitno-Cbaitansky . 

19.  Verkh-Isetsky . 

■20.  Rejevskoi . 

21.  Vorkhniene'ivinsky . 

22.  Netvinskorondiansky . . . 

23.  Verkbnid-Tagbilsky . 

21.  Ontkinsky,  (Jakovlev) . 

25.  Neivo  Alapaievsky . . 

26.  Xeivo  Chnitansky . 

27.  Verkhnie-Smiatchikbinsky . 

28.  Neviansky . 

29.  Petrokamensky . 

30.  Nigenid-Serghinsky . 

31.  Verkhnie-Sergliiusky . 

32.  Kychtymsky . 

33.  Kaslinsky . 

31.  Kiasepetrovsky . 

33.  Syoertsky . 

36.  Sieversky . 

37.  Molebsky . 

38.  Outkinsliy,  (Souksounsky) . 


Iron-oro 

mined. 

Iron  nro 
ami  slag 
smelted. 

Production  of  cast  iron. 

Pig-iron. 

Various 

objects. 

Pouds. 

Pouds. 

Pouds. 

Pouds. 

562,  500 

512,  598 

162,335 

19,  811 

259.  865 

252,  268 

109,  798 

6,655 

400,  000 

648.  002 

305,  959 

5,  763 

350,  0U0 

420,011 

151,  259 

21,218 

) 

(  1,012,235 

5.31,  106 

19,  933 

>  2,  039,  313 

<  585,891 

325,  312 

17,712 

(  291,295 

158,  787 

1,  705 

480,  521 

669,  8.50 

210, 278 

23.  528 

23,  313 

91,  371 

30,  972 

75.  297 

21,  386 

66 

100,819 

161,  775 

42,  905 

3,816 

. 

129,  358 

39,  894 

169 

4.  216,  593 

5,  055,  954 

2.  120, 121 

150,  379 

12,  300 

47,770 

19,  117 

1.724 

100,  000 

113,  950 

31,  544 

9,317 

112,  300 

161,  720 

50,  661 

11,051 

1 

r  27, 633 

13,  428 

3,253 

I  1.  471,  628 

806,  064 

1G3,  601 

S  4,  5G5,  327 

1  1,  256,  023 

691,076 

117, 142 

[  521, 826 

321,  536 

22, 281 

1S1.  850 

318,  629 

173,  968 

31,  548 

180.  972 

489,  352 

261, 108 

27,  550 

10.  000 

131, 389 

65,  571 

8,  874 

205,  000 

404,  809 

215, 190 

31,891 

128,  215 

518,  811 

260,  878 

46.  866 

110,  000 

321,  791 

119,  756 

66,614 

1, 053,  458 

1,  055, 458 

477,  333 

37,  917 

378, 262 

378.  262 

186,  323 

23,  947 

558,  764 

558,  764 

248,  739 

13,  492 

799.  981 

575.  934 

265,  086 

43,  699 

260,  941 

244,  566 

104,  916 

24,  997 

475.  894 

382,  760 

118,231 

22,  480 

526,  250 

297,  683 

116,  521 

8,  843 

821,  503 

597,  449 

261,  237 

52,  000 

462,  224 

338,  270 

167,  750 

15,  091 

514.  970 

303, 386 

120,011 

40,  252 

1,  436,  570 

1.  087,  201 

522,  005 

40,  599 

517,  000 

193,  851 

200,  654 

59,  473 

279,  722 

245,  277 

105,  370 

15,  818 

410,  160 

463,  906 

208,  257 

23,  712 

“Cited  in  Jour.  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  by  David  Forbes,  F.  R.  S.,  &c.  1, 1873,  p.  221. 
t  From  Skalkovsky’s  Tableaux  statistiques,  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition. 


PRODUCTION  OF  IRON-ORE  AND  CAST  IRON  IN  RUSSIA.  211 


Production  of  iron-ore  and  of  cast  iron — Continued. 


Works. 


C. — Private  tvork,  Ural — Continued. 

39.  Revdinsky . 

■  40.  Chaitansky . 

41.  Kigenie-Irghinsky . 

42.  Ycievolodovilvensky . 

43.  Alexandrovsky . 

|  44.  Toherraosky . 

45.  Kiselovsky . 

46.  Arghangelo-Paekyisky,  (1870)  . 

47.  KoiiciO-Alexaudrovsky,  (1870) . 

48.  Ivynovskoi . ! . 

49.  Bilimbaievsky . 

50.  Kouvinsky,  (i870) . 

51.  Lysvensky . 

52.  Bieersky . 

53.  VerkbniO-Onfaleisky . 

54.  Nigeni6-Oufal6i'sky ! . 

55.  Jourusanaky . 

56.  Katav-Ivanovsky . 

57.  Sirnsky . 1 . 

58.  KicolaOvsky . 

59.  Bieloretsky . 

60.  Tirlansky . 

61.  Verkhnie-Avsianopetrovsky . 

62.  Omoutninsky . . . 

63.  Verkknie-Zalazninsky . 

64.  Zalazninsko-Bieloretsky . 

65.  Klimkovsko-Boi'ovsko'i . 

66.  Tehernokholounitsky . 

67.  Ckourmonikolsky . 

68.  Nioutchpasky . . 

69.  Niouvcbimsliy . 

•  Total . 

D. — Private  works  around  Moscow. 

70.  Vyksounsky . 

71.  Snovedsky  ’. . 

72.  Ouugensky.... . 

73.  GonciOvsk'y . 

74.  VerkhniO-Oungensky . 

75.  Ilevskoi . 

76.  Tacbinsky . 

77.  Karatcbarovsky . 

78.  Merdouebinsky . 

79.  Dongnensky . 

80.  Edcetinsky'. . 

81.  Senetsko-iranovsky . 

82.  Lioudinovsky . 

83.  Soukremensky . 

84.  Ivano-Serghievsky . 

85.  Pessotcliinsky,  (de  Maltzof) . 

86.  Pessotcbinsky,  (de  Krivorotof) . 

87.  Tcberepetsky . 

88.  Bogdano-Petrovsky. . . , . 

89.  Mychegsky . ' . 

90.  Cyntoulsky . 

91.  Istinsko-Zalipiagesky . 

92.  Bytocbevsky . . . 

93.  Avgarsky . 

94.  Iloubensky . 

95.  Sentoursky . 

Total . . 

E. — Private  works ,  Caucasus. 

96.  Tcbatakbsky . 

E. — Private  works ,  western  and  central 
provinces. 

97.  SociOt.  de  la  Nouvelle  Russie . 

98.  Kletisbtckensky . . 

99.  Eoudnia . . 

100.  DOnOcbovsky . . 

101.  Alexandra . 

102.  Vysokaia  Petcbe . 

103.  Goutka . 

104.  Dans  de  pet.  usiues . 


Iron-ore 

mined. 

Iron  ere 
and  slag 
smelted. 

Production  of  cast  iron. 

Pig-iron. 

Various 

objects. 

Pouds.  . 
676,  036 
320,  227 
186,  937 
251,  115 
263,  400 
|  735, 268 

668,  998 
443,  303 
229,  735 
804,  554 
495,  960 
359,  902 
292,  986 
713,  008 
661,  615 
523,  000 

1,  026,  490 
|  747, 324 

|  499, 110 

560,  000 

1,  195,  097 
350,  382 

Pouds. 

676,  036 
320,  227 
150.  891 
226,  776 
208,  303 
f  250, 993 

\  609, 949 

616,  797 
490,  735 
425,  609 
934,  242 
744,  856 
276,  956 
226,  994 
544,  533 
574,  522 
478,  404 
847,  622 

C  460, 535 

X  209.  568 

(  280, 725 

X  186, 673 

546,  624 

1,  072,  116 
136,  342 
160,  954 
557,  452 
443,  689 

Pouds. 

349, 403 
120, 138 
40,  616 
70,  568 
62,  646 
108,  280 
290,  960 
211,  705 
178, 121 
152,  733 
381, 163 
291,319 
98,  401 
93,  927 
269,  C97 
233,  249 
253,  207 
427,  530 
204,  730 
69,  318 
146,  607 
105,  649 
226,  373 
325,  997 
37,  681 
30,  633 
175,  144 
142,  573 

Pouds. 

22, 10! 
29,  612 
13,  463 

7,  277 
21,  210 
22,  010 
69,  214 

28,  036 
44.  057 
88,  256 
24,  372 
14,  975 

7,  327 
23,  825 

55,  143 
38,  749 
83, 163 

56,  322 
43,  420 
34,  705 
10, 167 
33,  774 

29,  786 
6,  279 

624,  100 
405,  772 
21, 163 
72,  448 
26,  490 

34,  379 
13,  790 

50,  515 
27,  642 

12,  944 

5,  935 

1,060 
3,  021 

27,  094,  488 

25,  287,  043 

11,181,017 

1,  807,  436 

|  1, 145,  765 

51,100 
229,  852 
140,  000 
862,  800 
312,  019 
390,  0110 
295,  000 
212,  315 
190,  819 
268,  294 

1,425,000 

350,  000 
432,  128 
232,  035 
145,  956 
107,  900 
378,  000 
350,  000 
125,  000 
172,  383 
10,  500 
155,  072 
100,  000 

C  790, 718 

X  669, 652 

65,  676 
272,  990 
136,  085 
809,  085 
324,  811 
387,  936 
235,  032 
195,  812 
105,819 
177,  296 

736,  693 

247, 169 
403, 175 
193,  998 
144,313 
105,  708 
336,  268 
251,  178 
109, 162 
161,331 

328,  842 
265,  713 
23,  543 
92,  719 
54,  172 
382,  816 
153,  506 
178, 106 
88,  030 
56,  942 
21,  929 
37,  493 
160,  705 

80,  826 
77,  380 
28, 161 
44,  573 
27,  942 
47,  025 
46,  915 
32,  966 
26,  472 

13,  999 

13,  074 

3,  485 
24, 155 

4,  048 
6,  662 
7,  245 

51,  820 

13,  402 
32,  057 

172,  229 

12, 173 
96,  434 
62,  375 
40,  486 
22,  332 
108,  935 
46,  765 

14,  478 
32,  927 

240,  675 
21,  129 

42,  686 
10,  263 

75,  547 
700 

8,  381,  938 

7,  147,  711 

2,  309,  725 

855,  238 

53,  671 

69,  862 

8,180 

10,  803 

163,  289 
£  619, 700 

12,  000 
450,  673 
5,  600 
111,  200 
8,  050 

163,  289 

C  494, 100 

(  125, 600 

(?)  14,  000 
450,  673 
6,  675 
111,200 
8,  050 

34,  472 
128,  099 

35,  280 
10,  000 
88,  298 

3,  600 
20,  200 
3,  780 

4,  080 

5,  975 

2,  553 
8,  000 
1,740 

1,  370,  512 

1,  373,  587 

323,  729 

22,  348 

Total 


212 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 
Production  of  iron-ore  and  of  cast-iron — Continued. 


G. 


"Works. 


Iron-ore 

mined. 


Production  of  cast  iron. 

Iron-ore  I -  j 

aud  slag 

smelted.  Pi^-iron  Various 
objects. 


— Private  works,  Siberia. 


105.  Abakansky . j 

IOC.  Xikolai'evoky . 

Total . 

II. —  Works  of  the  crown,  kingdom  of  Poland.  \ 

107.  Bankovsky . 

108.  Pankovsky . 

109.  Ileicfsky . - . 

Total . 

J. — Private  works,  kingdom  of  Poland. 

110.  Ostrovetzky . I 

111.  Strakovitzky . 

112.  Falkovsky . 

113.  IChmelovsky . 

111.  Bodsekovsky . 

1 15.  Drzovitzky . 

1 1C.  ^Przisonksky . 

117.  Bialatchevsky . | 

118.  ICoritkovsky . ; 

119.  Malenctzky . [ 

120.  Maklioraksky . I 

121.  llzouzovsky . 

122.  Blizinsky . 

123.  Ninkovsky . 

121.  Khlevissky . 

125.  Neclnnsky . 

12G.  Borkovitzky . 

127.  Kousky . 

128.  Krasniensky . 

129.  Chtckezinskv . ! 

130.  Pidor . 

131.  Okrad  z6nov . ! 

132.  Poremba  Mziglozka . 

133.  Maslonsk . 

131.  Miatcbev . 

135.  Bliakhovnia . 

136.  Staraia  ICousnitza . 

137.  Tnovlodz . 

133.  Przistan . 

139.  Goustek.  . j 

110.  Mines  of  VOlune  and  Bcndine,  (1870) - 


Pouds. 
338, 571 
200,  332 

Pouds. 
333,  571 
260,  332 

Pouds. 
167, 132 
107,  449 

Pouds. 
22, 693 
8,195 

538,  903 

538,  903 

271,  581 

30,  888 

281.  220 

291,217 

97,  369 

5, 105 

1 12, 885 

99,  397 

32,  638 

11,351 

661,010 

202,  800 

47,  850 

10, 174 

1.  058, 115 

593,  470 

177,  861 

26, 630 

450,  000 

153,  631 

120,  000 

5,000 

800. 000 

500,  000 

llii,  ill 

9,  963 

111,250 

111,250 

20,  300 

2,  825 

200,  000 

150,  000 

30,  000 

15,  000 

160,000 

155,  000 

40,  000 

3,500 

308,  900 

302,  810 

25,  605 

30, 125 

106,  375 

153,  125 

37.  125 

45,  087 

136,  662 

22,  075 

10,  517 

140.  000 

116,000 

29,  200 

202,  718 

229, 101 

11,  615 

1,870 

152,  657 

152,  521 

35,  590 

175,  600 

162,  700 

38,  520 

'.'in 

82, 208 

7,  002 

13,  550 

133.  5011 

133,  500 

23,  000 

502,  280 

700,  936 

158,  111 

5, 697 

177,  862 

231,962 

00,  747 

3,  131 

£03,  550 

196,  800 

12,  165 

362, 935 

316,  850 

95,  712 

2, 104 

10,  600 

90,  600 

1 1,  751 

6,  070 

98,  550 

72.  750 

11,250 

8,562 

53,  000 

53,  000 
? 

21,  750 
45,  000 
38,  551 

11,400 

i 

9,  000 

(?)2I,  000 

20,  000 

151,810 

213,  393 

330 

53,  822 

201,  070 

201,  979 

5,  000 

35,  000’ 

80,  000 

76.  000 

21.  000 

70,  250 

70.  050 
102,  732 

6,  000 
20,  000 

25,  375 

212.  317 


Total 


5.  Ill,  397 


K. — Private  works,  Finland. 


111. 

112. 

113. 

111. 

115. 

116, 

117. 

118. 
119. 

150. 

151. 

152. 

153. 
151. 
155. 


Tike . 

Koskis . 

Dais . 

Hegfors . 

Skegbi . 

Sonmbonla .... 

Vertsile . 

Mekhktj . 

Stremsdal . . 

Lonpikko . 

Kartula  . 

Irkakoski  . 

EkatOrinensky 
Eaapakosky. . . 
Oravi . 


2,  522,  751 


5,261, 153 


1, 178,  576 


235,111 


2.  522,  751 


225,  565  | 

114,  592 

130,332 

49.  920 

357,  565 

181,  627 

63,  099 

19,  050 

70,167 

27.  483 

20,  901 

7,  150 

131,  960 

162,  605 

382.  236 

146,  006 

167,762 

375,928 

53,  206 
137,  355 

215,238 

66,  613 

51.  095 

21,  247 

146,241 

50,  669 

218,  452 

87,  450 

238,692 

105, 178 

3,077,419 

1,  230,' 181 

50,823,668  |  48,567,152  i  18,  854,  634 


3, 149,  884 


22,  004, 518 


Total . 

Grand  total . 

Grand  total  of  cast  iron 


PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  IN  RUSSIA. 


213 


Production  of  iron,  and  of  steel. 


Works. 


A.— Crown  works. 


Nigenie-Icetsky . 

Zlatooust  Kniase-Mikbailovsky. 

Koucinsky . 

Satkinsky . 

Artinskv . 

Nigenid-Tourinsky . 

Sdrdbriansky . 

Permsky  stalepoucbetcbny . 

Votkinsky . 

Kamsk.v . 

Kirsinsky . 

Lougansky  . 

Alexandrovsky . 


Total . . . 

B. —  Works  pertaining  to  the  cabinet  of  the  Emperor. 


15.  Gourievsky. 

16.  Pdtrovsky  . . 

Total  . 


C. — Private  works,  Ural. 


3  ^ 


Pouds. 
67,  703 
11,  423 
13,  567 


m 


£ 

2.2 

m 


Pouds. 
12,  852 


41,  328 
51,  479 
79,  324 


157,  946 
111,393 
134,  705 
14,  469 
2,048 


585,  385 


8,  643 
8,  465 


17,  108 


33,  835 


4,  763 
71,  560 

5,  402 
XI,  117 


139,  529 


1,220 


1,220 


Sa 

-TfS 


Pouds. 


44,  778 
1,  417 
459 


64,  440 
976 


112,  070 


251 


251 


17.  Nigenid-Tagbilsky . 

18.  Laisky . 

19.  Nigenid-Saldinsky . 

20.  Verkknid-Saldinsky . 

21.  Vioimooutkinsky . 

22.  Visimochaitansky . 

i  23.  Tschernoistotchiusky . . 

24.  Vorkbnid-Isetsky . 

1  25.  Rdjevskoi . . 

j  26.  Verkhnid-Neivinsky.  . . 

27.  Nigeny-Verkhnid-Ndivinsky. 

j  28.  Ndivinsko-Rondiansky . 

i  29.  Nigeuy-Roudiansky . 

.  30.  Molebskoi . . .' . . 

31.  Chouralinsky . 

32.  Yerkhnid-Taghilsky . 

33.  Yogoulsky . 

34.  Outkinsky . 

|  35.  Schaitansky . . 

36.  Sylvensky '. . 

37.  Sarghinsky . 

38.  N6ivo-Alapaievsky . 

39.  Verkbnid-Siniatcbikbmsky. 

40.  Ndi'vo-Obaitansky . 

41.  Irbitsky . 

42.  Ndviausky . 

43.  Pdtrokamensky . 

44.  Nigenid-Serghinsky . . 

45.  Verkhmd-Sergkinsky . 

46.  Kosinsky . 

47.  Atigsky' . . . 

48.  Mikhailovsky . 

49.  Kycht.ymsky . 

50.  Kaslinsky . 

51.  Niasdpdti'ovsky . 

52.  Ckemakhinsky . 

53.  Sycertsky . 

54.  Iliinsky . 

55.  Polevskoy . 

56.  Verkh-Sycertsky . 

57.  Sidversky . 

58.  Souksouosky . . 

59.  Tissovskv . 

60.  Kambarsky . 

61.  Outkinsky . 

62.  Molebsky . 

63.  Revdinsky . 

64.  Bissertsky . 

65.  Rojestvensky . 


I 


1 

l 

s 


448,  292 

218,  427 

34,  282 
2,  930 
16,  485 

291 


201 


337 


3,501 

1,696 

232,  503 

824 

18 

126,  447 
134,  927 
48,  625 
116,  244 
395 
268 
195, 182 
219,  485 
15,  622 
10,  426 
12,  826 
271,  744 

57,  425 
166,  462 
39,  288 
28,  566 
23,  104 
18,  093 
41,043 
3,  749 
177,  386 
125,  457 
47,  337 


254,  934 

915 

15,  552 

11,  956 

262,  855 
102,  034 
219,  367 

131,  618 

5,601 

2,  350 

156,  678 
226,  441 

45,  213 
112,  207 

42,  790 

17 

214 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  I67& 


Production  of  iron,  and  of  steel— Continued. 


Works. 

Iron  in  bars 

and  rods. 

i  i 

■S  _ 

p 

“  1 

, 

§•$ 

it  1 
13 

C. _ Private  works,  Ural — Continued. 

Ponds. 

58,  583 

Ponds. 

7,340  .. 

Puuds. 

40, 013  . 

19,  401 

5, 942  . 
1,625 

. i'm  . 

71,150  . 
56,800  . 

70.  pojevskoi . 

7 1  Elisavfito-PoJevskoY . 

4,  ^31 

;  45,745 

107, 409 
38,  761 

28,  077 

4,  496 

> 

71.  Xikitinsky .  ' 

118,541  . 

70.  . . 

iU, 

183, 749 
15,  461 

195*738* 
33, 391 

2, 136 
43,  809 
67, 138 
10,225 
215, 705 
110,  440 
1,173 
250,  771 
108,017 
40,  303 
100,262 
141,020 
58,  645 
81,  983 
81,281 
136 
701 
5,  37)7 
117, 137 
2,018 
25,258 
23,  317 

|  128, 875 

St.  Otcliorsky,  (1870) . . . 

s5.  Pavlovsky,  . . . 

212,278  J 

. 

Rrf,  kousw'AlexftiuirovsKyi  o  ■  . . 

. 5!:.i 

so.  Arolinn"olo-l’nelu.\skj,  .  . 

90.  Jongokamsky.  (1870) . . . 

91.  VerklniiO-OnfaWisky . 

.  1 

10,  019 
1,21)2  1 
11.986  1 

4,239 

3, 808  | 

91.  Minsky .  . 

95.  Kataf- Ivanovsky . 

23,  206 

97.  Siinsky . ”  , . 

93.  Miniarskv . 

2, 249 

11)1.  Yerkhnu*Avsianopitro\  . 

102.  Nigenii*-Aviiianopetio\  . 

101.  . . 

28,111 

33, 935 

108.  Zalazninsky  . . . . 

100.  .  . . 

99, 134 

166 

3, 396 
16, 156 

35,  492 

.  5,  254,  076 

2.  456, 192 

70, 975 

D.— Private  works  around  Moscow'. 

1 1 5.  . . . 

116.  Vyksounsky . . . 

117.  Suovedsky . ; .  . 

. '  69,  56' 

302,421 
21,  00; 
109,  30' 

♦ 

"I 

8,  799 

118.  Verkbnii“£relie/.nitSK\ .  .... 

140,  £l( 

38, 28C 

30,  29 

1*20.  JJosciiato-ijeiiezuuotkj .  . . 

123.  Karatchavovsky . . . 

124.  Tlevsky..-- . . . 

133, 85 
•  •  l  |  253, 55 

0  . 

. 

126.  . . . 

127.  Lioudinovsky .  . 

-  •  ^  279,  58 
I:  71,78 

1  57, 59 

6  1,33 

5  . 

7  . 1 

1*20.  Ivano-Sersliie\  sky . . . ^ .  . 

130.  Pessotehinsky,  (of  il.  Maltzoi) .  . 

131.  S6rensky . . . . . . 

132.  . .  . 

133.  Petrovsky . . . 

134.  . . 

10,9- 
8,  Ot 
24,  5C 

8  . 

"| . 

..  1,650,81 

14  106,01 

,  v:: 

PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  IN  RUSSIA.  215 

Production  of  iron,  and  of  steel—  Continued. 

“Works. 

Iron  in  bars 

and  rods. 

Sheet-iron  of 

all  kinds. 

a  • 

■  d  T3 

■£  *■» 

52  « 

S  3 

•3  | 

rjj 

E. — Private  works ,  Caucasus. 

Ponds. 

1,  217 

Ponds. 

Pouds 

E.— Private  ivorks ,  Siberia. 

72,  945 
50,  436 

12,  234 

4,  698 

380 

236 

Total . 

123,  381 

16,  932 

616 

, r. —  7 Yorks  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  administration  of  mines. 

18,  481 

32, 508 

142,  369 
5,  735 

41,508 

131,015 

1 1,  399,  019 
696,  873 
127,  731 
39,  055 

160,  500 

7,  793 
27,  397 

20,  500- 
25,  100 

117,  987 
71,715 
5,  434 

Total. . . 

2,  648,  818 

228, 198 

193,  704 

H. —  Works  of  the  crown,  kingdom  of  Poland. 

1,740 
74,  509 
53,  223 
488 

1,  055 

Total . 

129,  960 

1,  055 

1.— Private  works,  kingdom  of  Poland. 

3,  000 
175,  056 

32,  957 
35,  000 

700 
83,  200 
13, 122 

33,  322 
2,  000 

28,  240 
,  5,069 
144,  774 
7,  381 

2,  350 
10,  570 

6,  250 
52,  820 

5,  405 

3,  000 
16,  000 

2,  500 
5,014 

7,  000 
1,  762 
5,  000 
1,  300 
3, 130 

8,  000 
136,  000 

30,  000 
5,  750 
5,  700 
10,  550 
950 

3,  750 

159.  Bodzekkovskv  .  . 

30 

15,  500 

13,  560 

2,  366 

1,  552 

175.  Vinek .  . . . 

176.  Miatekef  .  .  . 

189.  Selnitza . 

216 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Production  of  iron,  and  of  steel — Continued. 


W  orks. 

£ 

if 

§1 

c 

=4 

P 

r* 

in 

It 

11 

if 

TJ1 

I. — Private  works,  kingdom  of  Poland — Continued. 

Pouds. 

1,586 

6,010 

Pouds. 

12, 120 

Pouds. 

Total . 

890,  524 

48,  278 

J. — Private  works ,  Finland. 

39,  232 
94,  409 
14,503 
87,  464 
39, 187 
109,  849 
73,283 
17,  035 
14,  551 
7,  177 
8, 533 

12,  756 
9.  407 

13,  078 
10, 951 

14,  705 
20,  466 

7,  023 
10,  439 

6,  767 
1,  132 

7,  273 
3,  544 

733 
34,  727 

195.  Fiskars . . . 

1,560 

64,  625 

200.  Kiriakkala . 

201.  J okkis . 

203.  Kim  6 . 

204.  Orisberg . 

203.  IlilnOa . 

203.  S  vert  6 . 

211.  Norrmark . 

212.  Xls6 . 

213.  Irkekoski . 

215.  Oravi . 

Total . 

658,  289 

1,560 

64,  625 

Grand  total . 

11,959,  622 

2,  998,  975 

442, 241 

14,  953,  597 

There  is  a  large  consumption  of  iron  and  copper  in  the  manufactures 
of  Kussia,  notably  in  the  manufacture  of  artillery-arms,  machiuery,  and 
iron  vessels,  but  the  statistics  of  these  manufactures  are  acknowl¬ 
edged  to  be  very  imperfect,  inasmuch  as  some  one  hundred  and 
fifty  establishments  for  working  iron  do  not  report  to  the  government 
mining  department.  And  the  working  of  iron  to  a  great  extent  is  uot 
confined  wholly  to  large  establishments;  there  are  entire  districts  where 
the  peasants  are  exclusively  occupied  in  working  iron  during  the  win¬ 
ter.  For  these  reasons  the  following  figures  represent  only  a  small  part 
of  the  extent  of  metal- work  in  Eussia  in  the  year  1S71 : 


Pouds. 

Steel  cannon .  .  15,  6SU 

Apparatus . . .  20,  493 


4G, 175 

Cast-iron  cannon . 51,  4S5 

Munitions  of  artillery . 405,  831 

Iron  boats .  7,  868 


PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  IN  RUSSIA. 


217 


Cast-iron  work :  Pouds. 

In  cupolas . . .  .  1,  306, 110 

In  reverberatory  furnaces .  684, 169 


1,  890,  279 

Locomotives  . .  3,  596 

Iron-work  .  . .  -  850,831 

Copper  and  steel  work .  36,  813 

Pieces. 

Copper  and  steel  work . . .  287,  440 

Side-arms . . . . .  40,  708 

Arm-apparatus . . .  30,  326 

Scythes . . . . .  33,750 


51.  Production  of  coal  in  Russia. — The  production  and  distribu¬ 
tion  of  mineral  coal,  petroleum,  and  salt  in  Russia  are  shown  by  the  an¬ 
nexed  tabular  list  of  collieries,  &c.,  which  lists  are  important  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  foregoing  lists  of  iron-works: 

Collieries  in  Russia. 


1.  Malevsky . 

2.  Tovarkovsky  . 

3.  Novoselebny  . 

4.  Jacenetsky _ 

5.  Slaviansky _ 

6.  Zelenensky  . . . 

7.  Mouraevinsky 
S.  Tchoulkovsky 
9.  Paveletzky  .  i . 

Total . . . 


Name  and  location. 


Coal. 


Anthracite. 


Bituminous, 
shale,  and 
lignite. 


A. — Moscow  coal-basin. 


Pouds. 


Poucls. 


Pouds. 


B. — Elisabctgrad  basin. 


1,  316,  839 
760,  560 
1,  300,  000 
200,  000 
5,  000 
150,  000 

1,  145,  000 

2,  000,  000 

1,800,  000 


8,  677,  399 


10.  Ekat6rinopolsky 

11.  Iljourovsky . 

Total . 


300,  000 
700,  000 


1,000,  000 


C.—Donetz  coal-basin. 

(a)  Territory  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Dou. 


12.  Grouchevsky . 

13.  Bolche-Nesvitai'sky . 

14.  Vlassovsky . . ) 

15.  Eyghinsky . [ 

16.  BambOtof. . I 

17.  BOrestovsky . ) 

18.  Territories  of  Tcherkask,  Donetz,  and  of  the  Don . 

19.  Private  collieries.  Arrondissement  de  Miouss . 


10,  603,  467 
35,  757 


47$,  371 


876,  239 
2, 115,  621 


( b )  In  the  government  of  Ekaterinoslaf. 


MINES  OF  THE  CROWN. 


20.  Licitchansky  . 


PRIVATE  MINES. 
First  district. 


500,  761 


265.  000 
7,217 
530, 181 


21.  Nikitovsky,  (M.  Poliakoff) 

22.  Volyntzevsky . 

23.  Alexandrovsky . 


218 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Collieries  in  Russia — Continued. 


Name  ami  location. 

Coal. 

Anthracite. 

Bituminous, 
shale,  ami 
lignite. 

Private  mines,  first  district — Continued. 

Ponds. 

1, 170,318 
70.000 
200,000 
200,000 
100,000  ! 
100,  #00 
100,  000 
43, 000  ] 
20,000 
10.000  1 
50,  000  1 
180,000 

30,000  i 
58,000 
20,000 
255,000  [ 
70,000 

1,282,250 
'50,000 
e5,  000 

5,000  ' 
25, 000 
50,000 
200,000 
100, 0"0 
(XI,  000 
30,000 
200,000 
80,  000 
30,000 
25,  IN  Ml 

3.000 
40,  OOO 

Ponds. 

Ponds. 

27.  W.  Itoutcbenko . 

34.  Koub*>jauaky,  (M.  Bngilanovitcli) . 

Second  district , 

36.  Techkovaky . 

38.  PetromariovHky,  (ties  pavnan») . 

10,000 
8,  000 
5,00(1 
10,000 
10.000 
5,  000 
9,  000 
25, 000 

.  j  t>  .  »  i. 

Total . 

0,  270,  727 

14. 1D0,  455 

D.—Urat  coal-basin. 

42a,  410 
30. 075 
373,  020 

Total  . 

832,  405 

E— Kingdom  of  Poland. 

(a)  Alines  of  the  crown. 

2.  584. 060 

69.  Tscchkovsky . 

1,  252.  010 
352,  405 
1,  506,  862 

108,  486 

Total . 

5.  805,  749 

• 

[b)  Private  mines. 

607,  207 
3, 339. 272 

1.  460, 103 

2.  727.  476 
2, 059,  500 

360,  000 
42.  000 

200,  315 
51. 125 
1.  750.  548 

12.  202.  546 

402, 000 

— 

- : - = 

PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  AND  PETROLEUM  IN  RUSSIA.  219 


Collieries  in  Russia — Continued. 


.Name  and  location. 

Coal. 

Anthracite. 

Bituminous, 
shale,  and 
lignite. 

E. — Basin  of  Kouznetzk,  government  of  Tomsk. 

Fouds. 
228,  000 

Fouds. 

Fouds. 

G. — Territory  of  the  Kirghises  of  Siberia. 

404,  521 
41,  529 
35,  386 

Total . 

481,  436 

H  —Eastern  Siberia. 

295,  894 

I.— Caucasus. 

140,  000 

89.  Karadaksky . 

52,  941 

140,  000 

52,  941 

J.— Turkistan. 

75,  000 

35,  009, 156 

14, 190,  455 

50,  654,  552 

1,454,941 

Grand  total  of  production . 

Production  of  petroleum. 


Sources. 

Number  of 
wells. 

Quantit3T. 

A. — Territory  of  Terek. 

74 

90 

8 

Fouds. 

22,  647 
6,  75(1 
405 

Total . 

172 

29,  802 

B. — Territory  of  Dagestan.  » 

20 

37 

42 

17 

3 

8 

2,  700 
1,  013 
4,  264 
1,  978 
1,  350 
1,  485 

8.  Ghik-Salgane-Koutansky . . 

Total . 

127 

12,  790 

*  C. — Territory  of  Kouban. 

4 

10 

675 
97,  449 

Total . 

14 

98, 124 

D. — Government  of  Tiflis. 

12.  Mirsansky,  Chiraksky  and  Eldarsky . . 

99 

69,  522 

E.— Government  of  Bakou. 

285 

1, 165, 285 

Grand  total . 

697 

1,  375,  523 

220  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Production  of  chrome-iron  ore. 


Sources. 

Number  of 
mines. 

Pouds. 

Private  mines  in  the  Ural. 

1.  Verkh-Icetsky . 

2.  Kychtiinsky . 

3.  Cfiaitansky . 

-I.  O ii tale i. sky . 

Total . 

2 

1 

1 

2 

237, 085 
54,  897 
109, 264 
49, 127 

6 

450, 973 

Production  of  salt. 

Sources. 

Pouds. 

A. — Hock-tall. 


MINES. 

1.  llrtskaia  Zachtchita . 

2.  Mont  Tchiptchatclil . 

:i.  Knulpinsky . 

I.  XakhitcliL-vausky . 

Total . 

15 .—Salt  obtained  bij  evaporation. 


Dddinukhiusky. 

I.envensky . 

Onssolsky . 

Solikaiusky . 

Lodenjrsky . 

Toterusky . 

Serogovsky . 

Nonoksky  . 

Konloisky . 

Onnskv. 


Loudsky . 

Siuiill  works  on  tho  borders  of  the  White  Sea  . 

Balakhninsky . . . 

Slavinnsky  . 

Troftaky.. . . 

Oustekoutsky . . 

Irkoutsky . . 


Total. 


C. — Salt  from  salt  lakes. 


1,048,567 
802,  038 
1,012,212 
203, 025 


3,  007,  042 


2,  477,  743 

3.  699,  373 
3  390,  090 

935,  005 
170,204 
0,  805 
233,  532 
09,  965 
429 
8, 17.3 
3,836 
5,  569 
26,  828 
151,  C24 
100,  801 
42.  744 
330,  555 


11.654,596 


SALT  LAKES. 

22.  Elton . 

23.  I)  Astrakhan . 

24.  Gaiilonksky . 

25.  Mojarsky . . . 

20.  lie  Criineo . 

27.  Kouyalnitsky . 

28.  Tcludghiusky . 

29.  Du  Transcnucase . 

30.  Manytchsky  ties  Cnsaqnes  on  Don,  (1870) . 

31.  Des  Cosaques  du  Ivouban,  (1870) .  . 

32.  Indersky  des  Cosaques  de  l'Oural,  (1870) . 

33.  Bnrovya  et  Aleouskya . 

31.  Borsinsky . .* . 

35.  Jakoutsky . _ . 

Total . 

Grand  total . 


370, 000 
4,  379,  086 
235,  618 
497,  763 
6, 257,  015 
715,  287 
201,  095 
345,  265 
124,  680 
82,  776 
192,  200 
30,  420 
90.  581 
11. 100 


13,  532,  892 


28,  254, 530 


In  the  concluding  tables  a  general  view  is  presented  of  the  total  pro¬ 
duction  of  tlie  mines  and  metallurgical  works  of  the  Russian  Empire  in 
the  years  1S70  and  1871. 


MINING  AND  METALLURGICAL  PRODUCTS  OF  RUSSIA.  221 
General  iable  of  the  production  of  the  mines  and  metallurgical  works  of  Russia,  1870  and  1871. 


1871. 


Washings. 


Auriferous  saud  . . . 
Platiniferous  sand  . 


Extracted  by  washing. 


I  Washed  gold  . . . 
Crude  platinum. 


Extracted  from  mines. 

(Argentiferous  lead-ore . 

Jopper-ore . 

(jlron-ore . 

[Zinc-ore . . 

!lin-ore . 

[Cobalt-ore . . 

For  vitriol,  (pyrites  excepted) . 

Coal 


Graphite . 

Petroleum  . . . 
IChromie  iron 
Salt . 


Smelted. 


Argentiferous  lead-ore. 

Copper-ore . . . 

Iron-ore . 

Zinc-ore . 

Tin-ore . 


Pouds. 

1,  081,  518,  424 
10,  440,  650 

Poud.  liv.  zol.  gr. 
2,399  38  2  8 
125  6  56  0 

Pouds. 

2, 177,  540 
6,  222,  759 
50,  823,  668 
2,  629,  477 
22,  909 
649 
50,  000 
50,  654,  552 


1870. 


1,  375,  523 
450,  973 
28, 254,  530 


1,  892,  636 
6,  384, 154 
48,  567, 152 
1,  665,  495 


Products  obtained. 


Silver  from  the  ores 

Lead . . 

Copper . 

Tin . . 


Pig-iron . 

Cast  iron  in  different  forms 


Total  of  cast  iron  . 


Zinc,  crude  . 


Cast  iron  from  cupolas . . . 

Cast  iron  from  reverberatory  furnaces  . 

Total  of  cast  iron . 


Poud. 
828 
107,  963 
260,  006 
475 


liv.. 

30 
26 

31 
0 

Pouds. 

18,  854,  634 
3, 149,  884 


zol. 

27 

0 

0 

0 


22,  004,  518 


166,  581 


1,  306, 110 
452,  239 


Iron  in  bars,  rods,  rails,  Sc c 
Iron  in  sheets . 


Total  of  iron  . 


Steel . 

Copper,  in  sheets . 

Zinc,  in  sheets . 

Cobalt  matte . 

Iron-work . 

Work  in  other  metals. 
Vitriol,  &c . 


Total  of  different  mints  . 


Noio  working. 


Gold-mines . 

Platina-mines . . 

Argentiferous  lead. . . . 

Mines  of  copper . . 

Mines  of  iron . 

Mines  of  zinc . 

Mines  of  cobalt . 

Mines  of  tin . 

Mines  of  coal . 

Mines  of  graphite . . 

Mines  of  pyrites . 

Mines  of  chromic  iron 

Mines  of  rock-salt . 

Sources  of  netroleum . . 


1,  890,  279 


11,  959,  622 
2,  998,  975 


14,  958,  597 


442,  241 
21,  277 
30,  000 


850,  831 
36,  813 
4,  605 

Roubles. 
11,254,  744 


Number. 

979 
6 
21 
76 
1, 174 
6 
1 
1 

327 


1 

6 

4 

697 


Pouds. 

983,  475,  095 
9,  609,  156 

Poud.  liv.  zol.  gr. 
2,  156  23  16  19 
118  38  33  0 

Pouds. 

2, 116,  404 
6,  392,  622 
48,  763, 156 
2,  666,  754 
66,  292 
1,  249 
95,  000 
43,  230,  589 


1,  704,  455 
600,  024 
29,  013,  458 


2,  066,  792 
7,  190,  213 
48,464,114 
2, 117,  318 


Poud. 
867 
100,  653 
308,  440 
1,  032 


liv.  zol. 
30  68 


20  0 
0  0 
0  9 

Pouds. 

18,  557,  412 
3,  401,914 


21,  959,  326 


221,  328 


1,  343,  891 
620,  851 


1,  964,  742 


11,  971,  459 
3,  246,  449 


15,  217.  908 


536,  086 
29,  642 
26,  844 
3054 
958,  634 
53,  885 
9,  910 

Roubles. 

33,  545,  643 


Number. 

1,208 
6 
26 
71 
1,  283 
6 
1 
1 

193 


2 

9 

4 

77 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


222 

General  table  of  the  production  of  the  mines  and  metallurgical  works  of  Russia,  1870  and 

1871 — Continued. 


1871. 

1870. 

Number. 

0 

Number . 

2 

O 

0 

9 

10 

35 

39 

153 

164 

5 

4 

1 

1 

1 

214 

214 

ooo 

245 

431 

445 

667 

692 

818 

924 

372 

495 

150 

161 

93 

93 

247 

262 

130 

130 

141 

128 

515 

482 

14,  477 
o  004 

30]  938 

13,  730 

2,  223 

5k  209 

158,  440 
07,  854 
40,  000 

150, 197 
09, 180 

N  umber  of  workmen  employed  in  the  salines,  (approximated) . 

40,  000 

Total  of  workmen  employed . 

200,  300 

203,  383 

CHAPTER  VII. 


GEEAT  BRITAIN.' 


Principal  exhibitors;  Cammell  &  Co.;  John  Brown  &  Co.;  Bowling  Iron 
Company  ;  Thomas  Firth  &  Son’s  steel  ingots  ;  Landore  Siemens  Steel  Com¬ 
pany;  Whitwell’s  hot -blast  stoves ;  Siemens’s  direct  process;  Decorated 

TIN-PLATE. 


152.  The  exhibition  of  iron  and  steel  by  Great  Britain  is  meager  com¬ 
pared  with  its  rank  as  first  on  the  list  of  iron-producing  countries. 
There  are  but  few  exhibitors,  and  no  effort  appears  to  have  been  made  to 
present  a  general  or  statistical  view  of  the  extent  and  value  of  British 
iron-industry,  as  was  done  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1867. 

153.  The  annexed  tables  exhibit  the  exports  of  iron  and  steel  from 
Great  Britain  for  the  years  1873  and  1874,  and  during  the  first  half  of 
the  year  1875.  These  figures  are  compiled  and  published  by  the  Board 
of  Trade  authorities,  and  are  cited  by  Mr.  Forbes  in  the  report  of  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of  Great  Britain. 


Exports  of  iron  from  Great  Britain  in  the  years  1873,  1874,  and  the  first  half  of  1875. 


Whither  exported. 

1873. 

1874. 

1875. 

Pig: 

Tons. 

146,  743 
189,  868 
81  317 

Tons. 

61,  820 
84,  546 

Tons. 

106,  911 
95,  771 
58,  074 
42  184 

40|  578 
26,  983 
26,  760 
14,  958 
64,  253 

52,  353 
63,  183 

To  United  States . 

26,  580 
22,  502 
80,  577 

18,  847 

82,  434 

Total . . . 

634,  745 

319,  898 

432,  599 

Bar,  angle,  bolt,  and  rod : 

6,  533 
19,  203 
8,  303 

2,  142 
8,  395 

3,  240 

6,  031 

3,  697 

7,  395 
3,618 
3,  689 

2,  765 
369 

To  France . 

286 

To  Italy. . . 

8,  871 

5,  853 

10,  551 
5, 150 
1,380 
10, 143 
25,  082 

To  Turkey . 

To  United  States . 

20|  535 
19,  205 
7,  892 

3^  193 
12,  771 
18,  224 
9,  003 
44,  708 

To  British  India . 

To  Australia . 

l\  624 
47, 153 

15,*  678 
45,  416 

Total . . . 

150,  225 

115,485 

128,  388 

Railroad,  of  all  sorts: 

To  Russia . 

47,  780 
15,  876 
2,  808 
24,  375 

8  214 

74,  460 
39,  968 

30,  927 
25, 293 
2,  063 
737 

To  Denmark . J  . . 

5,  897 
3,  297 
9,  004 
12,  306 

To  Germany . 

To  Holland" . 

3  388 

To  Belgium . . . . .... 

16,  843 
2,  139 
6,  548 
13,  084 
552 

423 

To  France . 

1,  613 
10,  985 
10,  254 

8  889 

To  Spain  and  Canaries . 

6,168 
5,  338 
28 

To  Italy . 

To  Turkey . 

To  Egypt . 

1,  667 
120,  468 

10,  930 
64,  969 

1.  474 

To  United  States . 

15.  734 

224 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Exports  of  iron  from  Great  Britain,  <fc. — Continued. 


Whither  exported. 


To  Brazil . 

To  Pent . 

To  Chili . 

To  British  North  America 

To  British  India . . 

To  Australia . . 

To  other  countries . . 


Total 


Wire  of  iron  or  steel,  (except  telegraph-wire,)  galvanized  or  not. 


Hoops,  sheets,  boiler  and  armor  plates: 

To  Russia . 

To  Germany . 

To  Holland . 

To  Franco . 

To  Spain  and  Canaries . 

To  Italy . 

To  United  States . 

To  British  North  America . 

To  British  India . . 

To  Australia . . 

To  other  countries . 


Total. 


i  plates: 

To  Franco . 

To  United  States . 

To  British  North  America. 

To  Australia . . 

To  other  countries...! . 


Total. 


Cast  or  wrought,  nml  all  other  manufactures  (except  ordnance) 
unennmeratod: 

To  llussia . 

To  Germany . 

To  Holland . 

To  Franco . . 

To  Spain  and  Canaries . 

To  United  States . 

To  Pern . . 

To  Brazil . 

To  British  North  America . 

To  British  Possessions  in  South  Africa . 

To  British  India . 

To  Australia . 

To  other  countries . 


Total. 


Steel,  nil  wrought : 

To  France . 

To  United  States _ 

To  other  countries  . 


Total. 


Old  iron  for  remanufacture: 

To  United  States . 

To  other  countries . 


Total . . 

Manufactures  of  steel,  or  steel  and  iron  combined 
Total  of  iron  and  steel . 


1875. 

1874. 

1873, 

Tons. 

3,  9C3 
5, 107 
•3, 908 
29,  77-4 
8, 132 
9, 993 
27,  839 

Tons. 
11,597 
4,  028 
9,185 
28,710 
25.  020 
38,  068 
57,  401 

Tons. 

5,  059 
11,  455 
11,045 
52,  790 
10,  901 
42,  015 
28,418 

318,  430 

427, 207 

259, 307 

15, 992 

14,714 

21,  900 

8,  520 
17.213 
C,  282 
3, 375 
2,  430 

4,  07G 
12.  935 

5,  712 
0,  279 

10,410 

30,580 

3,  312 
2,888 
3, 070 
714 
3,481 
3. 038 
2  892 
3,  343 
8,857 
10,  005 
20,  004 

5,  247 
5,  850 
4,  827 
803 

2,  843 
4,  405 
3,313 

3,  108 
10, 543 
17,  527 
30,  016 

108,  442 

68,809 

94,  601 

2, 095 
49.  045 
1, 619 
2,  331 
11,253 

1,  230 
49,717 
952 
1,839 
9,  790 

1,099 
52,  323 
1,878 
1,398 
15,432 

06,643 

63,  534 

72, 130 

21,  640 
18, 251 
8.710 
2.001 

5, 098 

7,  130 

4.  427 

G,  rv>7 

8, 135  1 

2,004 

9.533 

1 4.  528 
30.  938 

7,  405 
6, 245 

1,  120 

1.  813 

5.  452 

12,  006 
1.463 
4,268 
13,  031 

2,  eC9 
10,  402 
10,708 
43,808 

8,  000 
8,  950 
4.  029 

2,  353 

3,  320 

4,  703 
758 

3,  902 
*,  098 
3,  005 
14,018 
21,095 
34,  034 

140,664  . 

129, 652 

118,251 

1.478 
10.  879 
6,295 

1, 2S4 

0,  520 

6,  443 

1,  355 

5,  566 

7,  929 

20,652 

14,247 

14,850 

1 

O  VI 

VI  ® 

3,  580 
10,  967 

3,783 

5,  0G2 

41,355 

14,553 

8,  845 

5.314 

4,561 

5,349 

1,532,662 

1, 172,  720 

1, 156, 180 

154.  Principal  exhibitors. — The  heaviest  exhibition  in  the  British 
section  is  made  by  the  firm  of  Cammell  &  Co.,  of  Sheffield,  which  sends 
cast-steel  propeller-blades,  rails,  wheels,  axles,  and  armor-plates.  The 
firm  of  John  Brown  &  Co.,  which  sent  such  massive  iron  plates  to  the 


Fig.  61. — Whitwell’s  liot-blast  stove,  vertical  section. 


whitwell’s  hot-blast  stove. 


225 


hrris  Exposition  in  1867,  is  content  this  year  with  making  a  very  full 
iisplay  of  railway-material,  and  two  small  armor-plates  showing  the 

!  fleets  of  round  shot  and  of  pointed  shot.  The  large  plate  sent  by  Oain- 
oell  &  Oo.  is  20  feet  long  by  7  feet  wide  and  10  inches  thick,  and  is 
ntended  for  the  German  turret-ship  Borussia. 

The  Bowling  Iron  Company  exhibits  iron  and  steel  boiler-plates,  steel 
listings,  and  railway-material.  Steel  tires  for  railway-wheels  are  shown 
oent  while  cold  into  various  forms  without  breaking.  Thomas  Firth  & 
3on  exhibit  steel  ingots;  a  homogeneous  steel  core  for  a  35-ton  gnu, 
ind  forgings  of  the  same  metal  for  artillery  and  rifle  barrels.  The  Lan- 
lore  Siemens  Steel  Company  send  samples  of  their  steel  rail  and  tires, 
and  of  the  steel  barrels  for  the  Martini-Henry  rifle.  In  the  exhibition 
made  by  Johnson  &  Nephew,  Manchester,  there  is  a  weldless  wire  1,770 
yards  long. 

1  There  are  several  other  contributions  of  considerable  interest,  but  the 
most  important  in  a  metallurgical  point  of  view  are  the  exhibitions 
made  by  Thomas  Whitwell  of  his  hot-blast  stoves,  and  by  C.  William 
^Siemens  of  a  new  process  for  the  production  of  iron  or  steel. 

155.  Whitwell’s  hot-blast  stoves. — The  patent  fire-brick  stoves 
iof  Mr.  Whitwell  are  intended  to  heat  the  blast  of  iron-furnaces.  The 
invention  is  represented  by  a  very  perfect  model,  accompanied  by  a  full 
series  of  drawings,  and,  what  is  better,  by  an  intelligent  agent  to  explain 
them.  The  stoves  are  designed  to  replace  the  ordinary  iron  pipes  used  for 
heating  the  blast,  substituting  for  them  a  series  of  fire-brick  chambers 
and  passages  which  are  heated  by  the  direct  coutact  of  the  flames  of  the 
burning  gases  taken  from  the  furnace  in  the  usual  way.  When  the 
mass  of  brick  is  sufficiently  heated  the  gas  is  shut  off  and  the  blast  is 
admitted.  This  in  passing  through  the  same  heated  chambers  acquires 
the  temperature  of  the  bricks.  The  brick- work,  of  course,  gradually  cools 
down,  but  by  the  time  the  last  chamber  begins  to  be  too  cool  another 
t  stove  has  been  heated  up,  and  the  blast  is  made  to  pass  through  that. 
The  stoves  are  thus  alternately  heated  by  the  burning  gas  and  cooled 
by  the  blast.  The  advantages  of  this  system  are  numerous.  One  of  the 
greatest  is  uniformity  of  temperature  of  blast,  which  cannot  be  counted 
upon  with  iron  pipes.  The  bricks  are  a  great  store-house  of  heat,  and 
cool  gradually.  Iron  pipes  cool  suddenly  when  from  any  cause  the  sup¬ 
ply  of  burning  gas  is  stopped.  The  air  being  brought  into  direct  contact 
with  the  surfaces  previously  heated  by  the  gas,  absorbs  the  heat  quickly 
and  with  little  loss.  The  apparatus  is  simple,  is  easily  erected,  and  is 
being  extensively  introduced.  For  cupola-furnaces,  making  600  tons 
a  week,  two  stoves,  12  feet  square  by  21  feet  high,  and  with  2,270  super¬ 
ficial  square  feet  of  heating-surface  in  each,  are  necessary. 

The  construction  of  these  stoves  is  shown  by  the  annexed  figures,  giv¬ 
ing  vertical  and  horizontal  sections  and  plans. 

Fig.  61. — Heating  the  stove — vertical  section. — The  hot- blast  valve  A  and 
the  cold-blast  valve  C  being  closed,  the  gas-valve  B  is  opened,  through 
15  I 


226 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


which  the  gas  enters  the  stove,  traverses  up  and  down  the  spaces  be¬ 
tween  the  upright  walls,  and  enters  the  chimney-flue  by  the  valve  D. 
Heated  air  is  supplied  to  the  gas  by  means  of  the  air-valves  a  and  caud 
passages  b  and  d,  by  which  a  most  intense  combustion  is  gained.  The 
internal  heat  of  the  stove,  as  well  as  the  combustion  of  the  gas,  is  ob¬ 
served  by  the  eye  pieces  ee. 

Figs.  Cl,  G2. — Heating  the  blast. — The  chimney-valve  D  and  gas-valve 
B  being  closed,  and  the  hot-blast  valve  A  being  opened,  the  cold  blast  is 
admitted  through  the  cold-blast  valve  C  and  issues  from  the  stove  by 
the  valve  A  red  hot,  all  other  valves  being  closed  perfectly  tight. 

Figs.  Cl,  G3,  Cl. —  Cleaning  the  store. —  When  it  is  required  to  clean  a 
stove  the  top  cleaning-doors  E  are  opened  and  the  walls  scraped  with 
the  “  cleaning  tools,”  when  the  dust  deposited  on  the  heating-surfaces 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  stove,  and  is  removed  by  the  bottom  cleaning- 
doors  F. 

The  upper  plan,  page  230,  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  stoves  to 
four  furnaces  in  full  blast  at  the  Consett  Iron-Works;  but  this  plan  may 
be  varied  to  suit  all  circumstances. 

The  following  distinguishing  advantages  are  claimed  by  the  inventor 
for  these  stoves : 

1  -ff.  That  they  will  stand  a  temperature  of  2,000°  without  damage. 

2d.  There  is  no  wear  and  tear  of  cast-iron  pipes  or  material. 

1.  They  are  sooner  cleaned  than  any  others,  the  time  required  between 
ayingotf  and  starting  again  being  six  hours.  Tuey  are  not  cooled  down, 
but  are  cleaned  from  the  outside  while  red-hot.  This  takes  place  at  in¬ 
tervals  at  from  three  to  six  mouths,  according  to  the  amount  of  dust  in 
the  gas. 

4th.  The  principle  on  which  the  stoves  are  constructed  insures  the 
greatest  economy  of  gas  or  fuel,  whilst  the  heat  that  is  obtained  in  the 
blast  is  nearly  the  whole  of  that  given  oil'  by  such  gas  or  fuel. 

oth.  The  cost  of  the  stoves  is  not  proportionately  more  per  furnace 
than  that  of  ordinary  cast-iron  plant,  equal  to  modern  requirements. 

Gth.  These  fire-brick  stoves  effect  a  saving  of  several*cwts.  of  fuel 
per  tou  of  iron  made. 

7th.  The  stoves  being  riveted  and  calked  air  tight,  there  is  no  loss 
by  bad  joints,  and  hence  a  large  amount  of  wear  and  tear  is  saved  to 
the  blowing  engines. 

Sth.  The  areas  throughout  are  so  regulated  that  there  is  no  loss  of 
pressure  by  friction,  but  a  pressure  of  four  pounds  in  the  engine-house 
gives  an  equal  pressure  at  the  tuyere ,  where  the  plans  of  the  patentee  are 
properly  carried  out. 

Oth.  The  immense  reservoir  of  caloric  stored  up  in  these  stoves,  each 
red-hot  wall  actiug  as  a  tly-wheel  so  to  speak,  and  giving  out  its  power 
when  most  required,  produces  the  best  effect  on  the  working  of  a  fur¬ 
nace. 

10th.  These  stoves  form  a  perfect  regulator  to  the  blast,  acting  in  this 


l 


Fig.  63. — Whitwell’s  hot-blast  stove,  horizontal  section. 


Fig.  64. — Whitwell’s  hot-blast  stove,  plan. 


WHIT  WELLS  IIOT-BLAST  STOVE. 


227 


respect  as  the  air-vessel  in  a  force-pump,  and  dispensing  altogether  with 
the  large  air-regulators  that  are  found  necessary  in  many  works,  the 
blast  being  perfectly  steady  at  the  tuyere. 

I  The  use  of  hot  blast,  of  the  temperature  obtainable  from  these  fire¬ 
brick  stoves,  enables  iron-masters  to  effect  a  saving  in  fuel,  much  beyond 
what  can  be  obtained  by  any  amount  of  cast  metal  pipes;  and,  if  a  heat 
from  1,500  to  2,000  degrees  and  upwards  be  desired,  these  stoves  stand 
it  without  damage,  whilst  metal  ones  at  once  give  way. 

It  is  now  generally  known  that  high  furnaces  do  not  work  well  with 
many  kinds  of  fuel  and  ores,  where  those  of  moderate  dimensions  have 
i  no  difficulty,  but  the  hot  blast  produced  by  Whitwell’s  fire-brick  stoves 
never  fails  to  effect  the  desired  saving  in  fuel,  whilst  at  the  same  time 
proviug  a  corrective  to  nearly  all  those  evils  that  lower  the  make  and 
quality  of  pig-iron.  In  France,  Alsace,  Lorraine,  the  hematite  districts, 
&c.,  high  furnaces  have  been  already  tried,  but  have  failed  chiefly  on 
|  account  of  their  scaffolding ;  the  approved  height  of  furnace  is  now  from 
55  to  60  feet,  except  in  Cleveland,  whether  for  smelting  hematite,  mag¬ 
netic,  oolitic,  or  carbonaceous  ores. 

The  original  patents  of  Messrs.  Siemens  &  Cowper  have  now  expired, 
and  therefore  the  extra  royalties  hitherto  imposed  are  saved.  Patents 
have  been  granted  to  these  stoves  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Belgium, 
the  United  States,  Luxembourg,  Russia,  Austria,  Spain,  Portugal,  Swe¬ 
den,  Norway,  Italy,  the  East  Indies,  New  Zealand,  and  Canada. 

The  celebrated  firm  of  Messrs.  Schneider  cfi  Cie ,  Le  Creusot,  France, 
have  during  the  past  year  blown  in  their  first  furnace  on  this  system. 
They  make,  with  four  stoves,  400  tons  per  week  of  Bessemer  pig.  The 
Dowlais  Iron  Co.,  Merthyr  Tydvil,  have  also  adopted  the  stoves  for  the 
same  purpose,  not  only  on  account  of  the  heat  of  the  blast,  but  the 
fect  regularity  with  which  they  work. 

In  general  terms  one  stove  will  make  100  tons  of  pig  per  week  ;  at  the 
Consett  Works,  one  stove  makes  above  125  tons  gray  iron  per  week  ;  and 
for  some  time  past,  the  furnaces  on  a  mixture  with  46  per  cent,  metallic 
iron  have  made,  with  four  stoves,  500  tons  per  week  ;  the  average  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  blast  is  1,400°  by  Siemens’  pyrometer. 

In  Luxembourg,  with  oolitic  ores  of  32  per  cent,  metallic  iron,  and  coke 
with  18  per  cent,  of  ash,  the  consumption  is  20  cwt.  coke  per  ton  of 
gray  pig ;  production  525  tons  per  week  per  furnace. 

At  Weilerbach,  in  a  charcoal  furnace  29  feet  high,  with  oolitic  ores  of 
32  per  cent,  metallic  iron,  the  consumption  is  20  cwt.  charcoal  per  ton  of 
gray  pig;  the  adoption  of  fire-brick  stoves  in  this  case  to  an  old  furnace 
enabled  the  proprietors  to  use  a  mineral  of  less  value  producing  the  same 
quality  of  pig  as  ivas  formerly  made  with  more  expensive  ores  ;  the  economy 
in  fuel  attained  by  the  fire-brick  stoves  is  6  cwt.  charcoal  per  ton  of  pig, 
and  castings  of  the  finest  description  are  run  direct  from  the  blast  fur¬ 
nace,  the  iron  being  now  exceedingly  soft. 

II  eating  surf  ace. — In  these  stoves  every  square  inch  is  effective  as  heat- 


228 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ing  surface,  as  the  burning  gases  are  compelled  between  entering  and  leav¬ 
ing  tUe  stove  to  traverse  the  ichole  surface  of  the  bricks  exposed ;  the  blast  in 
its  turn  also  passes  over  the  identical  surfaces  previously  heated  by  the 
gas,  and  absorbs  from  them  the  heat  required. 

In  no  other  stoves  where  brick-work  is  used  as  heating-surface  is  this 
the  case;  hence  in  Whitwell’s  fire-brick  stoves  a  much  smaller  quantity 
of  heating  surface  is  necessary  for  heating  the  blast,  inasmuch  as  every 
part  of  it  is  effective. 

At  this  date,  the  stoves  are  adopted  by  33  firms,  including  some  of  the 
largest  in  Europe,  Consett ,  Doiclais ,  Le  Creusot,  De'Wendel  if  Cie.,  Krupp , 
Bochum ,  Dupont  if  Dreyfuss ,  it c. 

These  hot  blast  fire-brick  stoves  have  been  adopted  by  the  following 
firms: 


Stoves. 


5 


GKKAT  BRITAIN. 

Cornett  Iron  Company,  limited,  Durham .  5 

North  of  Enjland  Industrial  Iron  Company,  limited,  Carlton  Iron  Works,  Stockton-  3 
on-Toea. 

The  Sol  way  Hematite  Iron  Company,  limited.  Maryport,  (Bessemer  pig) .  2 

The  Moms  Hay  Hematite,  Iron  Company,  Workington.  (Bessemer  pig) .  3 

The  West  Cumberland  Hematite  Iron  Company,  Workington .  1 

The  Hutterley  Iron  Company,  Alfreton,  Derby . .  I 

The  Tees  Bridqe  Iron  Company,  limited,  Stockton-on-Tees . .  2 

Win .  Whitwell  if  Co.,  Thornnov  Iron  Works,  Stockton-on-Tees .  2 

Hell  Brothers,  Walker  Iron  \Vorks,  Newcostle-ouTyno . .  2 

SOUTH  WALKS. 

Tii,-  patriots  Iron  Company.  Merthyr  Tvdvil . .  1 

The  <jQK'**'nor  and  Company  of  Copper  Miners  in  Enoland,  Cwiu  Avon,  Tort  Talbot..  1 


CONTINENT. 

■rt-  VV.  C. 


M.  M.  Schneider  if  Cie.,  Le  Creusot.  (Bessemer  pig) .  1 

'L< f  Baron  Adehward,  Longwy . .  1 

Societe  de  Vezin  Aulnoye,  Nancy .  1 

Societe  A  nnmyme  drs  Faroes  de  Pcnain .  1 

Societe  de  Com  mentry  ct  Chat  Him .  1 

PRUSSIA. 

F.  Krupp.  Johanneshutto,  Pnisberg .  1 

Friederich-  Wilhelms- II  iitte,  Mnllierm,  a.  d.  Kahr .  2 

Societe  D  Acier  Bochum,  Westphalia . .  2 

Societe  de  Horde ,  Dortmund .  1 

J.  H.  Dressier,  sen.,  Siegen .  1 

Scha'ker.  Gruben  <f  HUtten  Terein ,  Gelsen-Korchen .  2 

Concordiahiitte  Fschiceiler .  1 

ALSACE  LORRAINE. 

J  I.  M.  Le  Petit  Fils  de  Fois.  De  Wen  del  <t  Cie.,  Hayange .  2 

A I.  M.  Dupont  d  Dreyfuss,  Ars-sur-Moselle .  1 

GRAND  DUCHY  OF  LUXEMBOURG. 

Soci-'-c  Anonyme  Des  Ha uts- Fournca ux,  Esch-snr-L'Alzette .  "2 

Al.  .If.  Philip  if  Bernard  Serrais.  Weilerbaeh.  (Charcoal  pig) .  1 

AI.  AC.  Aletz  it  Cie.,  Forges  d'Eich .  1 


X  . 

c.  “ 

x  » 
c.  ez 

z  3 

73 

4 

10 

0 

12 

. 

8 

8 

4 

■1 

o 

0 

8 

10 

6 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

8 

8 

4 

4 

8 

4 

8 

4 

. 

4 

4 

2 

2 

whitwell’s  hot-blast  stove. 


229 


Stoves. 

Furnaces. 

02  . 

=  1 
-*3  P 
VI* 

Stoves  in 

blast. 

BELGIUM. 

2 

10 

2 

8 

SPAIN. 

2 

6 

UNITED  STATES. 

Cedar  Point  Iron  Company ,  Port  Henry.  Hew  York . 

1 

1 

4 

3 

53 

149 

58 

Total:  33  companies,  53  blast-furnaces,  207  stoves. 

The  arrangement  of  the  stoves  at  Consett,  at  Krupp’s,  and  at  Creusot 
is  shown  in  the  annexed  cut. 


230 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  L?73. 


Krupj), 


whitwell’s  stoves  at  coxsett. 


231 


Fig.  63. — Plan  of  arrangement  of  Whitwell’s  stoves — Consett  Works, 


232 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


15G.  Siemens’  direct  process. — Dr.  C.  William  Siemens,  of  London, 
illustrates  bis  newly-proposed  metbodof  producing  iron  and  steeldirectly 
lrom  tlie  ore  by  models  of  tbe  furnaces  and  apparatus,  with  speci¬ 
mens  ot  tbe  products  and  of  tbe  materials  employed.  Tbe  chemistry 
ot  iron  metallurgy  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Siemens  for  many  valuable  con¬ 
tributions,  not  tbe  least  of  which  is  bis  lecture  before  tbe  Chemical 
•Society,  in  March  last,  upon  smelting  iron  and  steel.  In  that  lecture  he 
gave,  in  considerable  detail,  tbe  course  and  results  ot  tbe  experiments 
which  finally  led  him  to  adopt  tbe  direct  process.  Briefly  stated,  this 
process  consists  in  smelting  successive  charges  of  ore  iu  a  rotary  pud¬ 
dling  furnace.  A  charge  of  about  twenty  hundred-weight  of  crushed 
ore  mixed  with  the  proper  fluxing  material  is  placed  iu  the  rotating  pud- 
dler.  When,  by  the  flame  from  a  regenerative  furnace,  it  has  been 
brought  to  a  red  heat,  from  five  to  six  hundred-weight  of  small  coal  is 
added  and  the  speed  of  the  puddler  Is  increased.  The  reduction  of  the 
orfc  to  the  metallic  state  proceeds  rapidly,  the  carbonic  oxide  evolved  is 
burned  within  the  chamber,  and  very  little  gas  lrom  the  gas-producers 
is  required.  A  lien  the  reduction  is  complete  the  puddler  is  stopped,  and 
the  fluid  slag  is  drawn  off.  The  puddler  is  then  rotated  rapidly ;  the 
iron  is  collected  into  two  or  three  metallic  balls,  which  are  withdrawn  and 
treated  in  the  usual  way.  About  two  hours  are  required  for  a  charge, 
and  assuming  that  one  thousand  pounds  of  iron  are  got  out  to  each 
charge,  the  furnace  would  produce  about  five  tons  of  puddled  bar  per 
diem.  It  is  claimed  to  be  feasible  to  push  the  operation  so  far  within 
the  rotator  as  to  produce  cast-steel.  Mr.  Siemens  claims  and  undertakes 
to  demonstrate  that  by  this  process  a  very  great  saving  of  fuel  is  effected. 
For  the  lining  of  the  rotary  puddler,  after  numerous  trials,  he  has  found 
a  mixture  of  calcined  bauxite  powder  with  clay  and  plumbago  to  be  the 
best.  Three  per  cent,  of  clay  and  six  per  cent,  of  plumbago  give  the 
best  results  as  binding  materials.  Bauxite  is  a  ferruginous  clay,  con¬ 
taining  from  one  to  four  per  cent,  of  silica.  The  graphite,  under  the  in¬ 
tense  heat,  reduces  the  oxide  of  iron  in  the  bauxite  to  the  metallic  state. 
Linings  so  made  have  been  found  to  be  very  dux-able,  far  more  so  than 
the  best  fire-brick. 

As  Dr.  Siemens’  papers  have  been  extensively  published  and  circu¬ 
lated,*  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  more  than  this  general  notice  of  his 
process.  Experiments  are  yet  in  progress  at  his  experimental  works  in 
Birmingham,  to  which  a  special  visit  was  made  by  the  writer. 

337.  Decorated  tin-plate.— The  Tin-Plate  Decorating  Company, 
of  Neath,  England,  made  a  considerable  display  of  tin-plate  covered 
with  a  great  variety  of  designs  and  of  various  colors.  Such  plates  are 
supplied  of  any  required  design,  at  only  a  moderate  increase  of  cost 
over  ordinary  tin-plate.  They  are  already  largely  introduced  for  small 
boxes  and  cases  for  medicines,  matches,  spices,  and  the  like.  It  is 
claimed  by  the  manufacturers  that  the  colors  are  indelibly  printed  by  a 


*  See  Jour,  of  tbe  Irou  and  Steel  Institute,  1873,  i,  p.  37. 


DECORATED  TIN-PLATE. 


233 


patented  process,  and  that  they  can  be  varied  at  pleasure,  will  resist  the 
action  of  boiling  acid,  and  are  neither  affected  by  heat  nor  cold. 

For  small  parcels  decorated  plates  possess  the  advantage  of  being 
cheaper  than  the  ordinary  paper-labeled  canister,  and  goods  so  packed 
are  preferred  by  dealers,  as  the  covering  is  not  liable  to  damage  from 
either  dust  or  damp :  the  empty  package,  moreover,  presents  a  perpetual 
advertisement  of  its  former  contents. 

For  show-cards  this  article  is  particularly  adapted',  as  the  covering 
will  resist  the  weather  and  they  can  be  produced  at  a  lower  cost  than 
the  card-board  designs  in  ordinary  use,  the  expense  of  glass  and  fram¬ 
ing  and  the  risk  of  breaking  or  damage  being  entirely  avoided. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


UNITED  STATES. 

RePUK.SK  NT  ATION  AT  T1IK  EXHIBITION  NOT  THOROUGH  ;  LAKE  SUPERIOR  OIfKS ;  Pro¬ 
duction  ok  the  Lake  Superior  region;  Exhibition  ok  cast-steel  by  Park 
1! roth k u  iV  Co.;  Iuon-okk.s  ok  Essex  County,  Xkh  York;  Ores  from  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Indiana,  and  Alabama;  Rothwkll’s  Wyoming  map;  Sellers’  puddling- 
machine;  Sellers'  high  rolls;  Production  ok img-iron  in  the  United  States; 
Rolled  iron  ;  Production  ok  rails  and  ok  Hksskmkr  and  other  kinds  ok  steel; 
Statisticaltabi.es  ok  production  in  the  United  States. 

158.  There  are  a  few  specimens  of  American  iron-ores  at  the  Exhibi¬ 
tion,  enough  to  direct  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  are  an  iron-producing 
country,  but  the  exhibition  is  by  no  means  commensurate  with  our 
wealth  and  production  of  iron  and  of  steel.  There  are  withal  no  sta¬ 
tistics,  in  a  presentable  form;  nothing  to  satisfy  the  desire  of  inquirers 
concerning  the  extent  and  distribution  of  the  iron  and  the  coal  of  the 
country.  The  catalogue  is  equally  barren.  There  does  not  appear  to  be 
a  specimen  of  Bessemer  or  Martin’s  steel  from  the  United  States;  and 
a  stranger  to  our  metallurgical  industries,  judging  of  the  country  by  what 
lie  finds  in  the  Exhibition,  would  infer  that  such  advanced  methods 
of  producing  steel  are  not  yet  introduced.  But  there  is  one  excep¬ 
tion,  of  crucible  steel ;  the  Messrs.  Park,  Brother  &  Co.,  of  Pittsburgh, 
have  sent  a  few  samples  and  a  very  fine  specimen  of  hot  Hanging  for  a 
boiler  head,  which  attracted  the  attention  of  the  jury  and  received  a 
medal. 

159.  Lake  Superior  ores. — Mr.  George  R.  Tuttle,  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  forwarded  a  very  good  series  of  blocks  of  the  magnetic  aud  spec- 
cular  ores  of  the  Lake  Superior  region,  as  received  by  water-transpor¬ 
tation  at  Cleveland  from  Marquette.  The  size  and  evident  purity  of 
these  specimens  attracted  attention.  This  exhibition  would  be  much 
more  instructive  if  accompanied  by  photographs  or  models  of  the  mines 
and  statistics  of  the  production.  The  production,  which  was  some  7,000 
tons  in  the  year  1S56,  increased  to  over  a  million  of  tons  in  the  year 
1873. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  chief  iron  mines  upon  Lake  Superior, 
with  the  production  in  the  year  1874,  compiled  by  the  editor  of  the 
Marquette  Mining  Journal ,  and  cited  by  the  secretary  of  the  American 
Iron  and  Steel  Association  : 


LAKE  SUPERIOR  IRON-MINING. 


235 


Production  of  Lake  Superior  Mines ,  1874. 


Mine. 


Jackson  . 

New  York . 

Cleveland . 

Lake  Superior . 

Champion . 

Washington . 

Republic . 

Klomau . 

Cascade . . 

iBarnum . 

Foster . 

Salisbury . 

Lake  Angeline . 

Pittsburgh  and  Lake  Superior.. 

Edwards . 

Spurr  Mountain . 

Michigamme . 

Keystone . 

McComber . . 


Tons. 

Mine. 

Tons. 

105,  600 

Winthrop . 

8,  242 

77,010 

Shenango . 

7,549 

108,  580 

Saginaw . 

45,  486 

114,074 

Carr . 

948 

46,  769 

Bagaley . 

541 

28,  390 

Howell  Hoppock . 

966 

126,  956 

Emma . 

726 

35, 088 

Goodrich . 

3,100 

16,  931 

Home . 

2, 139 

41,403 

Rolling  Mill . 

16,  643 

3, 318 

Teal  Lake . 

2,610 

7,480 

Excelsior . 

1,065 

31,526 

Williams . 

593 

1,  362 

Allen . 

130 

2,  849 

Stewart . 

305 

42,  068 

Gilmore . 

162 

45, 294 

5,  227 

Miller . 

1,*717 

2,641 

Total . . 

935, 488 

The  decrease  in  the  shipments  of  1874,  as  compared  with  the  ship, 
raents  of  1873,  was  231,891  tons,  the  production  of  the  year  last  named 
being  1,167,379  tons.  The  product  of  1874  wais  almost  as  large  as  that 
of  1872,  which  was  952,055  tons.  Below  is  a  table  showing  the  aggre¬ 
gate  yield  of  all  the  mines  from  1856  to  1874  : 


1856  . 

. 7,000 

1867  . 

466,  076 
507,  813 
633, 238 
856,  471 
813,  379 
952,  055 
1,167,379 
935,  488 

1857  . 

.  21, 000 

1868  . 

1858  . 

.  31 j 035 

1869  . 

1859  . 

.  65”  679 

]  870  . 

1860  . 

.  116,908 

1871 

1861 . 

.  45”  430 

1872 

1862  . 

.  115,721 

1873  .. 

1863  . 

.  185”  257 

1874 

1864  . 

.  235 j 123 

1865  . 

1866  . 

.  296, 972 

7,  648, 280 

In  the  year  1873,  the  price  of  Lake  Superior  ores  at  Cleveland  was 
about  $12  before  the  monetary  panic,  and  $10  after  it.  In  1874  the  price 
receded  to  about  $9,  and  then  to  $7  and  $7.50. 

160.  Cast  Steel  of  Park,  Brother  &  Co.-— The  samples  of  cruci¬ 
ble-steel  boiler-plate,  sent  by  Messrs.  Park,  Brother  &  Co.,  were  man¬ 
ufactured  by  them  at  their  establishment,  known  as  the  “  Black  Diamond 
Steel  Works, v  in  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

The  exhibition  is  confined  to  several  specimens  of  homogeneous  steel 
boiler-plate,  showing  the  strength,  ductility,  and  flanging  capacity  of 
the  metal.  This  class  of  material  produced  in  these  works  has  already 
been  used,  to  some  extent,  on  European  railways,  and  by  other  railways 
abroad  supplied  with  American  locomotive  engines,  in  the  construction 
of  which  the  “Black  Diamond  ’’  steel  has  been  used. 


236 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


This  firm  of  Park,  Brother  &  Co.  was  organized  early  in  the  year 
1802,  and  the  erection  of  the  works  was  commenced  immediately  there¬ 
after.  Their  business  is  the  manufacture  of  all  descriptions  of  bar 
plate,  and  sheet  cast-steel,  and,  in  addition,  the  Gerrnau  or  “  converted 
steel.”  The  process  of  manufacture  originally  adopted  is  that  which  is 
still  in  operation — the  “cementation  process.”  In  the  production  of 
cast-steel  at  these  works  neither  the  Bessemer,  “  Siemens-Martin,”  or 
other  kindred  methods  have  been  used,  their  operations  having  been 
confined  excl  usively  to  crucible  melting. 

Among  the  many  grades  of  steel  produced  the  following  may  be 
enumerated  :  Best  cast-steel,  for  machinists’  and  edge  tools,  for  mining- 
drills,  dies,  &c.;  steel  suitable  for  reaping  and  mowing  machines,  plows, 
cultivators,  and  other  agricultural  implements;  homogeneous  steel  plates 
for  locomotive,  stationary,  and  marine  steam-boilers;  steel  for  cotton, 
woolen,  and  other  machinery,  together  with  grades  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  files,  cutlery,  springs,  saws,  &c. 

The  leading  specialties  of  this  establishment  are  best  cast-steel  homo¬ 
geneous  plates,  tile-steel,  sheet  cast-steel  for  reaper  and  mower  knives, 
together  with  certain  other  grades  for  various  purposes. 

The  establishment  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  steel  trade  of  this 
country,  occupying  several  acres  of  land,  and  possessing  extensive  me¬ 
chanical  appliances  for  the  effective  prosecution  of  their  extensive  and 
increasing  business. 

The  average  number  of  men  directly  employed  is  400,  and  the  pro¬ 
ductive  capacity  of  the  works  is  10,000  tons^ annually.  The  manufac¬ 
ture  in  the  United  States  of  the  highest  grades  of  cast-steel  is  claimed 
to  have  been  first  full}’  developed  in  these  works. 

The  firm  has  participated  with  advantage  in  most  of  the  great  exhi¬ 
bitions.  It  received  a  gratifying  award  at  Paris  in  18G7.  They  have 
exhibited  at  London,  Boston,  Cincinnati,  New  Orleans,  and  other  cities, 
receiving  in  the  aggregate  ten  or  twelve  medals.  At  this  Vienna  exhi¬ 
bition  the  jury  has  decreed  a  medal. 

161.  Iron  ores  of  Essex  County,  New  York.— The  rich  magnetic 
iron-ores  of  the  northern  part  of  the  State  of  New  York  are  represented 
by  specimens  sent  by  Messrs.  AYitherbee  &  Sherman  from  Port  Henry, 
on  Lake  Champlain.  Among  the  specimens  there  are  several  fine  octa¬ 
hedral  crystals  of  magnetite  from  the  “  New  Bed,”  so  called ;  masses 
from  the  old  Sanford  ore-bed,  and  from  other  beds  tributary  to  the  man¬ 
ufacture  of  iron  at  Port  Henry.  No  statistics  given. 

C.  S.  Johnston,  of  New  York  City,  contributes  a  well-prepared  series 
of  specimens  of  the  ores  of  the  Clifton  Iron  Mine  collected  by  Professor 
Silliman  at  the  locality.  They  are  accompanied  by  samples  of  the  flux, 
the  pig-metal,  and  small  blooms,  and  by  a  short  description  in  print? 
giving  the  results  of  analyses.  From  this  description  it  appears  that 
the  property  of  this  company  consists  of  three-quarters  of  the  town  of 
Clifton,  Saint  Lawrence  County,  New  York,  and  embraces  about  23,000 


237 


IRON  ORES  OF  ESSEX  COUNTY,  NEW  YORK. 

cres  of  land,  most  of  it  densely  wooded,  through  which  the  Grass 
Liver  flows  about  nine  miles,  affording  numerous  and  unfailing  water- 
owers  of  from  10  to  35  feet  fall. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  wood  on  the  entire  tract  is  hard,  composed 
f  beech,  maple,  birch,  and  cherry,  interspersed  with  pine,  spruce,  tain- 
rack,  hemlock,  ash,  and  cedar. 

The  mines  include  several  extensive  deposits  of  magnetic  ores,  lying 
aainly  above  water-level.  At  the  principal  bed  the  veins  have  been 
pened  at  several  points,  and  about  15,000  tons  of  ore  taken  therefrom 
Lave  been  converted  into  neutral  iron,  and  used  for  admixture  with  “red 
hort”  ores,  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

The  ores  are  said  to  yield  from  50  to  65  per  cent,  of  iron  of  remarkable 
enacity  and  specially  adapted  for  wire  and  crucible  steel  and  for  fouud- 
■ry  purposes.  Their  purity  and  general  characteristics  are  shown  by 
he  following  analyses  of  average  samples  by  Professor  Chandler,  of  the 
Columbia  College  School  of  Mines,  New  York,  October,  IP  72: 

The  samples  of  magnetic  iron-ore  from  Prof.  B.  Silliman,  marked  “All 
parts  Whim  shaft,  Arendal  vein,”  submitted  to  me  for  examination? 


contain — 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron . . . .  79.  29 

Oxide  of  manganese . . .  0.  35 

Alumina . .  3.  45 

Lime .  4.46 

(Magnesia . .  3.  09 

Sulphur . . . . .  0.35 

Phosphoric  acid . . . - .  0.  32 

Silicic  acid . . . .  8. 32 

Water . .  .  0.  51 


100.  34 

Equivalent  to — 

Metallic  iron . 57.42 

Metallic  manganese .  0.  23 

Phosphorus  . .  . .  0. 14 

Sulphur .  0.35 

No.  7,  Magnetic,  (above  lower  tunnel.) 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron .  80.  91 

Oxide  of  manganese . 0.  42 

Sulphur .  0.  08 

Phosphoric  acid .  0.  03 

Silicic  acid . 8.77 

Equivalent  to — 

Metallic  iron . 58.  59 

Metallic  manganese . 0.  29 

Phosphorus  .  . . 0.  01 

Sulphur . 0.  08 


238  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Tooley  Lake,  (new  discovery.) 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron . 75.  01 

Oxide  of  manganese .  0.  42 

Sulphur .  0.  08 

Phosphoric  acid .  0.  03 

Silicic  acid .  13.  34 

Equivalent  to — 

Metallic  iron . 54.  32 

Metallic  manganese . 0.  29 

Phosphorus . 0.01 

Sulphur . . .  0.  OS 

Sheridan  Vein,  (new  discovery.) 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron .  79.  S3 

Oxide  of  manganese .  0.  72 

Sulphur . 0.41 

Phosphoric  acid .  trace. 

Silicic  acid . ' .  S.  55 

Equivalent  to — 

Metallic  iron .  57.  SI 

Metallic  manganese .  0.  50 

Phosphorus .  trace. 

Sulphur .  0.  41 

A  good  wagon-road  about  twenty-two  miles  long  leads  from  the  prop¬ 
erty  to  De  Kalb  Junction,  on  the  Home,  Watertown  and  Ogdensburg 
Railroad,  nineteen  miles  from  Ogdensburg.  A  uearer  route  to  Ogdens¬ 
burg  is  projected. 


102.  Ores  from  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  and  Alabama. — E.  C. 
Pechin,  esq.,  of  the  Dunbar  furnace,  Fayette  County,  Pennsylvania, 
sends  a  neatly  arranged  collection  of  the  ores,  coal,  coke,  aud  iron. 
The  specimens  are  placed  in  a  box  with  partitions,  and  the  description 
of  the  specimens  is  added  in  gilded  letters. 

There  are  also  specimens  of  Counelsville  coke  and  coal,  sent  by  Prof. 
Amasa  McCoy  and  Philo  Norton. 

Prof.  E.  O.  Cox,  the  State  geologist  of  Indiana,  makes  a  fine  display 
of  “  block-coal,”  of  iron-ore,  and  of  pig-iron,  all  from  the  southern  part  of 
the  State. 

Colonel  Wilder,  of  Chattanooga,  Teun.,  arrived  late  with  au  enor¬ 
mous  block  of  iron-ore,  large  blocks  of  coal,  blooms,  pig-iron,  bar-iron,  &c. 
This  collection  made  a  hue  display,  and  was  honored  by  a  medal. 

103.  Eothwell’s  Wyoming  Map.— The  iron  resources  of  Alabama 
are  merely  indicated  by  a  few  small  specimens.  This  is  also  the  case 
with  North  Carolina  and  a  few  other  States.  Mr.  P.  P.  Itothwell  for¬ 
warded  some  of  the  Alabama  ores,  and  also  contributed  one  of  his  large 
maps  of  the  Wyoming  anthracite  coal-fields.  This  map,  which  required 
years  of  patient  labor,  was  presented,  at  the  close  of  the  Exhibition,  to 
the  engineer  department  of  Belgium. 


239 


sellers’,  fuddling -machine. 


164.  Sellers’  Puddling-Machine. — The  rotatory  puddler  exhibited 
by  Mr.  William  Sellers,  of  Philadelphia,  has,  from  the  first,  attracted 
great  attention.  The  novelty  of  its  form,  the  single  opening  in  front, 
its  compactness  and  finish,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  mahipulated, 


all  commend  it  to  the  notice  of  iron-men.  It  is  flask-shaped.  The  flame 
passes  in,  circulates,  and  passes  out  agaiu  at  the  same  end  by  which 
it  entered,  on  the  opposite  side  of  a  horizontal  partition  which  divides 
the  opening.  All  the  other  rotatory  puddlers  have  openings  at  the  op- 
site  ends,  one  of  which  is  closed  by  a  sliding-door,  and  is  used  for 
charging  and  discharging.  The  puddler  is  so  placed  upon  a  frame 
that  it  can  be  swung  away  from  the  furnace  to  permit  of  charging  from 
the  front.  The  parts  most  exposed  to  the  heat  are  protected  on  the 
outside  by  water-jackets.  The  charges  for  this  puddler  are  to  be  melted 
iu  an  auxiliary  furnace,  saving  not  only  the  lining  of  the  puddler,  but 
time  and  fuel. 

In  detail,  Mr.  William  Sellers’s  rotary  puddling-machine,  which  was 
shown  in  full  size  and  in  motion,  consists  primarily  of  a  cast-iron  sphe¬ 
roidal  vessel,  or  furnace,  rotating  about  its  longer  axis,  which  is  sup- 


240 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

ported  in  a  horizontal  plane.  It  is  closed,  at  one  end,  by  a  water-back, 
and  is  open  at  the  other  for  the  reception  of  the  charge  of  metal,  and  for 
the  admission  of  the  gases  in  combustion. 

This  puddling  “  bowl,”  as  it  is  termed,  is  mounted  on  a  cast-iron  frame 
or  carriage,  which  also  supports  the  steam-engine  that  drives  the  ma¬ 
chinery  to  rotate  the  bowl  and  to  move  the  frame  about  its  axis.  The 
frame  is  supported  on  three  points;  a  pintle  or  hinge,  and  two  wheels 
placed  with  their  axes  radial  to  the  pintle.  The  bowl  of  the  puddling- 
machine.  when  — ~uing,  has  its  open  end  in  contact  with  an  opening  of 
similar  size  in  the  .rout  plate  of  a  stack  of  flues.  This  opening,  when 
exposed  to  view,  shows  the  mouths  of  a  number  of  flues;  the  upper 
ones  conveying  the  gas  and  heated  air  to  the  bowl,  while  a  larger  open¬ 
ing  below — the  “down  take” — carries  off  the  products  of  combustiou, 
and  leads  them  to  the  “regenerative”  system  below  the  floor.  At  the 
mouths  of  the  upper  flues  the  air  and  gases  mingle  together,  and,  when 
ignited,  enter  the  bowl,  are  driven  to  its  back  end,  there  reverberating, 
pass  over  its  lower  half,  and  escape  through  the  “down-take,”  thus  till¬ 
ing  the  bowl  with  an  intensely  hot  flame. 

The  bowl  is  lined  or  fettled  with  lumps  of  refractory  iron-ore,  built 
in,  like  rough  stone-work,  with  some  quick-setting  cerneut. 

The  “  water-back,”  which  forms  one  end  of  the  bowl,  has  a  projecting 
journal  resting  in  a  bearing,  while  the  other  eud  of  the  bowl  is  sup¬ 
ported  on  friction- rollers  in  the  frame. 

The  journal  on  the  water-back  is  hollow,  and  through  it  passes  a  pipe, 
having  one  end  (that  within  the  water-back)  turned  up  in  a  nozzle,  from 
which  the  water  in  escaping  is  thrown  in  a  jet  against  the  upper  surface 
of  the  water-back,  and,  filling  its  lower  half,  flows  out  through  the  hol¬ 
low  journal  into  a  water-pan,  and  is  from  thence  carried  away  in  pipes. 
The  lower  half  of  the  water-back  being  always  filled  with  water,  during 
each  rotation  of  the  bowl  all  parts  of  the  iron  back  are,  in  turn,  im¬ 
mersed,  and  thus  kept  cool.  The  exterior  surface  of  the  bowl  is  cooled 
by  jets  of  water  falling  from  a  sprinkler  placed  over  it. 

An  engine  on  one  side  of  the  frame  turns  a  worm  or  tangent  wheel, 
which  gears  into  a  worm-wheel  attached  to  the  water-back,  and  serves 
to  rotate  the  bowl. 

A  spiral  pinion  on  the  engine-shaft  drives  a  train  of  wheels  which  im¬ 
parts  motion,  in  either  direction,  to  one  of  the  supporting-wheels,  upon 
which  the  frame  moves.  By  means  of  this  connection  the  frame  can  be 
made  to  turn  about  the  fixed  pintle,  like  a  door  on  its  hinges,  alternately 
closing  the  flue-openings  with  the  mouth  of  the  bowl,  or  exposing  them 
to  view  when  it  is  drawn  away  from  the  stack. 

When  open,  or  away  from  the  stack,  the  interior  of  the  bowl  is  acces¬ 
sible  from  its  opeu  end  for  repairs  or  inspection,  for  the  introduction  of 
the  charge  of  metal,  or  for  the  removal  of  the  puddled  ball.  When 
closed  it  is  in  position  to  receive  the  burning  gas  as  it  escapes  from  the 
flues.  To  prevent  the  stack  of  flues  from  cooling  during  the  charging 


IRON-PRODUCTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


241 


of  the  bowl,  a  circular,  concave  lid,  lined  with  fire-brick  and  hung  con¬ 
veniently  to  a  crane,  is  swung  against  the  aperture  in  the  iron  plate  on 
the  stack  usually  covered  by  the  bowl. 

The  cylinder  of  the  operating  steam-engine  is  immediately  over  the 
pintle  about  which  the  frame  turns.  The  various  pipes  for  water  and 
steam  are  all  connected  with  one  stand,  and  are  jointed  in  line  with  the 
center  of  the  pintle,  and  provided  with  proper  stuffing-boxes  to  permit 
them  to  turn  with  ease. 

A  platform  at  the  back  of  the  frame  is  provided  for  the  engine-man. 
Standing  on  this  he  has  within  easy  reach  the  throttle-valve,  a  friction- 
brake,  (for  sudden  stopping,)  a  lever  to  operate  the  opening  and  closing 
attachments,  and,  also,  a  reversing-lever,  enabling  the  engine  to  run 
backward  or  forward.  A  balance-wheel  is  provided  to  open  and  close 
the  mouth  of  the  bowl  by  hand. 

The  flue-stack  against  which  the  puddler-bowl  closes  is  merely  a  rect¬ 
angular  iron  casing,  within  which  are  constructed  the  various  flues  re¬ 
quired  for  the  heated  air,  the  gas,  and  the  down-take  to  the  regenerator. 
A  door  at  the  back  of  the  flue-stack  can  be  opened  for  the  ready  inspection 
of  the  interior  of  the  bowl  while  it  is  at  work  and  under  heat.  In  prac¬ 
tice  the  charge  having  been  introduced  into  the  puddler,  and  its  mouth 
brought  up  to  the  flue-stack,  the  iguited  gas  and  air  are  admitted,  and 
burning  within  the  rotating-bowl,  act  upon  the  molten  metal  lyiug  in 
the  bottom  of  the  bowl.  The  rotation  stirs  up  the  metal,  which,  boiling, 
“  comes  to  nature,”  and  is  aggregated  by  the  tumbling  together  of  the 
particles  of  wrought  iron.  After  this  the  surplus  cinder  can  be  drawn 
off  through  a  tap-hole.  The  bowl  being  then  turned  away  from  the 
flues,  the  puddled  ball  can  be  readily  taken  out  and  carried  to  the 
squeezer  or  hammer. 

If  the  iron  be  charged  as  pig,  the  bowl  is  not  rotated  until  the  metal 
has  melted ;  but  if  the  charge  is  drawn  melted  from  a  cupola,  puddling 
may  begin  as  soon  as  the  bowl  is  brought  up  against  the  stack  and  the 
gases  are  admitted. 

The  international  jury  awarded  a  Medal  of  Merit. 

165.  Sellers’s  high  rolls.— -A  set  of  high  rolls  from  the  same  estab¬ 
lishment  also  deserves  special  mention.  By  a  simple  hydraulic  arrange¬ 
ment  these  rolls  can  be  set  instantly  at  any  required  distance  apart.  A 
man,  at  one  point,  by  a  lever,  controls  the  movement.  Perfect  paral¬ 
lelism  is  maintained  and,  in  case  of  clogging,  the  rolls  can  be  separated 
without  accident. 

IRON-PRODUCTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

166.  Production  of  pig  and  rolled  iron.— In  concluding  this 
brief  notice  of  the  objects  from  the  United  States  at  Vienna,  it  is  deemed 
advisable  to  supplement  it  by  a  brief  statement  of  the  iron-industry  of 
the  country  at  that  period.  The  growth  of  the  pig-iron  brauch  of  the 
iron-trade  from  1854  to  1874  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  supplied 

16  i 


242 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


to  the  author  by  Mr.  Swank,  who  has  compiled  it  from  statistics  pro¬ 
cured  by  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association.* 


Production  of  pig-iron  in  the  United  States,  in  net  tons. 


Years. 

Anthracite. 

Charcoal. 

Bituminous 
coal  and 
coke. 

Total. 

1854 . 

339,  435 

342,  298 

54,  485 

736, 218 

381,886 

339,  922 

62,  390 

784, 178 

443, 113 

270,  470 

69,  554 

883, 137 

390,  365 

330,  321 

77,  451 

798,  157 

361,  430 

285,  313 

56,  351 

705,  094 

1859  . 

471,  745 

284,  041 

84,  841 

840,  627 

1860 . 

519.211 

278,  331 

1*22,  *2*26 

919,  770 

1861 . 

*109,  ‘2*20 

195,  278 

127,  037 

731,  544 

1862 . 

470,  315 

186,  660 

130,  687 

787, 662 

‘21 ‘2  00:7 

177  Qlil 

<»47  t;o4 

684,  018 

24l]  853 

210,  125 

1, 135,  996 

479, 558 

262,  342 

189,  682 

931,  562 

749, 367 

332, 580 

268,  390 

1,  350,  343 

1*67 . 

798,  638 

344,341 

318.  647 

1,  461,  626 

893,  000 

370,  000 

340,  000 

1,603,000 

1869 . 

971,  150 

392, 150 

553,  341 

1,916,  641 

1H70 . 

930  000 

367  000 

570  000 

1  bC7  000 

1871 . 

956, 608 

385,  000 

570]  000 

1, 912]  608 

1872 . 

1,  369,812 

500,  587 

984, 159 

2,  854,  588 

1*73 . 

1,  312,  754 

577,  620 

977,  904 

2,  868, 278 

1874 . 

1,  202,  144 

576,  557 

910,712 

2,  089,  413 

The  following  tables,  from  the  same  source,  present  a  general  view  > 
of'  the  production  of  all  forms  of  rolled  iron  in  the  country  during 
the  year  1S74,  the  production  of  rails  and  of  Bessemer  steel.  In  the 
table  of  rolled  iron  all  forgings,  suc^i  as  anchors,  anvils,  hammered 
axles,  cranks,  ships’  knees,  &c.,  are  carefully  excluded,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  exact  returns. 


Production  of  rolled  iron,  1874. 


Maine . 

New  Hampshire 

Vermont . 

Massachusetts  .. 
Khodo  Island.... 

Connecticut . 

New  Verb . 

New  Jersey . 

Pennsylvania  ... 

Delaware . 

Maryland . 

Virginia  . 

Georgia . 

Alabama . 

West  Virginia... 

Kentucky . 

Tennessee . 

Ohio . 

Indiana . 

Illinois . 

Michigan . . 

Wisconsin . 

Missouri . 

California . 

Kansas . 

Total . 


States. 


3,  994 
300 


■10.  324 
T.  170 
11,021 
76,  500 
24, 045 
313.  632 
6,  800 
8, 455 
11.08(1 

1.  406 
1,000 
1.600 

18,  239 
1,573 
105,413 
7,  376 

2.  500 
4,207 

275 

1,500 

9,205 


689,  280 


a  Jz 


6,  502 


4,000 
2,  256 
120.  008 
4. 058 
12,  428 


5,120 
5,  ii.i 


2,240 

1,553 


10, 870 


175, 258 


_  CD 


28,810 
3,  446 


5,  949 
27,  643 
75, 151 


5,  602 


54.  201 
5, 121 
660 
27,  253 
7.514 
4,  250 


215,  609 


14,  650 


10,  400 

24,  765 


46, 979 
3, 537 
259, 288 


48, 008 


8, 061 


522 
6,068 
13,  693 
82,  561 
20,617 
125,  103 
2,  448 
29,  680 
24,  017 
7,016 
2,000 


18,  644 
300 
10,  400 
100,  500 
10,  616 
11.921 
133,518 
58,  081 
798,  169 
11,818 
68.  891 
16, 688 
9,  467 
1,000 
56.  332 

34,  548 

15,  926 
220.  370 

35,  .507 
134.  093 

8,  208 
29.  955 

36,  387 

16,  221 

2,000 


729,413  1,839,560 


"Vide  report  of  the  secretary  of  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  January 
1,  1S75. 


PRODUCTION  OF  RAILS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


243 


Secretary  Swank  states:  “  The  total  production  of  all  rolled  iron  in 
1874,  Bessemer  steel  rails  included,  was  1,839,560  net  tons,  against 
1,966,445  tons  in  1873,  a  decrease  of  only  126,885  tons.  This  decrease 
was  all  in  rails.  Of  the  total  product  of  the  rolling-mills  in  1874, 
1,110,147  tons  were  rolled  iron  other  than  rails,  against  1,076,368  tons  in 
1873,  an  increase  of  33,779  tons.  The  number  of  tons  of  nail-plate  con¬ 
sumed  in  1874  was  245,609  net  tons,  against  201,235  tons  in  1873,  an 
increase  of  44,374  tons.  The  increase  of  33,779  tons  in  the  aggregate 
production  of  rolled  iron  other  than  rails  in  1874  was,  therefore,  wholly 
in  the  department  of  cut-nails  and  spikes.  The  total  number  of  cut- 
nails  and  spikes  produced  in  1874  was  4,912,180,  against  4,024,704  kegs 
in  1873.” 

In  the  production  of  rails  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  takes  the  lead, 
but  in  a  rapidly  diminishing  degree  from  year  to  year  since  1871. 


Production  of  rails  by  States,  in  tons. 


Pennsylvania . . 

Illinois..: . 

Ohio . . . 

New  York . 

Maryland . 

Wisconsin . 

Massachusetts . 

Indiana . 

Maine . 

Missouri . 

Tennessee . 

New  Jersey.... 

Kentucky . . 

Georgia . 

Michigan . 

West  Virginia. 

Vermont . . 

California . 

Kansas . 


Street,  mine,  and  light  rails 
Total . . . 


States. 


1871. 


1872. 


1873. 


1874. 


335,  604 

419,  529 

91,  178 

106,  916 

75,  782 

121,  923 

87,  022 

82,  457 

44,941 

26,  472 

28,  774 

37,  284 

28,  864 

29,  242 

12,  778 

23,  893 

13,  383 

14,  058 

8,  200 

15,  500 

9,  667 

14,  620 

6,  700 

9,185 

6,  000 

4,000 

7,  840 

6,930 

14,  000 

9,  883 

5,  000 

20,  100 

328,  522 
136,  102 
130,  326 
59,  764 
42,  356 
39,  495 
34,  034 
26,  579 
16,  500 
14,  020 
13,  973 
13,  749 
11,  386 
8,  275 
4,433 
4,  000 
6,  088 
475 


259,  288 
125, 103 
82,  561 
46,  970 
48,  008 
29,  680 
24,  765 
20,  617 
14,  650 
24,  017 
13,  693 
3,537 
6,  068 
8,061 
2,  448 

5QO 

10,  400 
7,016 
2,000 


775,  733 


941,  992 
58,  008 


890,  077 


729,  413 


775,  733 


1,  000,  000 


890,  077 


729,  413 


In  1874  there  were  eight  completed  Bessemer  steel  establishments, 
and  the  combined  product  of  steel  rails  exceeded  that  of  1873,  being 
144,944  net  tons  in  1874  against  129,015  net  tons  in  1873. 

Product  of  Besseyner  steel  rails,  1867  to  1874. 1 


1867 . 

2,550 

7,  225 

9,  650 
34,  000 

1871 . „ . «... 

38,  250 
94,  070 
129,  015 
144,  944 

1868 . 

1872  .. 

1869 . 

1873 . 

1870 . 

1874 . 

The  annual  production  of  merchantable  Bessemer  steel,  for  all  pur¬ 
poses,  is  as  follows : 


1867 . 

3,  000 

8,  500 
12,  000 
40,  000 

1871 . 

45,  000 

no.  500 

157  000 

1868 . 

1872 . 

1869 . 

1873 . 

1870 . . 

1874 . 

176,  579 

244 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


There  were  forty-two  establishments  in  the  year  1874  producing  other 
kinds  of  steel  than  Bessemer,  including  cast,  puddled,  blister,  and  open- 
hearth  steel.  Tlie  production  of  the  latter  is  steadily  increasing,  amount¬ 
ing  in  1S74  to  7,000  tons,  against  3,500  tons  in  1S73,  and  3,000  tons 
in  1872.  The  total  production  of  crucible-steel  in  the  United  States  in 
1874  is  stated  approximately  as  34,128  tons,  and  of -puddled,  open- 
hearth,  and  blister  steel  as  13,353  tons. 


Production  of  pig-iron  in  1872,  1873,  and  1874,  lg  States. 


W 

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780 
3, 100 
21  136 

1,661 

3,  450 

27,  991 
14,518 
326,  721 

o 

o  o 

2,  000 
17,  070 
22,  700 
291.  155 

1 

i 

G  G 

3 

10  10 

26  977 

New  York . 

37 

21 

7 

58!  53 

5 

4 

o 

o 

o 

29«!  818 

10 

7 

17  10 

1 

1 

o 

:i 

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103,  858 
1,  401.  497 

102,  341 
1,  389, 573 

90,  150 
1,213,  133 

Pennsylvania . 

142 

124 

15 

266  162 

4 

14 

19 

19 

17 

Maryland . 

13 

10 

O 

23  22 

i 

O 

63,  031 

55,  980 

54,  556 

i;> 

23 

4 

38  35 

3 

3 

o 

o 

o 

21,445 
1,  073 

26, 475 
1,  432 

29.  4"»l 

o 

G 

8  8 

1 

o 

21 

1,  340 

8 

8  8 
10  8 

.... 

4 

G 

o 

o 

3 

.. 

2 

2,  945 
12,  512 

7,  501 

9,  786 

C 

8 

i 

14  11 

3 

3 

2 

3 

22, 283 
280 
23,  050 
69,  889 
43, 134 
406,  029 
32,  486 

32,  863 

1  012 

1 

1  1 

1 

.... 

’  fi*29 

r> 

4 

9  6 

3 

1 

1 

o 

20,  790 
67,  396 
42,  454 
399,  743 
39,  221 
78,  627 

30[  134 

G  1,227 

11 

13 

16 

or]  or, 

2. 

0 

6 

22 1  20 

o 

1 

1 

i 

6 

16!  770 

Ohio . 

50 

34 

17 

93  88 

G 

p 

6 

6 

8 

425.  i  01 

3 

3 

5 

8  8 

O 

.... 

1 

1 

13,  732 

Illinois . 

io  in 

o 

2 

55!  796 

37,  946 

111 

18 

H 

o 

34  33 

i 

G 

4 

G 

100.  222 
G5,  03G 

123, 506 
74,  148 

136,  662 

50,  792 

Wisconsin . 

5 

14  13 

i 

3 

i 

i 

i .... 

i 

11 

19  18 

o 

4 

1 

1 

5 

101,158 

85,  552 

75,  817 

2,  500 
200 

1 

1  1 
1  ... 

1 

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i 

1 

1 

_ 

365 

336 

62 

‘701  665 

38 

50 

41 

46 

63  2.  854.  558 

2,  868, 278 

2,  669,  413 

*■  Two  furnaces,  not  included  here,  were  abandoned  in  1874 

one  in  Ohio,  and  one  in  Missouri. 

PEAT  AND  CHARCOAL. 

1 

1  1 

1 

224 

500 

ANTHRACITE. 

1 

1  1 

4  5  432 

10,214 

298,  428 

90, 150 

OQ 

13 

3 

41  3Gl  5 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

271,  343 
103,  858 

267,  489 
102,  341 

10 

17  If 

1 

1 

2 

3 

Pennsylvania : 

29 

18 

47  47 

43  4C 

3 

3 

6 

449,  663 
232,  225 

389, 969 
236,  409 
129,  304 
157,  403 

.316.  789 

30 

13 

4 

3 

3 

3 

5 

3 

232,  420 

88,  243 
137,  556 

8 

17 

3 

25  25 

3 

1 

3 

127.  2G0 

20 

17 

i 

37  37 

4 

i 

4 

4 

159, 304 

Total  of  Pennsylvania.. .. 

87 

65 

8 

152  149 

3 

10 

10 

16 

10 

968,  453 

913,  085 

775,  008 

3 

2 

5  4|  1 

l  1 

21,  908 

20.  407 

22,  344 

i 

4,000 

6,000 

Total . 

130 

87 

11 

217  207 

10 

13 

13 

21 

14 

1, 369,  812 

1,  312,  754 

1,  202,  144 

IRON-PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  245 

CHARCOAL  AND  BITUMINOUS  COAL. 


States. 

j  No.  ot  stacks  in  blast 

|  Dec.  31, 1874. 

[  No.  of  stacks  out  ot 

blast  Dec.  31, 1874. 

No.  of  stacks  blown 

out  in  Jau.,  1875. 

|  Whole  No.  completed 

|  stacks  Dec.  31, 1874. 

Whole  No.  completed 

stacks  Dec.  31, 1873. 

a 

o 

V  . 
cC  ^ 

o  r; 

l.s 

©  CD 

a  "5 

''H'S 
O  P< 

d 

I  No.  of  new  stacks  com¬ 

pleted  in  1873. 

No.  of  new  stacks  com¬ 

pleted  in  1872. 

J  No.  of  stacks  building 

in  1875. 

No.  of  stacks  project¬ 

ed  in  1875. 

Make  of  pig-iron  in 

1872,  net  tons. 

Make  of  pig-iron  in 

1873,  net  tons. 

Make  of  pig-iron  in 

1874,  not  tons. 

1 

o 

3 

o 

1 

1 

2,  400- 

1,  340 

2 

•2 

2 

2,400 

1 

4 

5 

4 

1 

1 

2,  400 

3,740 

BITUMINOUS  COAL  AND  COKE. 


Pennsylvania : 

Shenango  Valiev . - . 

16 

16 

.... 

32 

31 

1 

5 

.... 

1 

160, 188 

160,  831 

156,  419 

5 

6 

1 

11 

11 

4 

1 

2 

110,  599 

158,  789 

143,  666 

Miscellaneous . 

13 

19 

32 

32 

1 

2 

4 

117,  224 

111,  014 

97,  968 

Total  of  Pennsylvania.  - . . 

34 

41 

1 

75 

74 

1 

3 

9 

3 

7 

388,011 

430,  634 

397, 147 

4 

4 

4 

2 

12,  079 

5,  264 

7,  209 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

5,  516 

West  Virginia . . 

3 

2 

.... 

to 

2 

o 

1 

1 

.... 

19,  846 

21, 106 

26,  734 

3 

1 

1 

4 

3 

1 

27,  697 

27,  670 

24,  583 

Tennessee . . . 

2 

2 

4 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

8,  300 

8,  602 

11,  543 

Ohio : 

Hanging  Rock . . . 

3 

7 

10 

7 

3 

1 

1 

5 

3 

23, 169 

28,  601 

26,015 

17 

11 

8 

28 

28 

1 

2 

200.  785 

157,  888 

154,  287 

Miscellaneous . 

n 

7 

1 

18 

16 

o 

3 

3 

1 

5 

80, 167 

119,  042 

151,  864 

Total  of  Ohio . 

31 

25 

9 

56 

51 

5 

5 

6 

6 

8 

304, 121 

305,  531 

332, 166 

3 

4 

7 

7 

2 

1 

39,  221 

32,  486 

11,632 

Illinois . . 

3 

7 

10 

10 

2 

2 

1 

78,  627 

55,  7y6 

37,  946 

1 

2 

3 

3 

13,  382 

795 

3,  672 

Missouri . 

8 

.... 

8 

to 

2 

1 

1 

2 

55,  509 

46,  016 

26,  724 

Total . 

81 

96 

11 

177 

167 

10 

14 

20 

16 

24 

946,  913 

933,  900 

884,  872 

f  One  stack  altered  from  charcoal. 


One  stack  torn  down. 


246 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


CHARCOAL. 


States. 

43 

CB  O 

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No.  of  stacks  project. 

ed  in  1875. 

Make  of  pig-iron  in 

1872,  net  tons. 

Make  of  pig-iron  in 

1873,  net  tons. 

.2 

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3, 100 

3,  450 

4  1 

1 

5 

5;.... 

12  820 

15  704 

17.  777 

3  7 

10 

10  .... 

22,  700 

2G,  977 

14  5l| 

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4 

17 

17 _ 

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1 

19[  812 

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28, 293 

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39 _ 

1 

45,  033 

45,  854 

40i  978 

10  4 

a 

14 

14  .... 

29,  044 

30,  315 

25i  003 

Virginia . 

13  21 

4 

34 

32  2 

0 

0 

1 

2 

2l|  445 

20|  075 

25,  111 

North  Carolina . 

2  0 

8 

8!.... 

I 

1 

2 

1,073 

1.  432 

1,  340 

. . .  i  8 

8 

8  .... 

Georgia . 

3  6 

0 

7  2 

1 

3 

O 

2,945 

7,  501 

4, 270 

Alabama . 

G  G 

i 

12 

o  ii 

3 

0 

3 

12, 512 

22,  283 

30,  463 

....  1 

1 

1  .... 

1 

G19 

230 

1,  012 

West  Virginia . 

o _ o 

4 

41  1 

1 

1 

950 

1,  950 

3;  400 

8  13 

G 

23 

OO  1 

O 

39,  G99 

42,219 

36,  044 

11  7 

G 

Is 

17  1 

3 

34,  094 

34;  532 

37;  227 

Ohio : 

28  C 

8 

34 

33  1 

87,  440 

92, 3G5 

85,  873 

...  .1  3 

3 

§4 .... 

182 

8|  133 

6,  962 

/ 

28  9 

8 

37 

37  1 

95, 622 

100,  498 

92,  835 

....  1 

1 

1 _ 

2,  100 

Michigan . 

15  14 

o 

20 

28:  1 

G 

0 

6 

86,  GIG 

113,  475 

128',  969 

4  7 

11 

10.  1 

O 

1 

27,  790 

38,  880 

28,  973 

....  1 

1 

....  1 

8  3 

11 

9  2 

O 

3 

45, 589 

39,  536 

49,  093 

1  . ... 

1 

1 _ 

1 

2,  500 

1  .... 

1 

....  1 

1 

200 

Total . 

132  143 

40 

207 

232  17 

1 

21 

G 

9 

25 

500,  363 

574,  720 

572,  817 

$  Ono  stack  abandoned  in  1874. 


ANTHRACITE  COAL  AND  COKE. 


l|  2 

3| 

3] . . . . 

1.. ...... 

37,  24G 

35, 268 
8,736 

_  1 

4 

1 _ 

...  1  1... 

1  3 

4 

4  .... 

i|  ii.. 

37, 246 

44,  004 

1  | 

1  1 

RECAPITULATION. 


Charcoal . 

152 

145 

40  297 

282 

17  21 

6 

9 

25 

500,  363 

574, 720 

572,  817 

Bituminous  coal  and  coke  .... 

81 

96 

11  177 

167 

10  14 

20 

16 

24 

916,913 

933,  900 

884,  872 

Anthracite . 

130 

87 

11  217 

207 

10  13 

13 

21 

14 

1,  369,  812 

1,  312,  754 

1.202.  144 

1 

3 

....  4 

4 

.  .  .  .  1 

1 

37,  246 

44,  004 

25,840 

1 

li 

1 

_ I _ | 

1 

224 

500 

Charcoal  and  bitnminons  coal. 

1 

4 

....  5, 

4 

1  1 

...... 

- . 

2,400 

3,740 

Total . 

365 

336 

62  ||701 

665 

38:  50 

41 

46 

63 

2,  854,  558,2,  868, 278 

2,  689,  413 

II  Two  furnaces,  not  included  here,  were  abandoned  in  1374. 


IRON-PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 


247 


Stock  of  pig-iron  unsold  December  31, 1874. 


States  and  districts. 

Anthracite,  net  tons. 

Bituminous  coal  and 

coke,  net  tons. 

Bituminous  coal  and 

charcoal,  net  tons. 

Charcoal,  (low  grade,) 

net  tons. 

Charcoal,  (car-wheel,) 

net  tons. 

Total,  net  tons. 

# 

101,  096 
37,  959 

10,  680 

26,  448 

138,  224 
37,  959 

Pennsylvania : 

11, 225 

10,  308 

21,  533 
28,  791 
40,  787 
12,  868 

22,  990 
87,  650 
12, 230 
15,  591 

28,  791 
40,  787 
12,  868 
22,  990 

Schuylkill 

, 

87,  650 
12  230 
15, 591 

105,  436 

115,  471 

11, 225 

10,  308 

242,  440 

4,  497 

3,  853 
1,008 
5,  601 
8,  080 
2,  781 

1,  221 
17,  235 
870 
20,  657 
23,  765 

6,  387 
17,  818 
2,  500 
4,  255 
1,  220 

15,  958 
39,  042 
8,  971 
32,  992 
27,  766 

2,  981 

Ohio  : 

11, 450 
25,  777 
11,  952 

50,  717 

7,  580 

69,  747 
25,  777 
22,  560 

10,  608 

49, 179 

61,  325 

7,  580 

118,  084 

8,  796 
7,  229 

53, 558 

4,  333 

66,  687 
7,  229 
9,138 
51,  294 

8,  699 
38,  764 

439 

1,030 

11,  500 

Grand  total . : . 

248,  988 

213,  498 

2,981 

247,  999 

82,318 

795,  784 

IJNew  England  has  but  one  anthracite  furnace.  **Indiana  has  but  one  charcoal  furnace. 


Imports  of  iron  and  steel  and  manufactures  thereof  into  the  United  States  from  all  countries  during  the  fiscal  years  1871  to  1875.— Gold  values. 


248 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


1875. 

Values. 

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Imports  of  iron  and  steel  and  manufactures  thereof  into  the  United  States  from  all  countries  during  the  calendar  years  1871  to  1874. — Gold  values. 


IMPORTS  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES.  249 


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250  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


JAPAN,  CHINA,  TUEKESTAN,  INDIA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  AND 

AUSTRALIA. 

The  iron-ores  and  the  steel  of  Japan  ;  Japanese  furnace  ;  Chinese  exhibit 

OF  IRON-ORES  AND  IRON  FROM  THE  MARINE  ARSENAL  AT  FOUCHOW ;  NATIVE  CAST¬ 
INGS  from  Turkestan  ;  Iron  and  steel  of  British  India  ;  Indian  coals  ; 

Native  furnace  and  methods  of  producing  iron  ;  Wootz  or  Indian  steel  ; 

Buttons  and  forged  ingots  of  ;  Deposits  of  iron-ore  ;  New  Zealand  ;  Ilfra¬ 
combe  Iron  Company’s  steel  bell. 

167.  The  iron-ores  and  the  steel  of  Japan. — The  Japanese, 
who  have  entered  most  intelligently  into  the  true  spirit  of  the  exhibition, 
have  brought  with  them  the  best  collection  of  their  minerals  yet  seen 
abroad.  In  this  collection  we  hud  their  iron-ores  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
iron-sand  from  the  beaches  of  the  volcanic  shores  of  Uipon  and  Yesso. 
Magnetic  and  limonite  ores  are  not  wanting,  but  the  disintegrated  sandy 
ore  is  most  used,  being  better  suited  than  the  massive  ores  to  their 
primitive  methods  of  manufacture.  Their  fuel  is  charcoal,  and  it  is 
piled,  together  with  the  ore,  in  small  quadrangular  furnaces  about  20 
feet  high.  The  blast  is  thrown  in  at  the  side  from  double  bellows, 
worked  by  hand,  aud  when  sufficient  ore  has  been  reduced  to  form  a 
bloom  an  opening  is  made  in  the  front  of  the  furnace,  and  the  mass  is 
pulled  out  and  forged  by  hand.  After  several  reheatiugs  and  forgings, 
rough  disks  of  iron  are  obtained,  which  are  cut  up  by  chisels  into  short 
strips  or  bars  ready  for  sale.  A  series  of  such  bars,  ranging  from  one 
to  two  feet  in  length,  are  in  the  collection. 

There  is  also  a  model  of  the  furnace  commonly  used.  It  has  a  square 
base  and  a  pyramidal  shaft,  with  an  opening  in  front  and  two  tuyere- 
holes  on  opposite  sides.  The  model  is  one-twentieth  of  the  size  of  the 
furnace,  and  from  this  the  dimensions  which  follow  are  taken :  Base,  10 
feet  square;  height,  5  feet  10  inches;  stack,  25  feet  high.  It  appears 
to  be  like  the  old  German  oven  or  “stuhl”  furnace,  in  which  blooms 
only  were  made  and  pig-iron  was  an  accidental  product.  The  bottom 
or  hearth  is  filled  with  charcoal  and  ashes,  then  the  stack  is  similarly 
lined.  A  square  opening  is  left  in  the  back  for  charging  the  ore  and 
fuel. 

About  the  year  1860  an  attempt  was  made  to  work  the  sand-ore  of 
Yesso  in  a  high  blast-furnace,  built  after  a  European  model,  by  Takeda,. 
a  talented  Japanese  engineer,  but  it  was  abandoned  after  an  inspection 
and  report  to  the  government  by  the  writer  and  Mr.  Pumpelly.  Since 


252 


VIENNA.  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


then,  near  Yarauksbinai,  on  Volcano  Bay,  small  furnaces  have  been 
erected  for  making  blooms.  The  furnace  is  torn  down  in  front  upon  the 
completion  of  the  process  for  each  charge.  The  bloom  generally  weighs 
about  one-third  as  much  as  the  charge.* 

Magnetic  iron-ore  of  good  quality  exists  in  Xambu,  at  the  northern 
end  of  isipon,  and  has  been  successfully  worked  by  Mr.  Ohosima. 

In  addition  to  the  bar-iron  a  great  many  samples  of  steel  were  shown. 
The  steel  is  peculiar,  and  the  precise  method  of  its  manufacture  is  not 
known.  It  is  in  irregular,  spongy,  or  cellular  masses,  looking  like  slag 
or  some  meteorites.  Although  sufficiently  brittle  to  be  broken  up  into 
fragments,  as  desired  by  purchasers,  it  is  malleable,  and  may  be  wrought 
into  bars.  The  quality  is  excellent.  Some  of  these  specimens  of  steel 
were  from  the  north  part  of  Choisiu,  or  near  it,  and  are  called  i;  mother  of 
bar-steel others  are  from  Bakoni,  near  Fusi-no-yama  and  from  Oisiu. 

IBS.  China. — The  short  and  roughly-forged  blooms  and  bars  of  iron 
sent  from  the  interior  of  China  show  that  methods  of  production  simi¬ 
lar  to  those  of  Japan  prevail  there.  The  work  of  developing  the  vast 
deposits,  both  of  ore  and  of  coal,  which  that  country  is  known  to  pos¬ 
sess  has  not  yet  commenced  on  a  large  scale  under  the  direction  of  for- 
eign'ers,  but  there  is  a  large  government  establishment  at  the  Fouchow 
marine  arsenal,  province  of  Foukien,  which  was  represented  in  an  inter¬ 
esting  manner  in  the  Chinese  section.  At  this  establishment  the  native 
iron  product  of  Foukien  and  the  surrounding  country  is  worked  up  into 
merchantable  bars  and  rods.  The  works  are  superintended  by  foreign¬ 
ers  employed  by  the  government,  under  a  commission  from  Pekin,  Pros¬ 
per  Gujal  director,  assisted  by  a  committee  of  four  mandarins  of 
high  rank.  Some  2,500  Chinese  are  employed,  and  there  are  130  offi¬ 
cers  and  superintendents.  The  list  includes  000  carpenters  and  marines, 
S00  workmen  and  apprentices,  500  laborers,  500  soldiers,  130  officers  and 
superintendents. 

This  establishment  sends  a  very  interesting  series  of  its  products, 
consisting  chiefly  of  forged  bars  and  rods  bent  and  broken  in  various 
ways  to  exhibit  the  quality,  and  all  of  which  show  a  high  degree  of  ex¬ 
cellence.  The  greater  part  of  the  native  iron  is  delivered  to  the  works 
in  the  shape  of  small  blooms  weighing  only  four  or  five  pounds.  The 
ore,  a  fine  black  sand,  like  old-fashioned  desk-sand,  is  a  mixture  of  ordi¬ 
nary  quartz  river-sand  with  magnetic  iron-sand,  and  is  obtained  by 
washing  the  river-sand,  which  sometimes  does  not  yield  over  li  to  2  per 
cent,  of  ore.  Five  hundred  pounds  of  ore  yield,  in  their  rude  furnaces, 
about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  impure  iron,  which,  by  reheating 
aud  forging,  is  finally  reduced  to  only  eighty-three  pouuds.  When  these 
rough  blooms  aud  bars  are  combined  aud  forged  into  commercial  bars 
there  is  a  further  loss,  but  a  very  tough  aud  fibrous  irou  is  obtained. 
A  very  considerable  quantity  of  old  iron  from  condemned  vessels,  wrecks, 
and  other  sources  is  obtained  at  the  sea  ports,  and  this  is  also  worked 
*Blakiston,  Journey  in  l'esso,  Jour.  Geog.  Soc.,  1S72,  136. 


IRON  AND  STEEL  PRODUCTS  OF  BRITISH  INDIA. 


253 


up  at  the  arsenal.  This  establishment  has  been  in  successful  operation 
since  October,  1867,  and  appears  to  be  giving  not  only  important  com¬ 
mercial  results  but  to  be  educating  a  great  number  of  the  Chinese  in 
western  industrial  methods. 

169.  Central  Asia — Turkestan. — There  are  interesting  specimens 
of  native  castings  from  Turkestan,  made,  in  part  at  least,  according  to 
the  catalogue  published  by  the  imperial  Bussian  commission,  by  melt¬ 
ing  up  the  broken  and  disused  imported  iron  castings.  The  furnaces 
are  very  rude.  They  line  the  interior  of  a  cast-iron  pot  with  a  layer  of 
clay  1J  inches  thick  and  fill  it  with  charcoal,  lighted  at  the  bot¬ 
tom.  A  blast  is  thrown  in  from  a  tuyere  just  above  the  edge  of  the 
vessel  and  is  directed  downward  toward  the  bottom.  The  charge  of 
cast  iron  is  piled  upon  the  charcoal  in  pieces  weighing  from  twenty  to 
sixty  pounds.  Charcoal  and  more  iron  are  added,  as  needed,  until  the 
pot  is  filled  with  molten  iron.  The  slags  and  scoriae  being  skimmed  off, 
the  iron  is  dipped  out  and  the  castings  are  made  in  moist  sand.  The 
blast  is  obtained  from  two  leather  sacks  fitted  with  valves  and  worked 
by  hand,  so  as  to  give  a  nearly  continuous  blast. 

BRITISH  INDIA. 

170.  The  iron  and  steel  products  of  British  India  are  shown  in  the 
Indian  collection,  where  we  find  a  great  variety  of  iron-ores  and  coals, 
one  variety  of  the  latter  giving  a  very  superior  coke  well  adapted  to  the 
production  of  iron.  Large  blocks  of  magnetic,  specular,  and  hematite 
ores  bear  witness  to  the  wealth  of  India  in  the  raw  material,  while  the 
diminutive  bars  and  hand-made  blooms  show  that  the  industry  of  iron 
has  not  made  progress  generally  beyond  the  primitive  methods. 

Through  the  labors  of  Dr.  Oldham  and  his  assistants  of  the  geological 
survey  of  India,  the  great  resources  of  that  country  in  ores  of  iron  have 
been  made  known.  Superior  magnetic  ore  exists  in  mountain  masses 
near  Salem  and  other  places.  Three  separate  attempts  have  been  made 
to  establish  the  manufacture  of  iron  in  India  on  a  large  scale,  and  con¬ 
siderable  British  capital,  aided  by  the  government,  has  been  invested 
there,  but  up  to  this  time  without  adequate  success.  Nothing  has  been 
done  in  this  direction  for  several  years,  but  renewed  attention  is  being- 
given  to  the  subject,  and  Mr.  Bauerman,  a  mining  engineer,  has  been 
sent  out  from  England  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  mines,  with  a 
view  to  the  erection  of  iron  works  on  a  large  scale.  One  of  the  great 
difficulties  want  of  proper  fuel — has  been  removed  by  the  discovery  of 
a  bed  of  good  coking  coal.  The  India  coals  belong  not  to  the  Carbonif¬ 
erous  but  to  the  Triassic  series,  and  are  allied,  in  their  nature  and  age, 
to  those  of  China. 

The  native  production  of  iron  is  confined  to  the  poorer  classes.  They 
make  plow-points,  spades,  &c.,  but  for  wagon-tires  they  prefer  foreign 
bars.  The  method  of  working  was  clearly  shown  by  a  very  interesting 
model  of  a  native  iron  furnace  and  its  surroundings,  showing  the  whole 
operation  of  smelting,  forging,  and  reheating.  The  ore  is  broken  up  by 


254 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

hand  into  small  grains,  and  is  charged  into  a  low,  box-like  furnace,  about 
four  feet  high  and  three  feet  and  a  half  broad,  with  a  large  opening  at 
the  base  in  front.  On  each  end  there  is  a  box  four  feet  by  two  to  hold 
ore  and  fuel. 

The  blast  is  supplied  by  bellows  made  of  sheep  or  goat  skin,  worked 
by  two  women,  and  the  bloom,  when  pulled  out  of  the  furnace,  is  chopped 
up  by  men  with  heavy  hatchet  shaped  hammers.  The  pieces  are  re¬ 
heated  and  forged  out.  About  twelve  hours  are  required  to  each  charge 
and  the  product  is  about  one-third  in  weight  of  the  ore  charged.  The 
ore  is  added  at  the  top  in  layers  with  charcoal. 

The  reheating  furnace  is  also  very  simple  and  primitive  in  its  con¬ 
struction,  being  a  box  or  oven  about  0  feet  long  and  4  feet  high,  built 
over  the  blooms  upon  the  ground.  The  blast  is  thrown  in  at  the  side. 

According  to  Dr.  Oldham,  in  the  memoirs,  *  also  on  exhibition,  the 
native  furnaces  range  in  height  3  to  5  feet,  with  an  interior  diameter  of 
from  9  inches  to  1  foot.  They  stand  about  2  feet  wide  upon  the  ground, 
and  taper  upward,  the  back  part  more  than  the  front.  They  are  made 
of  red  clay,  mixed  with  sand.  The  linings  of  clay  last  only  three  or 
four  days.  An  excavation  about  a  foot  in  depth  is  made  for  a  hearth 
for  the  bloom.  The  opening  in  front  is  from  12  to  14  inches  high,  and 
is  closed  up  during  the  operation.  The  blast  is  obtained  by  hand-power 
from  skin-bellows,  and  the  tuyeres  are  made  of  bamboo  or  sheet-iron 
covered  with  clay.  A  strong  heat,  varying  in  duration  from  two  and 
one-lialf  to  four  hours,  is  sufficient  to  give  a  bloom.  An  opening  is  then 
made  in  front,  the  bloom  is  drawn  out,  and  while  hot  is  cut  into  two 
parts  by  ax  like  sledges.  The  usual  charge  is  about  eighteen  pounds  of 
ore,  and  the  average  product,  with  four  men  at  each  furnace,  is  three 
blooms  in  twelve  hours.  Such  blooms  are  reheated  several  times,  and 
hammered  and  worked  into  rude  bars  about  one  foot  long  and  two 
inches  wide.  Wootz  or  Indian  steel  is  prepared  from  such  bars.t  lu 
I860,  a  tax  amounting  to  Rs.  1210-12-7  was  raised  on  775  such  furnaces, 
while  in  1859,  928  furnaces  yielded  Rs.  1451-1-7. 

171.  Wootz  or  Indian  steel. — Of  equal,  if  not  greater,  interest,  is  a 


Fig.  65. 

series  of  specimens  of  the  famous  “  wootz”  or  Indian  steel.  It  is  cruci¬ 
ble  steel,  made  in  small  quantities,  and  from  carefully-selected  materials. 


*  Memoirs  Geological  Survey  of  India,  iv,  155. 
t  See  an  account  by  Mr.  Heath,  Jour.  Roy.  Asiatic  Soc.,  v. 


IRON-ORES  OF  INDIA. 


255 


The  small  clay  crucibles,  or  pots,  not  over  4  inches  high,  are  shown,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  “button”  as  it  remains  in  the  crucible  after  cooling. 
The  contents,  after  the  fusion,  are  not  poured  out  into  a  mold,  but  re¬ 
main  undisturbed  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel.  These  buttons  weigh 
only  a  few  ounces,  and  are  interesting  from  the  peculiar  crystallization 
which  forms  in  the  mass,  and  shows  distinctly  by  fine  raised  radial 
lines  on  the  surface. 

Button  of  wootz. — These  buttons  are  malleable,  and  some  are 
shown  forged  out  into  small  square  bars  ready  for  market.  Care  is 
taken  to  leave  traces  of  the  crystalline  markings  at  one  end  of  the  bar. 
They  have  every  appearance  of  homogeneity,  but  a  sample  submitted 
to  tests  gives  evidence  of  a  different  condition.  The  bar  presented  to 
me  by  the  commissioners  (No.  131  of  Indian  catalogue)  has,  at  my  request, 
been  forged  or  drawn  out  at  the  Griswold  Bessemer  Steel  Works,  in 
Troy,  and  under  the  supervision  of  Mr.  A.  L.  Holley,  who  reports  it 
drew  well  at  a  low  Bessemer  heat,  and  wjien  annealed  broke  off  short, 
when  cold,  and  would  not  bend  at  all  on  three  trials.  Fracture  fine. 
“  The  ingot  is  apparently  full  of  cinder,  and  is  hence  shaky  and  seamy.” 
A  piece  drawn  to  a  cold  chisel,  and  tempered  as  usual,  did  not  stand 
well.  The  experiments  were  carefully  made,  and  the  steel  was  not 
overheated.  Evidently  the  ordinary  treatment  does  not  answer  for  this 
steel.  The  radial  crystallization  of  the  button  is  evidence  of  a  differ¬ 
ence  of  composition  within  the  mass,  one  portion  being  apparently  more 
fusible  than  the  other.  When  drawn  out  this  gives  the  effect  of  in¬ 
cluded  “  cinder.” 

172.  Iron-ores  of  India. — There  are  vast  deposits  of  iron-ore  in 
Northern  India,  near  Kuraarm  and  on  Nerbudda  Kiver,  and  they  are 
generally  distributed  over  Northern  India,  but  usually  far  from  suitable 
fuel,  even  from  forests.  These  ores  are  the  magnetic  and  hematite, 
(specular.)  Of  the  Salem  iron  region,  “  Kunjamullay  ”  Oldham  (iv, 
157,)  says  they  are  close  to  railway  lines,  in  gneissic  rocks,  forming  a 
mountain.  There  are  three  principal  beds  of  magnetic  iron-ore,  besides, 
two  others  that  crop  to  a  limited  extent.  The  two  lower  beds  form  con¬ 
spicuous  outcrops,  and  average  say  50  feet  in  thickness,  each.  There 
are  vast  quantities  of  debris  all  about  the  mountain  extending  for  one 
or  two  miles.  The  yield  of  the  Porto  Novo  Company’s  furnace,  at  Bey- 
poor,  was  about  55  per  ceut.  of  pig-iron,  requiring  13J  tons  of  coal  for 
each  ton  of  pig-iron  obtained. 

India  coal. — There  is  only  one  good  coking  coal  known  in  India  at 
present.  It  is  from  Sanktoria  colliery,  Ranigunj  coal-field,  Lower  Ben¬ 
gal,  and  gives  from  74  to  76  per  cent,  of  good  coke,  a  large  specimen  of 
which,  nearly  two  feet  long,  is  shown  with  the  other  minerals  of  India. 
This  field  is  considered  to  be  the  chief  coal-field  of  India,  and  is  prob¬ 
ably  Lower  Oolite  or  Triassic  in  age.  There  are  many  different  beds, 
aud  it  is  singular  that  some  of  them  do  not  give  a  coking  coal.  The 
production  (1873)  is  now  nearly  484,642  tons  annually,  and  it  is  increas- 


256 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ing.  The  mines  are  all  worked  with  uncovered  lamps.  No  Carbonifer¬ 
ous  coal  is  known  in  India,  but  it  is  supposed  that  there  may  be  some 
in  Burmah. 

New  Zealand. — The  New  Zealand  court  of  the  Exhibition  contained 
a  variety  of  specimens  of  magnetic,  specular,  and  limouite  ores,  sent  by 
the  Colonial  Museum.  Among  these  the  following  may  be  noted: 
Magnetic  iron-ore  from  Dun  Mountain,  Nelson,  forming  a  vein  16  inches 
thick  in  serpentinous  strata,  also  from  Otago  in  mica  schists.  Specular 
ore  (hematite)  from  the  same  localities,  in  regular  veins  in  greenstone, 
(at  Dun  Mountain,)  and  in  a  G-foot  vein  at  Shotover,  Otago.  The  black- 
iron  sand  from  the  beach  at  Taranaki  was  also  represented,  together 
with  blooms  and  ingots,  and  bars  of  titanic  steel  and  of  workable  steel. 
The  ingot  is  a  spongy,  porous  mass  internally,  but  is  compact  at  the 
surface  and  edges.  The  bar  of  crude  titanic  steel  is  16  by  1J  by  £ 
inches. 

The  Ilfracombe  Iron  Company  exhibited  a  bell  of  fine  tone,  cast  from 
the  steel  made  L>y  the  company. 


CHAPTER  X. 


HYDRAULIC  FORGING. 

The  parts  of  locomotives  shows  by  Haswell,  at  Vienna;  Etched 'surfaces, 

EXHIBITING  THE  “FLOW”  OR  STRUCTURE;  THE  PROCESS  AT  THE  STATE  RAILWAY 

Works;  Forging  ingots,  car-wheels,  and  boiler-heads;  Translation  of 

Haswell’s  memoir;  The  press;  Wrought-iron  cross-heads;  Journal-boxes; 

Link  motion  sliding-blocks  ;  Cylinder-heads;  Locomotive  wheels  and  cranks; 

Illustrations  of  the  manufacture  of  car-wheels  under  the  press. 

174.  The  Austrian  section  contains  examples  of  successful  forging  of 
intricate  objects  of  large  size  in  iron  and  steel,  by  Mr.  Haswell,  engineer 
of  the  Imperial  State  Railway  Works,  at  Vienna.  The  objects  shown 
are  chiefly  axle-box  frames,  cross-heads  for  locomotive  pistons,  link-bars, 
&c.,  and  have  been  sliced  longitudinally  and  then  etched  with  acid  so 
as  to  develop  the  grain  or  fiber  and  show  its  flow  in  the  mold  and  gen¬ 
eral  conformity  to  the  shape  of  the  object. 

175.  This  method  of  forging,  known  as  “  Hasweli’s  system,”  has  been 
carried  by  him  to  a  great  degree  of  perfection,  and  is  used  in  Vienna 
with  great  economy,  while  it  gives  results  superior  to  those  obtained  by 
the  ordinary  methods.  It  consists  essentially  in  forcing  or  pressing 
iron  or  steel,  while  at  a  welding  heat,  into  suitable  molds  by  means  of 
the  hydraulic  press,  carrying  a  follower  or  u  stamp”  upon  the  end  of  the 
piston.  Both  the  mold  and  the  stamp  are  used  cold.  Ingots  or  bars 
may  be  similarly  forged  or  di'awn  down  without  a  mold  upon  an  anvil, 
without  giving  any  blow  or  shock,  as  there  is  of  necessity  when  heavy 
steam-hammers  are  used. 

By  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Haswell  1  was  admitted  to  the  works,  and 
shown  the  operation  of  the  two  powerful  hydraulic  presses  upon  both 
ingots  and  parts  of  locomotives. 

The  small  press  with  an  18-inch  piston  gives  600  tons  pressure,  and 
the  large  press  with  a  piston  24  inches  in  diameter  gives  1,200  tons 
pressure.  The  pressure  in  the  pumps  is  600  atmospheres. 

A  soft  Bessemer-steel  ingot,  weighing  2,030  pounds,  was  forged  under 
the  large  press,  and  yielded  noiselessly  to  the  pressure  as  if  it  had  been 
putty  or  soft  cheese.  As  the  piston-liead  descends,  the  metal  is  forced 
each  way,  and  the  pressure  visibly  extends  to  the  very  center  of  the 
mass,  as  shown  by  the  movements  of  the  lines  of  scale  at  the  sides. 
The  ends  of  the  ingot  are  bulged  out  at  the  center,  and  not  drawn  over 
at  the  surface,  as  is  often  the  case  with  hammer-forging,  which,  com¬ 
pared  with  hydraulic-press  forging,  seems  very  superficial.  Under  the 
17  I 


258 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

press,  the  whole  mass  of  the  ingot  is  affected.  One  great  advantage’of 
this  method  is  the  avoidance  of  great  shocks,  attendant  upon  the  use  of 
ponderous  steam-hammers. 

170.  In  forging  intricate  pieces,  the  molds  are  so  made  that  they 
can  be  taken  apart,  and  are  held  during  the  forging  by  strong  bands. 
The  follower,  or  stamp,  is  made  of  cast  iron.  The  inside  of  the  mold  is 
oiled  with  old  grease  from  railway-boxes.  A  lump  of  white-hot  steel  of 
the  proper  weight  is  thrown  in;  the  stamp  descends  upon  it  and  forces 
the  metal  into  every  recess  and  angle  of  the  mold.  Any  excess  of 
metal  rises  at  the  sides  of  the  stamp,  and  is  cut  off  when  cold.  Such 
torgings  are  alike  in  size  and  weight,  and,  of  course,  require  much  less 
trimming  and  fitting  to  bring  them  into  shape  for  finishing.  Care  is 
required,  of  course,  to  get  the  right  quantity  of  metal,  to  avoid  a  defi¬ 
ciency  or  an  excess. 

The  method  is  successfully  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  car-wheels, 
the  spokes  and  parts  of  the  hub  being  forged  in  o  ne  piece,  together 
with  the  crank-pin.  Boiler-heads  are  made  und  er  the  press  in  two 
heats.  They  are  forced  through  a  ring,  and  come  out  very  true  and  per¬ 
fect  in  form. 

177.  The  importance  of  this  method  of  manufacture  to  the  industries 
of  the  United  States  justifies  more  than  this  brief  notice,  and  as  Mr. 
Haswell  favored  me  with  an  illustrated  copy  of  his  descriptive  brochure 
published  iu  German  in  Vienna,  I  have  had  it  translated  and  abridged 
for  this  report,  and  append  it.* 

MANUFACTURE  OF  PARTS  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  BY  PRESSURE. 

By  Robert  Lane  Haswell. 

[Translation.] 

Forging  by  the  action  of  Ilaswell’s  patent  hydraulic-press,  which  was 
for  the  first  time  attempted  iu  the  machine-shops  of  the  Austrian  States 
Railroad  Company,  in  1861,  has  since  been  so  materially  improved,  that 
at  the  present  time  there  are  but  few  parts  of  a  locomotive  which  can¬ 
not  bo  made  by  this  method. 

It  may  be  said  that  this  process  is  essentially  identical  with  the  com¬ 
mon  process  of  swaging  with  the  steam-hammer,  but  to  the  close 
observer  it  is  evident  that  Haswell’s  system  greatly  excels,  since  the 
pieces  made  by  it  are  much  more  perfectly  shaped,  and  by  it  it  is  pos¬ 
sible  to  press  out  such  pieces  or  parts  which  could  not  be  hammered  out 
with  the  swage-hammer;  and  further,  this  process  is  much  more  econom¬ 
ical  ;  renders  it  possible  to  produce  those  parts  of  a  locomotive  which 
hitherto  have  been  made  of  two  or  more  pieces  iu  one  piece  ;  and  lastly, 
there  is  a  great  saving  of  time  and  therefore  of  money. 

*  Fabrication  vou  Locomotiv-Bestandtheilen  durch  Pressen  system  Haswell.  Von 
Robert  Lane  Haswell.  Mit  5  Tafeln.  Wien,  1873.  (Separat-Abdruck  aus  der  Zeit- 
schrift  des  dsterreicbiscben  Ingenieur-  und  Architekten-Vereines,  XII.  u.  XV.  Heft. 
1872.) 


haswell’s  hydraulic  forgings. 


259 


Some  pieces  which  were  made  by  this  process  at  the  works  of  the 
States  Railroad  Company,  and  which  were  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1867, 
were  so  complete  that  they  were  taken  for  cast  iron  by  French  and 
English  engineers,  and  it  is  a  thing  of  great  importance  that  a  great 
many  complicated  pieces  can  be  made  by  this  process  at  the  same  cost 
as  castings. 

The  quality  of  the  work  produced  by  this  process,  we  may  say,  is  of 
the  very  best,  in  consequence  of  the  immense  pressure  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  material,  and  the  process  is  particularly  valuable  for  making 
articles  out  of  Bessemer  steel,  siuce  a  steady  pressure  is  much  better 
adapted  to  this  material  than  hammering.  The  many  experiments 
which  have  been  made  have  been  so  successful  that  we  are  justified  in 
making  the  assertion  that  very  soon  no  other  process  of  forging  will  be 
employed.  The  most  profitable  application  of  this  process  is,  without 
doubt,  found  in  the  manufacture  of  the  more  complicated  forms.  Borsig 
and  Schwartzkopff,  at  Berlin,  have  two  patent  Haswell  presses,  one  of 
24,000  cwt.,  and  another  of  60,000  cwt.  At  Niederbrouu,  a  press  of  24,000 
cwt.  is  building,  and  in  England  two  are  now  in  operation. 

Every  one  who  has  anything  to  do  with  the  building  of  locomotives 
knows  how  difficult  it  is,  how  long  it  takes,  and  what  great  expense  is 
involved;  therefore, convinced  of  the  immense  advantage  of  this  method, 
I  have  decided  to  describe  in  detail  the  exact  processes  which  are  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  Imperial  States  Railway  Locomotive  shops,  under  the 
special  direction  of  the  patentee,  Mr.  John  Haswell,  hoping  thereby  to 
show  to  others  the  advantage,  aud  to  hasten  the  introduction  of  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  forging  which  is  not  so  commonly  understood  as  it  deserves 
to  be. 

178.  The  Hydraulic  Press. — The  press  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  pieces  here  treated  of  has  a  power  of  15,000  cwt.,  and  a  stroke 
of  20  inches.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  such  an  apparatus  is  cheaper 
than  a  steam-hammer,  since  no  such  heavy  foundations  are  required; 
and  it  is  therefore  more  suitable  for  small  establishments. 

179.  Wrought-iron  cross-heads. — In  the  manufacture,  under  the 
press,  of  locomotive  cross-heads,  the  masses  of  iron  to  be  pressed  out  are 
made  in  the  usual  manner  by  forging  together  refuse  pieces  of  scrap 
and  sheet  iron.  The  weight  of  a  bloom  to  make ‘six  cross-heads  is  13  cwt. 
These  blooms  are  hammered  out,  under  a  steam-hammer  of  80  cwt., 
to  a  length  of  about  7  feet,  a  breadth  of  11  inches,  and  a  thickness  of 
7  inches.  The  bloom  is  then  cut  into  six  equal  parts,  aud  the  pieces 
cut  down  till  they  weigh  about  190  or  195  pounds  each,  aud  will  easily 
go  into  the  mold. 

The  pieces  are  placed  in  a  common  heating-furnace  while  still  warm. 
The  pressing  is  done  at  a  single  stroke,  in  the  cast-iron  mold  placed 
upon  the  bed  of  the  press.  See  Fig.  111. 

The  mold,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  consists  of  two  parts,  the  upper 
and  lower,  a  and  &,  which  are  inclosed  iu  the  wrought-iron  blocks  d.  The 


260 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


form  of  the  cross-head  is  impressed  into  the  upper  part,  and  in  the 
lower 'part,  b,  the  form  of  the  rest  of  the  cross  head  is  made  by  the  coni¬ 
cal  side  pieces  c  c.  These  pieces  are  so  made  as  to  permit  of  their  re¬ 
moval  from  the  mold  with  the  cross-head.  The  disk  f  determines  the 
height  of  the  shoulder  for  the  piston-rod,  and  can  be  made  thicker  or 
thinner  as  desired.  The  disk/,  also  the  side  pieces  c  c ,  are  put  into  the 
lower  mold  from  above  before  the  parts  a  and  b  are  put  together.  G  is 
the  die  which  is  fastened  to  the  head  of  the  press,  and  which  closes  up 
the  mold  at  h  h  as  far  as  the  canals p  p,  (which  must  be  kept  open  for 


the  exit  of  the  air,)  where  it  meets  the  prolonged  side  of  the  cross-head. 
The  die  G’cousists  of  two  parts,  g  g ,  of  which  the  upper  part  is  made  of 
cast  iron,  but  the  lower  part  must  be  made  of  cast  steel,  on  account  of 
its  rapid  destruction  by  burning  oft’.  The  two  bed  plates,  q  q ,  limit  the 
stroke  of  the  press,  aud  consequently  the  thickness  and  height  of  the 
cross-head.  The  mold  rests  upon  a  bed  plate,  o  o,  (upon  the  height  of 
which  depends  the  length  of  stroke  of  the  press,)  aud  this  bed-plate  is 
placed  upon  a  slide  to  permit  of  its  beiug  moved  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  from  under  the  press.  After  the  mold  has  been  placed  in  the  right 
position  beneath  the  die,  the  props  are  adjusted  to  keep  it  in  its  proper 


iiaswell’s  hydraulic  forgings. 


261 


place  (luring  the  operation  of  pressing  and  the  inside  is  greased  to  facili¬ 
tate  the  removal  of  the  pressed  piece. 

1  The  iron  to  be  pressed  must  be  at  a  strong  welding  heat  when  placed 
in  the  mold,  and  one  single  pressure  then  produces  the  cross-head.  To 
take  the  finished  cross-head  from  the  mold,  there  are  on  the  outside  of 
the  upper  part  two  strong  iron  hooks,  u  u ,  by  which  it  is  fastened  to  the 
head  of  the  press  at  m  m  with  chains  after  the  removal  of  the  props. 
The  side  pieces  c  c,  as  shown  in  Fig.  112,  start  from  the  lower  mold 


when  the  upper  mold  is  drawn  up,  and  are  separated  from  the  cross¬ 
head  by  a  gentle  stroke  of  the  hammer.  The  lower  mold  is  then  re¬ 
moved  from  beneath  the  press  by  means  of  the  fore-mentioned  slide,  (see 
Fig.  Ill,)  and  the  upper  mold  put  upon  the  foundation  frame  b  b,  which 
comes  to  stand  in  place  of  the  former  mold.  The  chains  are  now  re¬ 
moved,  the  die  G  raised  out  of  the  mold  as  shown  in  figure  112;  the 
pieces  g  (/,  which  fit  in  the  mold  on  the  side  of  the  die  at  Z,  are  placed 
in  position  against  the  top  of  the  cross-head,  and  then,  by  a  gentle  pres¬ 
sure,  the  finished  cross-head  is  forced  out  of  the  mold. 

General  remarks. — In  the  manufacture  of  cross-heads,  bed-plates,  jour¬ 
nal-boxes,  and  all  such  parts  as  must  be  made  in  a  closed  space,  the 


262 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


weight  of  the  piece  which  is  to  be  pressed  must  be  exact,  as  this  is  the 
most  certain  way  to  insure  the  right  dimensions.  The  piece  must  more¬ 
over  have  but  little  play-room  in  the  mold,  as  the  process  of  pressing  is 
very  rapid,  and  the  product  might  be  uneven  if  permitted  to  move  dur¬ 
ing  the  pressing.  Immediately  before  pressing  it  is  a  good  rule  to  throw 
iu  a  few  handfulls  of  hard  coal-dust  upon  the  white  hot  piece  in  the 
mold.  This  produces  gas,  which  explodes  on  raising  the  die,  and  there¬ 
by  tends  to  loosen  the  pressed  piece  iu  the  mold. 

Two  furnaces,  one  for  the  hammer  and  one  for  the  press,  will  produce 
from  25  to  30  cross-heads  in  ten  hours. 

The  cost  of  cross-heads  made  by  this  process  is  about  ten  florins  per 
hundred-weight. 

ISO.  Wroughtiron  journal-boxes. — In  the  manufacture  of  jour¬ 
nal  boxes  of  wrought  iron,  the  forging  of  the  blooms,  made  iu  the  same 
manner  as  in  the  previous  case,  is  done  under  the  steam  hammer.  A 
bloom  of  the  weight  requisite  for  four  journal-boxes  (450  pounds)  is 
hammered  out  to  a  length  of  3  feet  4  inches,  a  width  of  94  inches,  and 
thickness  of  5  inches.  The  bloom  is  cut  into  four  pieces,  and  each  piece 
planed  down  to  a  weight  of  107  pounds,  and,  while  still  warm,  are  put 
into  the  heating-furnace.  Commonly  two  furnaces  are  employed,  one 
for  the  hammer  and  one  for  the  press.  The  mold  is  of  the  same  general 
character  as  the  one  for  cross-heads ;  the  side  pieces  c  c  in  this  case  being 
made  so  as  to  make  the  grease-boxes,  and  other  changes  being  made  to 
suit  the  case.  The  manipulation  is  also  the  same.  The  journals  are 
taken  out  by  raising  the  upper  mold,  removing  the  lower,  and  pressing 
them  out  as  before,  with  the  same  precautions. 

The  great  advantage  of  this  process  is  that,  under  the  great  pressure 
which  is  produced,  the  iron  enters  all  the  parts  of  the  mold,  and  a  grain 
is  made  which  follows  the  contour  of  the  pieces,  which  are  therefore 
much  stronger. 

In  Figs.  107  and  103  is  shown  the  grain  of  the  iron  in  a  journal-box  and 
cross-head  made  in  this  manner.  This  grain  is  brought  out  so  as  to  be 
easily  seen  by  treating  the  sections  of  the  pieces  with  acid  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  shows  how  compact  the  irou  of  the  pieces  must  be. 

181.  L ink-motion  sliding-blocks.  —  The  manufacture  of  objects 
with  annular  openings  is  well  illustrated  in  the  production  by  pressure 
out  of  wrought  irou  of  the  sliding  block  which  is  attached  to  the  link  in 
locomotive  engines. 

Fig.  113  shows  a  sliding-block  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  connected 
with  the  link.  Fig.  114  is  a  front  view  of  the  same  without  the  liuk. 
It  is  customary,  for  the  sake  of  economy  and  convenience,  to  make  two 
at  once,  and  then  to  cut  them  iu  two.  In  Figs.  114  and  135,  page  273, 
these  complete  double  sliding-blocks  are  seen  as  they  come  from  the 
press.  The  bearing  points  get  in  this  way  the  theoretically  correct 
grain,  as  is  seen  in  Fig.  109.  The  piece  is,  moreover,  so  correctly  fash¬ 
ioned  as  to  leave  little  to  do  after  the  pressing. 


Origmal-Abdruclc  ernes  Locomotiv  Lagers 

u 


24  stiindiger  Aetzung  in  Komgs-Wasser 


Eeduoed  from  drawiog,  printed  direct  from  the  etched  surface  of 
a  section  of  a  Locomotive  axle  box  frame. 


Schnitt  eines  gepresstenKreuzkopfes 
nach 

2d  stundiger  Aetzung  m  Komgs-Wasser 

FIG. 108. 


Section  of  a  pressed  Locomotive  Crosshead,  reduced  from  a  plate 
printed  direct  from  the  etched  surface,  after  24  hours  immersion 
in  aqua  regia. 


SCHNITT  EINES  GEPRESSTEN  BALANCIER-FEDER  BUGELS 
ill  Konigs  -Wasser  gealzt 


264 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITON,  1873. 


Fir..  lir>. — Mold  for  sliding-block. 


Fig.  llfk. — Stamp  or  die. 


,  5”  n"' 

u  > 

Ill 

n 

5  9- 

C 


Fig.  116(7. — Side  view  of  the  punch. 


266 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


after  being  heated,  as  before  mentioned.  At  a  single  stroke  the  piece  is 
pressed.  The  die  C  is  then  raised,  the  side-piece  /  is  removed  by  sim¬ 
ply  knocking  away  the  prop  n.  The  punch  P  (Figs.  117  and  US)  is 
now  placed  in  the  impression  already  made  by  the  die  C,  and  pressed 
through.  The  wedges  and  props  are  then  removed,  the  upper  part  ele¬ 
vated  away  from  the  lower,  and  then  let  down  upon  it  again  after  lay¬ 
ing  some  blocks  between  the  two.  The  stamp  Q  (Fig.  119)  is  then 
placed  upon  the  piece,  and  a  gentle  pressure  frees  it  from  the  mold. 
The  piece  is  then  sawn  in  two  and  finished.  By  employing  two  fur- 


l'ig.  119. — Stamp. 


naces,  from  twenty  to  thirty  of  these  sliding-blocks  can  be  made  in  ten 
hours.  Figures  1 34  to  138,  page  273,  further  illustrate  the  process. 

182.  Cylinder  heads. — Tbemannfactureofcylinder-headsof  wrought 
iron  by  pressing  is  very  similar  to  the  forging  of  the  same  with  steam- 
hammers,  by  swaging,  but  the  difference  in  the  expense  of  manufacture 
is  very  considerable. 


Fig.  120. 

The  bloom  is  made  as  before  described,  260  pounds  being  required  for 
one  head.  This  piece  is  hammered  under  a  steam-hammer  of  80  hundred- 


HAS  WELL’S  HYDRAULIC  FORGINGS.  267 

weight  until  it  has  a  thickness  of  4^  inches  and  a  diameter  of  17  inches. 
Four  pieces  are  placed  in  the  heating-furnace  at  a  time. 

The  cast-iron  mold  in  which  it  is  pressed  is  represented  in  Fig.  120. 

It  consists  of  two  parts,  A  and  B,  and  the  stamp  C.  Fig.  120  shows 
the  mold  as  it  appears  when  the  cylinder-head  is  pressed,  but  not  yet 
punched.  E  E  represents  the  piece  as  placed  in  the  mold  before  press¬ 
ing.  A  A  is  a  block  of  cast  steel,  which  is  put  in  the  bottom  of  the 
mold  so  as  to  give  a  harder  edge,  which  will  better  resist  when  the  hole 
is  subsequently  punched. 

After  the  cylinder-end  is  shaped,  the  die  C  is  raised  and  the  ring  nn, 
Fig.  121,  is  laid  on  the  surface  of  the*. piece  to  prevent  it  from  splitting ; 


then  the  punch,  of  2  inches  in  diameter,  is  placed  in  the  impression  made 
by  the  die  and  then  pressed  through. 

The  piece  is  separated  from  the  mold  as  in  the  case  last  described. 

From  20  to  25  of  these  pieces  can  be  made  in  ten  hours,  with  two  fur¬ 
naces,  one  for  the  hammer  and  one  for  the  press.  Another  mold  would, 
of  course,  double  the  production. 

183.  Locomotive-wheels  in  solid  segments  by  pressure.— The 
manufacture  of  the  parts  of  wheels  by  the  process  of  pressure  enables 
the  manufacturer  to  make  segments  with  two  or  three  spokes;  and  this 
process,  in  point  of  economy,  strength,  and  beauty  of  product,  has  great 
advantages  over  the  ordinary  methods.  A  wheel  with  ten  spokes,  when 
made  by  the  common  methods,  consists  of  twelve  pieces;  but  when  made 
by  this  process  it  is  composed  of  but  four  pieces.  We  will  give  here 
only  a  description  of  the  manufacture  of  the  most  complicated  part  of 


the  wheel ;  that  is  the  part  with  the  crank-pin,  as  the  other  parts  are 
made  by  a  simpler  repetition  of  the  same  process. 

The  manufacture  of  the  segment  of  a  wheel  from  wrought  iron. — The 
bloom  is  made  iu  the  ordinary  way,  from  scrap-iron,  and  has  a  weight  of 
250  pounds. 


268  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

The  bloom  is  forced  under  a  steam-hammer  (GO  cwt.)  into  a  parallelo- 
pipedon  10  inches  long,  1L  inches  high,  and  7  inches  wide.  W  hile  still 
warm  it  is  put  into  the  heating-furnace,  and  when  very  hot.  is  forged 
with  the  steam-hammer  into  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  122.  The  piece  is 
then  replaced  in  the  heating- furn ace  preparatory  to  pressing. 


Fig.  12-1.— Lower  mold  B. 


The  piece  is  pressed  in  the  cast  iron  mold,  (Figs.  123-12o.)  This  con¬ 
sists  of  the  upper  mold  A,  the  lower  mold  C,  and  the  die  C. 


IIASWELL’s  HYDRAULIC  FORGINGS. 


269 


Fig.  127. — Vertical  section  through  press  and  mold. 


The  punch  <7 ,  which  is  seen  in  the  lower  mold,  is  kept  in  position 
by  a  brace.  The  outline  of  the  die  C  is  like  that  of  the  bottom  of  the 
mold,  but  with  the  addition  of  the  shoulder  /,  which  makes  an  impres- 


Fig.  126. — Wheel-segment  in  press. 


270 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


sion  to  guide  the  subsequent  perforation.  The  mold  stands  on  a  bed¬ 
plate,  O,  (Fig.  126,)  on  which  it  can  slide  either  to  the  right  or  left  as 
desired. 

When  the  mold  is  fixed  in  the  proper  position,  and  the  braces  U  are 
fixed  so  as  to  hold  it  there,  and  the  mold  thoroughly  greased  to  facilitate 
the  removal  of  the  form,  the  piece  (Fig.  122)  is  placed  in  the  mold,  being 
from  the  heating  furnace  at  a  strong  welding-heat.  Now  follows  quickly 
the  action  of  the  press,  by  which  the  piece  is  shaped  as  shown  in  Fig. 
123.  The  die  c  is  now  raised,  and  a  punch  corresponding  in  shape  to 
the  piece  cl  in  the  lower  mold  is  placed  upon  the  impression  made  at 
/.  The  piece  d  is  then  removed  by  knocking  away  the  brace,  and  the 
piece  is  perforated,  thus  forming  the  spokes.  By  a  similar  process  the 


hub  is  formed.  The  piece  is  removed  from  the  mold  by  the  same  gen¬ 
eral  process  before  described,  by  raising  the  upper  part  of  the  mold  and 
gently  forcing  the  piece  out. 

With  two  furnaces  twenty-four  pieces  are  produced  in  ten  hours. 

The  expense  is  from  30  to  33  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  forging  the  same 
under  a  steam-hammer. 

The  making  of  smaller  wheels  in  one  solid  piece  is,  of  course,  only  a 
repetition  of  the  process  of  making  segments.  The  whole  wheel  is  lirst 
pressed  and  the  spokes  indented,  and  the  interspaces  afterward  punched 
out.  It  may  appear  that  there  is  a  great  waste  of  material  in  the  process 
of  pressing;  but  it  will  not  be  forgotten  that  every  scrap  is  again  used, 
and  therefore  no  objection  of  this  kind  can  be  urged  against  this  very 
important  process.  Figs.  128-130,  inclusive,  further  illustrate  this  pro. 
cess. 

184.  Locomotive-cranks  of  wrought  iron. — The  bloom  made  in 
the  same  manner  is  forged  into  the  shape  represented  in  Fig.  131. 
It  is  then  reheated  in  a  furnace  that  will  hold  three  such  pieces  of  from 
340  to  450  pounds  each.  The  mold  is  shown  in  Fig.  132. 

The  pressing  is  quite  simple.  After  the  mold  is  braced,  the  shaped 
and  heated  piece  is  put  in  and  receives  the  pressure.  It  will  be  easy  to 
see  that  the  iron  is  forced  to  tlow  into  the  die  for  the  formation  of  the 
pin,  as  also  the  other  parts  of  the  mold.  This  flow  necessarily  creates  a 
fiber  which  will  run  parallel  with  the  pin,  and  will  therefore  be  theoreti¬ 
cally  correct.  The  same  will  be  the  case  with  the  body  of  the  crank 
and  the  shoulder  for  the  axle,  since  the  crank  is  made  considerably 
shorter  than  the  mold.  After  pressing  the  crank  a  punch  is  placed  on 


HAS  WELL’S  HYDRAULIC  FORGINGS.  271 

the  iudentatiou  at  (j  and  pressed  through  after  removing  the  piece  /from 
under  the  mold. 

Twenty  cranks  can  be  produced  in  ten  hours,  at  from  13^  to  '14  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  of  cranks  forged  under  the  steam-hammer. 


Fig.  130. — View  of  die  from  beneath. 


272 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Fig.  131. — Locomotive-crank,  first  stage. 


Fig.  132. — Vertical  section  through  mold. 


Fig.  133 -Crank. 


haswell’s  hydraulic  forging. 


273 


1JT 

Se- 


-2  9— Sir 


Sf— 2  a 


VTlS- 


(r-Z 


-ZG- 


Fig.  134. — Mold  for  sliding-block  plan. 


d 

b- 


M  K 

^2"6— 

'1 


'j  u 

-2  6.^ 

A  i 

i 

L L 

8"6" 


io  6 
f 


8"  6'" 


— ^ 


( _ 2MB- 

K 


u, 


< — ^  SL) 

K 


-c 


Fig.  135. — Plan  of  lower  part  of  mold. 


]q 

Fig.  136. — Section  through  mold. 

18  I 


274 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Fig.  137. — Section  of  mold  and  die. 


Fig.  138.— Plan  showing  part  of  mold. 


Hiy 


CHAPTER  XI. 


IRON  AS  A  MATERIAL  FOR  ART- WORK. 

Numerous  examples  in  the  exhibition  of  the  use  of  iron  in  artistic  manufac¬ 
tures  ;  Iron  castings  ;  Forged  railings  and  gates  ;  Damascened  work  of 
Spain  ;  REPOussfs  work,  Elcho  Shield  ;  English-made  gates  and  railings  ; 
Cast-iron  reproductions  of  art-objects  ;  Ilsendburg  foundery  ;  Molding- 
sand  ;  Quality  of  the  iron  used  ;  Proper  selections  and  mixtures. 

185.  This  report  would  be  deficient  to  a  greater  degree  without  at 
least  a  passing  notice  of  the  wealth  of  examples  throughout  the  Exhibi¬ 
tion  of  the  use  of  iron  iu  artistic  manufactures.  We  find  it  in  almost 
every  .section,  either  cast  or  wrought,  iu  wire  or  in  burnished  steel.  In 
the  form  of  castings,  we  have  the  groups  of  life-size  figures  of  men  and 
animals,  the  exquisite  bas-reliefs  and  reproductions  of  mediaeval  armor, 
and  of  the  patiently  executed  repousse  work  of  gifted  sculptors,  sent  by 
the  Ilsenburg  foundery,  in  the  Harz. 

For  forgings  we  have  only  to  turn  to  the  splendid  gilded  gratings  fill¬ 
ing  the  spaces  between  the  columns  of  the  rotunda ;  to  the  entrance- 
gates  of  the  jury  pavilion  ;  to  the  gates  and  railings  inclosing  the  house 
and  grounds  of  the  British  commission ;  to  the  examples  of  mediaeval 
gates  in  the  British  section  ;  to  gates  and  floriated  ornaments  in  the  Bel¬ 
gian  and  Italian  sections  ;  and,  finally,  the  railings  of  the  Russian  court. 

The  damascened  work  of  Spain  also  challenges  our  admiration,  par¬ 
ticularly  the  objects  shown  by  Placide  Zuloaga,  of  Eibar,  consisting  of 
inlaid  and  carved  iron,  damascened  caskets  6  inches  long,  3  inches  wide, 
and  4  inches  high,  for  $250;  buttons,  shawl-pins,  match-boxes,  mirror- 
frames,  platters,  &c.  The  largest  object  is  a  shield  of  damascened  iron, 
valued  at  $1,200.  This  industry  appears  to  be  reviving,  and  the  artist 
has  established  agencies  in  London. 

For  repousse  work,  the  most  notable  example  is  found  in  the  brilliant 
display  made  by  the  Elkingtons,  of  England.  Here  we  find  the  famous 
Elcho  volunteer  challenge  shield,  presented  by  Lord  Elcho  to  the  volun¬ 
teers  of  Great  Britain,  to  be  given  over  annually  to  the  successful  com¬ 
petitors  at  the  great  Wimbledon  tournament.  The  shield  is  held  in 
trust  for  this  purpose,  and  was  loaned  to  the  Messrs.  Elkington  to  ex¬ 
hibit  by  the  trustees.  This  is  the  largest  work  in  repousse  iron  ever 
manufactured  in  England.  It  is  6  feet  high,  aud  in  the  mediaeval  style 
of  art,  from  a  design  by  F.  Watts,  R.  A.  Iron  was  selected  as  the  ma¬ 
terial,  because  it  does  not  tempt  the  cupidity  of  any  one,  and  thus  en¬ 
danger  its  destruction.  The  workmanship,  and  not  the  material,  con- 


276 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


stitntes  the  value.  The  shield,  which  in  general  has  the  Norman  form,  has 
a  hexagonal  center-piece  in  the  upper  portion,  bordered  with  a  girdle, 
at  and  upon  which  is  the  inscription,  “  The  Elcho  Challenge  Shield, 
A.  D.  1802.”  A  medallion  portrait  of  Her  Majesty  the  Queen  is  sus¬ 
pended  from  this,  and  occupies  a  central  position.  Above  and  within 
the  space  inclosed  by  the  baud  there  is  a  group  representing  Britannia. 
The  crown  and  royal  arms  occupy  the  projecting  points  above  and  at 
the  side.  Upon  the  dexter  side  there  is  a  representation  of  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth  reviewing  her  troops  at  Tilbury,  and  opposite  to  it  Queen  Victoria 
opening  the  volunteer  competition  at  Wimbledon  by  firing  the  first  shot. 
There  are  also  representations  of  the  battles  of  Bannockburn,  1314,  and 
of  Floddeu  Field,  1513,  whilst  at  the  foot  two  large-sized  figures  typify 
the  close  union  now  existing  between  the  Euglish  and  Scotch.  A  bor¬ 
der  of  thistles  and  roses  in  high  relief  completes  the  idea. 

18G.  Wrought  gates  and  railings. — In  the  Italian  section  we 
mention  particularly  the  wrought-irou  gates  and  railings  sent  by  Pas- 
quale  Fraud,  Pome,  decorated  with  bunches  of  grapes,  grape-vines,  and 
leaves,  even  the  tendrils  all  wrought  with  singular  fidelity  and  beauty. 

In  the  British  section,  aside  from  the  Elkingtons’  work,  the  principal 
exhibitor  of  art  iron-work  is  the  Coalbrook  Dale  Company,  Shropshire, 
which  makes  a  specialty  of  entrance-gates,  fencing,  verandas,  balco¬ 
nies,  railings,  fountains,  vases,  &c.  They  exhibit  two  lengths  of  railing 
on  either  side  of  the  north  entrances  to  the  British  section,  and  a  grand 
entrance  in  mediaeval  style,  consisting  of  a  pair  of  wrought-irou  en¬ 
trance-gates,  two  hand-gates,  four  pillars,  and  short  lengths  of  railing 
to  match,  executed  by  the  company  from  designs  by  B.  J.  Talbert,  esq. 
The  enrichments  are  of  cast  iron  applied,  and  the  twisted  bars  are  pro¬ 
duced  by  Tuddeu ham's  patent  process. 

The  gates,  railings,  gas,  pillars,  &c.,  inclosing  the  house  of  the  royal 
British  Commission,  namely,  the  principal  entrance  of  cast-sheet  fence 
and  gates,  terminated  by  two  gas-pillars;  the  two  lengths  improved 
cast  palisade  fence  on  either  side;  a  length  cast-sheet  balcony-railing 
on  east  side ;  the  west  entrance  to  the  building,  of  patent  twisted  angle- 
bar  fence  and  gates;  a  length  of  the  same  fence,  of  various  designs,  on 
west  and  north  sides ;  a  length  of  bracket-railing  on  east  side,  within 
the  grounds. 

Various  coats  of  arms  and  trophies  in  and  about  the  house  of  the 
royal  British  Commission. 

Various  garden-chairs  in  grounds  and  park,  namely,  “  Osmunda  Ke- 
galis,”  “Water-Plant,”  “Mediaeval,”  “Midsummer  Night’s  Dream,” 
“Nasturtium,”  “Horse  Chestnut,”  “  Medallion.” 

Various  vases,  &c.,  in  grounds  and  park,  namely,  “  Milton,”  “  Night 
and  Morning,”  “  Classic,”  “  Jardiniere,”  various  flower-stands  in  grounds 
and  park. 

CAST-IRON  REPRODUCTIONS  OF  ART-OBJECTS. 

187.  Ilsenberg  Foundery. — The  castings  from  the  celebrated  H- 
senberg  Foundery  are  shown  in  great  variety  in  a  special  installation 


IRON-FOUNDERY  AT  ILSENBERG. 


277 


made  of  iron  in  one  of  the  large  buildings  erected  by  Germany.  Here 
are  to  be  found  reproductions  of  ancient  armor,  such  as  breast-plates? 
helmets,  shields,  sword-handles,  &c.,  besides  bas-reliefs,  caskets,  tazzas, 
and  small  objects  for  ornamental  purposes.  All  of  these  objects  are 
characterized  by  great  sliarpuess  of  detail,  smooth  surfaces,  and  a  higher 
degree  of  finish  than  is  usually  found  in  iron  castings.  The  prices,  also, 
are  very  moderate.  An  interesting  history  of  the  establishment  and  a 
technical  discussion  of  the  quality  of  the  materials  used,  appears  in  u  En¬ 
gineering,”  and  is  appended. 

Count  Stalberg  WErnigerode’s  iron-foundery  at  Ilsenberg, 
Harz.* — The  Ilsenberg  Iron-Works  are  amoug  the  oldest  in  Germany, 
and  the  iron-foundery  there  is  mostprobablyoneoftheearliestin  the  world. 
In  ancient  documents  written  in  the  fifteenth  century  pots,  plates,  balls, 
&c.,  cast  at  Ilsenburg,  are  mentioned;  while  cast  iron  plates,  which 
have  been  collected  on  the  spot  for  some  time  past,  afford  additional 
evidence  on  this  point.  The  director  of  the  Ilsenberg  Fouudery,  Ober- 
hiitten,  Inspector  Schott,  has  collected  and  arranged  these  plates  in  his 
official  residence,  and  the  collection  possesses  much  interest,  not  only 
from  an  historical,  but  also  from  au  artistic  point  of  view.  All  these 
plates  have  served  as  stove-plates,  and  almost  all  are  marked  with  a 
date,  the  earliest  being  that  of  the  year  1509.  The  subjects  on  the  plates 
are  chiefly  taken  from  the  history  of  the  Bible,  and  the  ornaments  con¬ 
sist  of  busts,  tournaments,  and  allegorical  pictures.  The  latter  begin 
with  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Some  of  the  older 
plates  are  very  beautiful,  and  the  whole  collection  proves  in  the  best  pos¬ 
sible  manner  the  great  perfection  and  the  high  position  German  art  must 
have  occupied  in  the  sixteenth  century,  how  it  declined  gradually  during 
the  thirty  years’  war,  and  how  it  finally  died  out  utterly  during  the 
eighteenth  century. 

If  the  earlier  time  shows',  however,  the  most  originality — for  iustance, 
Judith  in  the  tent  of  Holoferues,  surrounded  by  guns  and  gabions — the 
design  of  the  figures,  dresses,  &c.,  is,  nevertheless,  so  satisfactory  from 
an  artistic  point  of  view,  that  the  pattern-makers  of  that  time  who  had 
carved  the  models,  some  of  which  are  still  at  the  stores  of  the  fouudery, 
must  have  been  men  well  skilled  in  their  art,  and  must  have  attained  a 
degree  of  perfection  which  has  never  been  since  reached.  But  the  suc¬ 
cess  did  not  rest  with  the  skill  shown  in  the  pattern,  the  molder  using 
the  pattern  evidently  participated  in  it,  otherwise  such  fine  castings 
could  not  have  been  produced. 

With  the  decline  of  skill  in  making  the  patterns  the  taste  naturally 
became  corrupted,  and  the  molding  less  and  less  perfect,  until  eventually 
it  lost  all  artistic  value;  even  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
the  art  of  molding  was  still  in  a  very  primitive  state.  When  the  taste 
for  artistic  design  began  to  revive,  the  hands,  still  rough  and  unskillful, 
were  led  to  better  and  higher-class  productions,  which  elevated  the  taste. 


From  “  Engineering,”  1873. 


278 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


When  the  appreciation  of  elegant  forms  shall  have  become  general,  then, 
and  only  then,  we  shall  have  in  all  branches  of  industry  products  equal 
to  those  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  debased  taste,  now  too  com¬ 
mon,  will  gradually  disappear. 

The  necessity  of  extending  art  to  all  departments  of  industry  occurred, 
nearly  forty  years  ago,  to  Mr.  Schott,  who  was  at  that  time  engaged  on 
the  Brunswick  Works,  the  Carlshiitte,  and  the  Wilhelmshiitte,  both 
works  being  still  famed  for  the  excellency  of  their  foundery  produc¬ 
tions.  lie  is  now,  and  has  been  for  thirty-five  years,  the  managing 
director  of  the  Ilsenberg  Foundery,  and  from  the  first  he  sought  to  cul¬ 
tivate  art  in  the  productions  of  the  works.  The  results  of  his  exertions 
in  this  direction  are  shown  by  the  exhibits  of  castings  of  works  of  art  in 
the  German  annexe  for  art  and  industry  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition. 

The  Ilsenberg  Foundery  exhibits  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition  art-cast¬ 
ings,  which  represent  chiefly  objects  of  the  Roman  period,  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  of  the  Renaissance  period,  and  generally  of  such  well-known 
works  produced  by  master-hands  as  are  most  suitable  for  reproduction 
in  iron.  They  are  worthy  of  all  praise  for  the  clearness  of  the  castings, 
and  ^specially  for  beauty  of  form.  They  are  not  only  suitable  tor  deco¬ 
rative  purposes,  but  they  are  very  instructive. 

It  is  unfortunately  but  too  true  that  the  want  of  appreciation  has 
caused  numerous  works  of  art  to  be  destroyed.  Even  in  the  first  half 
of  this  century  it  has  happened  that  ancient  church- vessels  have  been 
sold  by  the  authorities  for  the  value  of  the  metal  for  remelting.  Such 
vandalism,  however,  is  now  no  longer  possible,  and  objects  of  art  are 
sought  for  and  carefully  preserved.  How  much  art-education  has  pro¬ 
gressed  in  this  direction  has  been  fully  proved  by  the  many  collections 
which  have  been  made  during  the  last  few  years.  With  refinement  of 
taste  increasing  demands  are  made  on  precision  and  correctness  of  exe¬ 
cution,  and  public  taste  has  become  greatly  refined.  Imitations  and 
reproductions  of  antique  works  of  art  are  no  longer  accepted  as  the 
simple  copy  of  the  outer  forms,  but  an  execution  is  demanded  which 
should  exactly  represent  the  original  in  the  smallest  detail. 

In  consequence  of  the  scrupulous  exactness  with  which  the  old  mas¬ 
ters  executed  their  work,  and  which  did  uot  admit  of  neglect  even  in 
the  smallest  and  least  important  detail,  great  difficulties  are  met  with 
in  the  reproduction  of  such  works  of  art — difficulties  which  are  espe¬ 
cially  great  in  iron  castings  on  account  of  the  impossibility  of  the  parts 
being  united  by  soldering.  But  notwithstanding  these  disadvantages 
the  problem  lias  beeu  solved,  and  that  in  such  a  manner  that  iron  cast¬ 
ings  may  be  substituted  for  electrotype  productions,  combining,  as  they 
do,  greater  strength  with  equal  fineness,  and,  being  cheaper,  they  should 
certainly  be  preferred.  These  are  results  which  have  been  achieved 
through  continued  exertions  with  the  view  of  cultivating  pure  art  iu 
the  production  of  iron  castings,  and  it  is  very  desirable  that  these  exer¬ 
tions  should  be  continued  by  future  iron-founders. 


IRON-FOUNDERY  AT  ILSENBERG. 


279 


With  regard  to  the  process  of  production,  it  may  be  observed  that  the 
two  main  points  upon  which  the  casting  of  iron  depends  are  the  molding- 
saud  and  the  metal.  About  three  or  four  hundred  years  ago  the  condi¬ 
tions  for  preparing  the  sand  required  for  casting  upon  the  open  hearth 
must  have  been  known.  It  must  even  then  have  been  recognized  that 
the  molding-sand  should  allow  the  penetration  of  the  expanding  gases, 
which  are  produced  by  the  high  temperature  when  the  fluid  metal  is 
poured  into  the  molds.  Otherwise  the  fine  castings  already  referred 
to  could  not  have  been  produced.  This  condition  of  the  molding-sand 
was  far  better  understood  in  this  remote  period  than  at  a  later  time, 
when  an  empiric  preparation  of  the  sand  was  considered  to  be  sufficient, 
and  by  which  means  progress  in  the  art  of  casting  was  necessarily  hin¬ 
dered.  When  the  question  had  to  be  decided  as  to  what  was  to  be  done 
to  improve  the  sand,  especially  for  the  production  of  sharp  and  fine 
castings,  it  is  probable  that  a  greater  degree  of  fineness  was  tried. 
Unfortunately  this  condition  of  great  fineness,  which  is  decidedly  neces¬ 
sary  for  sharpness  in  the  castings,  was  accompanied  by  the  disadvan¬ 
tage  that  the  fluid  metal,  when  poured  into  the  mold,  did  not  remain 
undisturbed,  but  destroyed  the  work  of  the  molder.  The  problem  was 
to  find  an  explanation  for  these  occurrences,  and  an  acquaintance  with 
the  principles  of  the  open  hearth  doubtless  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  want  of  penetrability,  produced  by  the  great  fineness  of  the  sand, 
caused  this  disadvantage.  Nature  rarely  supplies  a  molding-sand 
which  possesses  both  fineness  and  penetrability,  and  the  general  scar¬ 
city  of  such  a  sand,  which  induced  many  important  iron-founderies  to 
obtain  it  at  great  expense  from  distant  places,  naturally  led  to  artificial 
productions  being  tried.  We  shall  explain  next  the  experiments  made 
for  producing  an  artificial  molding-sand,  and  the  results  obtained. 

188.  Molding-sand. — Of  the  various  kinds  of  molding-sand  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Usenberg  Foundery,  one  is  found  in  the  neighborhood,  in 
the  diluvial  formation,  this  saud  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  fat  loam  with 
coarse  grains  of  quartz.  It  is  used  only  for  the  molding  of  large  pieces, 
and  the  molds  made  of  it  can  be  employed  only  after  having  been  dried 
at  a  high  temperature.  A  rather  fiuer  variety  of  this  sand  serves,  when 
mixed  with  other  sand,  for  larger  class  castings  ;  but  in  this  case,  also, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  prepared  parts  of  the  molds  should  be  dried  or 
heated  in  order  that  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water  there  may  be  pro¬ 
duced  a  contraction  of  the  proportion  of  clay  which  the  sand  contains, 
and  that  thus  there  may  be  formed  the  minute  channels  which  are  nec¬ 
essary  for  the  escape  of  the  gases  and  steam  generated  at  the  high  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  fluid  iron. 

In  the  chalk  formation,  which  fills  the  large  and,  in  some  places,  deep 
basin  adjoining  the  mountains  of  the  Harzer  district,  there  are  found  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Usenberg,  upon  the  chalky  marl,  strata  of  loam 
mixed  more  or  less  with  grains  of  quartz  of  different  degrees  of  fineness ; 
the  penetrability,  and  thus  the  utility  of  the  molding-sand  depending 


280  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

upon  this  admixture.  Iu  a  few  exceptional  places  there  is  found  a  mold 
iug-sand  that  could  almost  be  used  in  its  natural  state;  the  quantities 
thus  obtained,  however,  are  very  small,  and  are  not  iu  proportion  with 
the  increasing  demand  of  Ilsenberg  Foundery.  If,  therefore,  the  artifi¬ 
cial  preparation  of  the  molding-sand  had  not  been  successfully  intro¬ 
duced,  the  necessary  supply  could  only  have  been  obtained  from  distant 
sources  at  great  expense. 

After  having  recognized  the  penetrability  of  the  sand  for  steam  and 
gas  as  the  chief  characteristic  necessary,  it  became  next  an  important 
matter  to  determine  the  signs  of  this  required  peuetrability  existing, 
and  for  this  purpose  the  following  process  has  been  adopted:  A  known 
peculiarity  of  a  sand  which  allows  of  a  casting  being  made  in  it  without 
the  mold  being  artificially  dried,  is,  that  if  the  molder  moistens  the  mold 
with  water,  the  sand  possesses  the  surprising  quality  of  absorbing  the 
water  without  altering  the  mold.  The  molder  can  thus,  when  working 
with  the  so-called  green  sand,  employ  water  according  to  his  requir- 
rnents,  in  order  to  strengthen  the  sharp  corners,  edges,  and  ribs  of  the 
molds,  for  which  purpose  water  may  be  dropped  upon  the  latter  by 
means  of  a  brush.  The  water  disappears,  and  is  absorbed  without  doing 
any  damage  to  the  mold.  This  quality  of  the  sand  has  been  used  at 
Ilsenberg  in  the  following  manner  for  determining  the  penetrability  of 
the  material.  After  various  mixtures  of  sand  have  been  prepared,  and 
after  it  has  been  ascertained  that  sharp  and  distinct  impressions  can  be 
taken  with  the  materials,  equal-sized  balls  or  cubes  are  formed  by  com¬ 
pressing  the  sand  in  the  hand,  and  that  to  such  an  extent  that  a  slight 
further  compression  is  just  possible;  this  is  easily  done  with  a  little 
practice,  as  this  manipulation  forms  an  important  factor  in  ascertaining 
the  quality  of  the  sand  for  all  molders,  and  determines  the  degree  of 
moisture  to  be  given  to  the  molding-sand  for  casting  in  a  green  state. 
The  balls  of  sand  thus  prepared,  and  made  of  uniform  size,  are  then 
weighed,  and  water  is  next  poured  upon  them  as  long  as  it  is  absorbed. 
When  absorption  no  longer  takes  place,  and  the  water  appears  to  remain 
on  the  surface  of  the  sand,  the  balls  are  weighed  again.  Supposing  the 
different  samples  to  be  equally  good,  as  far  as  the  power  of  producing 
sharp  impressions  (as  previously  ascertained)  is  concerned,  then  that 
sample  which  is  capable  of  absorbing  the  largest  amount  of  water  will 
offer  the  greatest  facility  for  the  escape  of  the  gases  and  steam.* 

It  was  in  1844  when,  by  the  kind  recommendation  of  the  director  of 
the  Ecole  des  Mines  at  Paris,  M.  Le  Play,  the  Professor  Gaultie  de 
Chaubri  obtained  for  several  professional  uieu  admissiou  to  some  of  the 

*It  should  be  mentioned  here,  that,  in  examining  the  sorts  of  sand,  care  has  to  be 
taken  that  the  latter  does  not  contain  lime,  which  is  often  the  case  when  the  sand  is 
found  to  lie  on  marl,  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  obtaining  it.  The  burn¬ 
ing  of  the  lime,  which  takes  place  at  the  high  temperature  of  the  iron,  forces  the  car¬ 
bonic  acid  to  escape,  disturbs  the  fluid  iron,  and  prevents  the  exactness  and  clearness 
of  the  casting.  It  is  well  to  examine  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the 
sand  before  using  it,  by  pouring  acid  upon  it. 


IRON-FOUNDERY  AT  ILSENBERG. 


281 


founderies  of  Paris.  Excellent  molding-sand  was  to  be  found  there,  and 
the  qualities  which  it  possessed,  necessary  for  the  production  of  good 
castings,  could  be  studied.  The  experience  gained  from  the  continued 
casting  of  bronze  works,  which  could  be  applied  to  iron  castings,-  and 
the  great  advantage  possessed  by  these  founderies  of  having  to  work 
only  for  specialties,  and  of  not  having,  like  other  founderies,  to  change 
the  class  of  work  to  be  done  every  day,  exercised  a  great  influence  upon 
the  gradually  improved  preparation  of  the  suitable  sorts  of  molding- 
sand. 

Even  in  Paris  it  was  impossible  to  get  from  natural  sources  a  sand 
that  would  fulfill  all  requirements,  although  remarkably  good  sand  is 
easily  obtained  there.  Only  a  few  districts  of  England  and  Germany 
participate  in  this  advantage,  and  the  neighborhood  of  Halle-on-the- 
Saale  and  of  Walkenrind,  in  the  Harzer  Mountains,  should  especially 
be  mentioned  in  this  respect.  It  thus  became  necessary,  even  in  Paris, 
to  prepare  good  and  useful  sand  by  artificial  mixture.  Four  different 
sorts  of  sand, 'two  of  a  reddish  and  two  of  a  grayish-yellow  color,  were 
found  to  be  applicable  for  casting  in  green  sand.  A  variety  of  sand 
similar  to  the  latter  was  found  in  exceptional  instances  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  Ilsenberg,  but,  as  mentioned  already,  it  could  only  be  obtained 
in  an  insufficient  quantity,  and  not  of  quite  as  good  quality  as  that 
found  at  Paris.  Comparing  the  Ilsenburg  sand  with  the  samples 
obtained  from  Paris,  it  was  found  that  the  former  was  deficient  in  the 
contents  of  fine  grains  of  quartz,  whence  its  penetrability  was  not  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Paris  material. 

The  treatment  above  referred  to  of  the  sand  consisting  of  a  mixture 
of  fat  loam  and  coarse  graius  of  quartz,  the  insufficient  penetrability 
of  which  had  to  be  increased  by  continued  drying  or  roastiug,  had 
to  be  applied  also  to  the  fine  sand,  and  it  had  to  be  ascertained 
whether  the  deficiency  in  the  contents  of  grains  of  quartz  could 
not  be  replaced  by  the  roasting  of  a  part  of  the  denser  sand,  which 
was  consequently  exposed  to  such  a  high  temperature  that  the 
yellowish-gray  color  was  changed  into  red.  The  mixture  of  this 
roasted  sand  with  the  original  yellow-grayish  sand  in  its  natural 
state,  gave  the  desired  result,  and  the  roasted  sand  was  found  to  be 
a  perfect  substitute  for  the  graius  of  quartz  in  which  the  natural  sand 
was  deficient.  In  order  to  make,  however,  this  artificial  mixture  equal 
to  the  natural  sand,  a  careful  treatment  was  necessary,  and  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  stamping-mills  and  revolving  drums  of  oval  section,  containing 
loose  balls,  were  adopted  for  the  powdering  and  mixing  of  the  sand. 
These  drums  have  a  diameter  of  about  3^  feet  and  a  length  of  not  more 
than  about  four  inches,  while  the  speed  of  rotation  is  arranged  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  balls  are  not  so  acted  upon  by  centrifugal  force  as  to 
prevent  them  from  remaining  at  the  bottom  of  the  drum,  or  they  would 
not  exercise  the  necessary  pressure  upou  the  sand,  which  is  put  into  the 
drum  through  an  opening  at  the  side.  In  order  to  obtain  the  required 


2 82  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

fineness  of  the  sand,  the  passing  of  it  through  fine-meshed  sieves  be¬ 
comes  necessary,  and  for  this  purpose  bolting-cloth  made  of  sheep’s 
wool,  and  known  in  Germany  under  the  number  16,  has  been  found  best. 

A  fine  molding-sand  applicable  for  most  castings  in  green  sand  was 
thus  successfully  produced,  but  the  finer  and  better  sorts  of  a  reddish 
color,  seen  and  found  at  Paris,  which  possess  an  extraordinarily  high 
amount  of  penetrability,  and  which,  moreover,  allow  of  the  cleanest  and 
sharpest  castings  being  made,  were  still  wanted.  It  had  been  especially 
observed  that  the  castings  in  this  sand,  which  was  even  moistened  to  a 
great  extent,  remained  unusually  undisturbed,  and  it  became,  of  course, 
a  natural  necessity  to  possess  a  molding-sand  of  equal  quality. 

At  first  an  endeavor  was  made  to  discover  such  a  sand  in  a  naturally 
loose  state,  and  it  was  thought  that  it  might  be  found  in  the  intermedi¬ 
ate  layers  of  the  colored  sandstone  formation  met  with  ou  the  outskirts 
of  the  Harzer  Mountains.  All  the  sand,  however,  that  could  be  found 
in  a  loose  state  in  these  strata  contained  too  much  clay  for  the  required 
penetrability.  Even  after  roasting  it  was  found  to  be  useless,  because 
it  had  lost  all  its  binding  power,  and  attention  was  then  directed  to  the 
solid  sandstone,  which,  when  ground,  was  expected  to  supply  material 
of  the  necessary  quality.  The  experiments  made  with  these  solid  stoues 
showed  such  a  great  penetrability  that  the  best  results  could  be  obtained. 
The  experiments  with  water  pointed,  fortunately,  to  a  certain  class  of 
stones  which  had  to  be  rejected  for  building  purposes  on  account  of  their 
extraordinary  hygroscopic  qualities;  these  latter,  however,  justified 
great  expectations  for  the  molder — expectations  which  have  now  for 
many  years  been  fulfilled.  The  mixture  of  the  sand  obtained  from  the 
stone,  with  the  yellowish-gray  sorts  of  sand  mentioned  above,  has  pro¬ 
duced  an  exceedingly  suitable  molding-sand,  the  molder  having  it  in 
his  power,  by  adding  more  or  less  of  this  ground  stone,  to  vary  the 
quality  of  the  material  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  work 
he  has  in  hand. 

The  knowledge  of  the  proper  molding-sand  required  for  a  given  pat¬ 
tern  is  the  best  proof  of  the  ability  of  a  molder,  and  such  a  knowledge 
can  only  be  acquired  by  extended  practice  and  correct  advice,  which 
latter,  however,  is  uufortunately  very  often  wantiug  in  founderies  pro¬ 
ducing  inferior  work.  The  importance  of  the  correct  preparation  of  the 
sand  is  in  general  little  appreciated,  and  so  long  as  no  proper  attention 
is  paid  to  the  requirements  of  a  good  molding-sand,  and  as  long  as  there 
is  wanting  a  correct  understanding  of  the  required  penetrability  in  con¬ 
nection  with  a  consistence  of  the  material  sufficient  for  the  finest  impres¬ 
sions,  iron  founderies  will  turn  out  works  of  art  which  could  not  be 
appreciated  by  eyes  which  have  had  opportunities  of  getting  acquainted 
with  more  perfect  productions. 

From  what  has  been  said  above,  it  will  be  found  that  the  excellence 
of  the  molding-sand  to  be  used  does  not  depend  so  much  upon  the 
chemical  composition,  but  rather  upon  the  mechanical  and  correct  mix- 


QUALITY  OF  IRON  FOR  ART-CASTINGS. 


283 


ture  of  the  argillaceous  and  siliceous  components.  If  the  chemical 
investigations  made  in  Paris  and  London  with  the  small  parts  of  mold¬ 
ing-sand  that  remained  at  those  places  on  the  castings  exhibited  by 
Ilsenberg  had  been  ever  so  carefully  performed,  they  could  scarcely 
have  led  to  the  preparation  of  a  suitable  molding-sand,  which  depends 
simply  upon  the  shape  and  size  of  the  added  grains  of  quartz,  and  the 
plastic  qualities  of  clay. 

In  the  course  of  years  a  special  custom  has  often  taken  root  in  foun- 
deries,  in  consequence  of  which  most  extraordinary  results  are  often  pro¬ 
duced.  The  practice  acquired  in  the  manipulations  can  go  so  far,  for  in¬ 
stance,  that  a  sand  possessing  a  very  small  amouut  of  binding  power,  but 
a  high  degree  of  penetrability,  as  often  found  in  nature,  is  used  with  the 
best  results.  The  ability  acquired  to  produce  fine  castings  in  a  loose 
sand,  which  gives  way  to  the  smallest  shaking,  which  possesses  only  so 
much  consistency  as  is  required  to  withstand  the  pouring  in  of  the  fluid 
metal,  and  which  combines  the  advantage  that  the  larger  quantity  of 
grains  of  quartz  prevents  a  burning  of  the  iron,  and  produces  better 
castings,  requiring  only  little  cleaning,  is  a  great  gain,  which  saves 
many  expenses  incurred  by  the  employment  of  a  molding-sand  of  greater 
binding  power. 

189.  Quality  of  the  iron.— Art-castings  in  iron  require  for  their 
successful  production  a  carefully  chosen  metal,  one  which  must  not  only 
possess  greater  strength  than  is  required  for  ordinary  castings,  but  one 
which,  by  its  density  and  fluidity  in  a  molten  state,  is  capable  of  repro¬ 
ducing  minute  forms  with  sharpness  and  exactness.  In  order  to  obtain 
definite  information  as  to  the  conditions  under  which  suitable  iron  is 
produced  by  the  smelting  process,  the  material  has,  at  Ilsenberg,  been 
subjected  to  careful  examination,  both  when  in  the  fluid  state  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  progress  of  setting  and  cooling;  and  these  investigations,  which 
have  been  carried  on  for  more  than  thirty  years,  have  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  facts  of  which  we  propose  now  to  speak — facts  which 
are  of  high  interest  in  themselves,  and  which  appear  to  us  worthy  of  the 
most  careful  attention  of  metallurgists.  Some  time  ago  the  writer  of 
the  present  article  called  attention  to  the  appearances  which  cast  iron 
assumes  during  the  fluid  state,  these  appearances  varying  according  to 
the  proportion  of  carbon  which  the  material  contains,  and  even  as  long 
ago  as  1867  we  spoke  in  this  journal  (in  an  article  entitled  “  The  Berlin 
Castings,”  a  name  formerly  generally  used  for  art-castings  in  iron,  but 
now  almost  abandoned)  respecting  these  appearances.  The  matter  did 
not,  however,  at  the  time  receive  from  scientific  men  the  attention  it 
undoubtedly  deserves,  and  we  therefore  propose  to  return  to  the  sub¬ 
ject,  and  discuss  it  more  fully. 

According  to  the  appearance  of  the  new  fracture  when  broken,  pig- 
iron  is,  and  has  been  for  many  years,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad, 
designated  by  certain  numbers,  the  particular  value  attached  to  each 
number  varying,  however,  in  different  localities.  Speaking  broadly, 


284 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


No.  1  signifies  a  coarse-grained  dark-gray  iron;  Nos.  2  and  3  are  finer- 
grained  and  lighter  grays ;  while  beyond  these  come  the  “  mottled  ”  and 
“white”  pigs.  In  many  fouuderies  in  German  y  the  following  scale  is 
adopted:  No.  1,  largest-grained,  highly  graphitic,  gray  pig  ( Gaares 
Eisen ;)  No.  2,  gray  pig  ( gaarflussiges  Eisen-)  No.  3,  mottled  pig  ( halbirtes 
Eisen-,)  No.  4,  strongly  mottled  pig  (stark  halbirtes  Eisen’,)  No.  5,  lam¬ 
ellar  pig  ( cliinngrelles  Eisen-,)  No.  G,  dead- white  iron  ( lioclidunnes  Eisen-,) 
and  No.  7,  white  pig  ( grelles  Eisen.)  In  this  classification — which  we 
shall  adopt  hereafter  in  speaking  of  the  appearances  of  different  classes 
of  molten  iron — Nos.  1  and  2  are  varieties  of  gray  iron,  Nos.  3  and  4  of 
mottled  iron,  and  Nos.  5,  G,  and  7  of  white  iron. 

If,  now,  an  alteration  in  the  working  of  the  blast  furnace  or  of  the  cu¬ 
pola  shows  that  a  change  has  taken  place  in  the  quality  of  the  iron,  or 
if  it  is  desired  to  secure  the  success  of  a  particular  casting,  the  follow¬ 
ing  observations  may  advantageously  be  made:  Let  a  sample  be  taken 
from  the  iron  available,  and  let  it  be  cast  in  a  semi-spherical  mold, 
prepared  as  for  an  open-sand  ousting,  but  lined  with  finely-prepared 
sand,  care  being  taken  that  the  sand  is  neither  too  tightly  nor  too 
loosely  pressed  down.  For  making  this  simple  casting,  a  small  ladle 
and  a  straight-edge  are  carefully  warmed,  and  the  necessary  quan¬ 
tity  of  iron  is  then  tapped  from  the  furnace  or  cupola  into  the  ladle,  the 
slag  being  removed  with  the  heated  straight-edge.  When  this  has 
been  done  the  iron  is  poured  as  quickly  as  possible  into  the  mold,  when 
the  heated  straight-edge  is  again  passed  over  the  iron.  Experience 
has  shown  that  when  a  furnace  is  working  irregularly  the  various 
classes  of  iron  above  spoken  of  are  sometimes  to  be  found  arranged  one 
over  the  other,  according  to  their  specific  gravities,  and  in  procuring  a 
sample,  therefore,  care  should  be  taken  to  procure  au  average  of  the 
whole.  The  metol  having  been  poured  as  above  directed,  the  following 
observations  should  be  made  : 

1.  The  color  of  the  iron  during  the  casting. 

2.  The  movements  which  take  place  upon  the  surface  of  the  metal 
immediately  after  pouring. 

3.  The  state  of  the  iron  during  and  after  its  setting. 

For  the  various  classes  of  iron  above  enumerated  these  appearances 
will  be  as  follows: 

No.  1  iron. — This  iron  has  during  the  casting  a  reddish- white  color, 
and  after  running  it  remains  uuagitated,  and  has  the  appearance  of 
a  crystallized  fat,  while  it  presents  a  frothy  surface  covered  with  “kish.”* 
Its  fracture  when  cold  is  dark-gray,  coarse-grained,  glossy,  and  very 
soft,  but  when  remelted  it  gets  a  finer  structure,  and  becomes  suitable 
for  being  recast  in  crucibles  for  the  production  of  art-castings. 

Another  variety  of  this  iron,  during  the  pouring,  has  a  lighter  color  thau 
the  variet5'  of  No.  1  previously  mentioned,  while,  when  cast,  its  surface  is 

*  For  the  difference  between  graphite  and  “  kish,”  see  a  paper  contributed  by  M. 
Ledebur  to  the  Berg- and  Iliittenmanischen  Zeitung. 


GRADES  6f  CAST  IRON. 


285 


covered  with  a  thick,  dim  skin,  which  during  the  experiment  slowly  sepa¬ 
rates  in  one  direction  in  straight  lines,  showing  at  the  fissures  the  bright 
metallic  surface.  After  these  movements  have  lasted  some  time,  the  dim 
skim  again  entirely  unites,  while  the  iron  is  seen  to  be  still  agitated,  and 
commences  to,  show  small  projections  at  those  points  where  the  division 
of  the  skin  last  occurred.  After  setting,  the  iron  shows  a  slightly  con¬ 
vex  surface,  which  has  a  smooth  glossy  appearance,  with  here  and  there 
a  sparkle  of  graphite. 

This  iron,  when  cold,  has  a  dark-grey*glossy,  fracture,  the  grains  in  the 
latter  being  the  more  strongly  marked  the  greater  the  volume  and 
strength  of  the  casting.  This  class  of  material  is  well  suited  for  the 
casting  of  fine  works  of  art,  as,  when  quickly  poured,  it  fills  the  molds 
well  and  perfectly,  possessing  at  the  same  time  a  great  amount  of  soft¬ 
ness.  When  less  quickly  poured,  the  separation  of  11  kish  ”  gives  to  the 
casting  an  objectionable  appearance,  similar  to  that  of  the  first-men¬ 
tioned  variety  after  setting. 

Wo.  2  iron. — This  iron  has,  during  the  pouring,  a  dazzling-white  color, 
while  the  dim  skin  which  forms  on  the  surface  does  not  appear  to  be  so 
thick  as  in  the  case  of  the  class  of  iron  last  spoken  of.  As  the  iron  runs 
from  the  ladle,  a  tearing-asunder  of  this  skin  and  a  display  of  a  metal¬ 
lic  glare  below  is  observed,  the  surface  at  first  splitting  ouly  in  one  di¬ 
rection,  but  fissures  subsequently  opening  up  in  various  directions,  the 
following  sketches,  Tc  and  Z,  showing  the  chief  figures  formed.  The  fig¬ 
ure  1c  refers  to  a  charcoal,  and  figure  l  to  a  coke,  iron.  These  figures 
may  often  be  traced  even  after  the  setting  of  the  iron,  they  being  then 
formed  by  projection  on  the  surface.  After  the  fissures  on  the  surface 
have  been  drawn  together  again,  the  iron,  which  is  still  agitated  be¬ 
neath,  evolves  small  bubbles  of  gas,  which  force  their  way  to  the  sur¬ 
face,  this  being  especially  the  case  toward  the  middle  of  the  mass. 


Crystallization  of  iron. 


With  the  exception  of  the  points  where  projections  mark  the  last 
fissures  in  the  skin,  the  surface  of  this  iron,  when  set,  is  dim,  glossy, 
and  smooth,  and  its  appearance  is  similar  to  that  of  refined  metal,  this 
being  the  case  even  in  the  fracture,  with  the  exception  of  a  little  lighter 
color  and  slightly  denser  structure.  This  iron  is  the  best  for  art- 
castings,  as  the  largest  as  well  as  the  smallest  articles  may  be  safely 
cast  from  it,  it  giving  clean  and  sharply-marked  productions,  which  can 
be  well  worked  on  account  of  their  but  slight  degree  of  hardness.  If 
also  the  blast-furnace  charges  are  good,  and  the  varieties  used  in  the 
cupola  well  chosen,  iron  of  this  class  shows  great  flexibility  and  elas¬ 
ticity. 


286  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION, 

No.  3,  or  slightly-mottled  iron. — This  irou  has,  when  poured,  a  light  or 
white  color,  the  skin  being  similar  to  that  of  the  No.  1  iron,  but  thinner, 
while  at  the  point  where  the  flowing  commences  a  stronger  metallic 
luster  appears  on  the  broken  surface.  After  the  pouring  has  taken 
place,  the  iron  at  first,  like  that  last  mentioned,  shows  fissures  in  the 
skin  extending  in  one  direction  only ;  but  this  merely  lasts  for  a  short 
time,  a  dividing  of  the  lines  then  taking  place,  and  cruciform  fissures 
being  formed  for  charcoal,  and  star-like  fissures  for  coke  irou. 

This  splitting  up  of  the  surface  into  fissures  goes  on  very  rapidly,  new 
figures  continually  appearing  only  to  disappear  again  and  make  room 
for  others,  the  appearance  being  altogether  a  very  interesting  one, 
while  the  backward  and  forward  movement  in  the  material  is  remark¬ 
able.  After  this  state  of  affairs  has  lasted  some  time  the  evolution  of 
bubbles  of  gas  commences,  the  bubbles  being  more  numerous  and  being 
evolved  with  greater  activity  than  in  the  cases  formerly  noted.  During 
this  period  a  great  agitation  of  the  metal  occurs,  this  decreasing  gradu¬ 
ally  until  the  irou  is  ‘‘dead,”  when  it  begins  to  set.  The  surface  in  this 
case  is  no  longer  rounded,  but  straight,  and  is  covered  with  a  number 
of  small  spheres,  which  show  empty  hollow  spaces,  and  adhere  very 
strongly  to  the  surface,  so  that  they  cannot  readily  be  removed. 

The  fracture  of  this  iron  shows  a  light  color  and  slightly  glossy  sur¬ 
face,  and  is  no  longer  strongly  grained.  The  material  is  still  suitable 
for  art-castings,  but  the  objects  cast  from  it  should  not  have  thin  places, 
as  they  could  not  be  worked  upon,  and  would  require  previous  anneal¬ 
ing.  On  account  of  its  great  density,  however,  this  iron  is  well  suited 
for  castings  which  have  to  be  bored  or  turned,  and  particularly  for  those 
on  which  polished  surfaces  have  to  be  got  up.  The  problem  is  to 
produce  an  iron  of  this  kind  with  the  peculiarity  of  not  being  inclined 
to  chill ;  but  this  can  be  done  by  care  in  charging  the  furnaces. 

No.  4,  strongly -mottled  iron. — If  the  irou  is  strongly  mottled — approach¬ 
ing  in  character  to  No.  5 — it  shows,  when  poured,  a  brighter  appear¬ 
ance  and  higher  metallic  luster  than  that  last  described.  The  fissures 
formed  in  the  surface-skin  are  similar  to  those  of  No.  3,  but  the  figures 
formed  are  smaller,  and  the  changes  take  place  more  rapidly,  so  that  a 
certain  amount  of  practice  is  required  to  euable  appearances  to  be  fixed 
by  the  eye.  The  formation  of  the  gas-bubbles  also  is  more  distinct,  and 
their  evolution  commences  at  an  earlier  stage. 

The  setting  of  the  iron  takes  place  under  conditions  similar  to  those 
last  described,  but  the  surface  becomes  covered  with  numerous  leaves 
covering  larger  or  smaller  concavities  in  the  surface  of  the  iron,  accord¬ 
ing  to  whether  the  leaves  have  been  formed  by  the  combinatiou  of 
several  bubbles,  or  by  the  adhesion  of  single  ones.  The  surface  is 
straight,  and  the  fracture  has  a  light,  fine-grained  appearance.  This 
irou  cannot  be  used  for  fine-art  objects,  but  it  may  be  employed  for 
larger  articles,  which  posses  a  certain  degree  of  strength. 

No.  5,  or  lamellar  iron. — When  poured,  this  irou  (which  is  scarcely  to 


A 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  IRON. 


287 


be  regarded  as  a  white  pig)  shows  a  light  brilliant  color,  while  the 
luster  which  accompanies  the  breaking  of  the  skin  is  greater  than  in 
the  varieties  previously  noted.  After  pouring,  a  to-and-fro  movement 
of  the  fluid  metal  takes  place,  but  this  only  lasts  a  short  time,  being- 
followed  by  the  formation  of  stellated  figures,  which  change  rapidly, 
and  which  are  like  those  sketched  above.  In  this  metal  the  figures 
are  smaller  in  size  than  those  produced  by  the  classes  of  iron  already 
spoken  of,  while  the  bubbles  of  gas  are  more  frequent,  and  of  larger 
diameter.  These  bubbles  unite  to  form  the  large  leaves  which,  being 
hollow,  cool  more  quickly  than  the  mass  of  metal  below,  thus  giving 
the  surface  the  peculiar  appearance  of  a  red-hot  mass  of  iron  covered 
with  dark  spots,  this  being  especially  the  case  around  the  circumference, 
where  the  cooliug  takes  place  earlier.  This  appearance  is  not  much 
liked  in  fouuderies  for  fine  work,  as  it  signifies  an  iron  suitable  for  heavy 
castings  only,  but  especially  applicable  to  some  parts  of  machinery. 
The  fracture  of  this  iron  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  earlier  numbers,  and 
it  shows  fine  white  patches,  and  a  very  dense  grain. 

No.  6,  or  u  dead-white ”  iron. — The  conditions  just  described  are  to  be 
found,  also,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  case  of  “  dead-white”  iron;  but  the 
formation  of  the  figures  is  in  this  case  still  more  rapid,  and  the  fluidity 
of  the  iron  is  of  less  duration.  The  size  and  quantity  of  the  gas-bub¬ 
bles  are  also  considerably  increased,  as  is  also  the  appearance  of  the 
dark  spots  already  referred  to.  The  surface,  too,  when  set,  is  no  longer 
straight,  but  slightly  concave,  while,  after  the  opening  of  the  leaves 
produced  by  the  bubbles  of  gas,  deep  holes  are  seen.  The  difference 
in  the  two  classes  of  iron  consists  in  the  latter  having  not  only  deep, 
but  also  flat  holes,  the  existence  of  these  proving  the  iron  to  be  of  a 
harder  class  than  the  other.  The  fracture  of  this  metal  shows  a  mixture 
of  white  and  gray  iron,  this  variety  marking  the  transition  to  white 
iron  properly  so  called.  If  the  proportion  of  grey  and  white  is  about 
equal,  the  metal  is  known  on  the  Continent  as  “Forellen”  iron.  Such 
iron  is  no  longer  suitable  for  fine  castings,  but  if  produced  by  a  well- 
selected  charging  of  the  furnace,  it  possesses  a  very  close  structure  and 
great  strength.  This  iron  is  especially  suitable  for  casting  large  rolls, 
which  gain  in  strength  through  their  cooling  very  slowly,  and  which 
can  be  subsequently  turned.  It  is  also  suitable  for  the  production 
of  chilled  castings,  of  which  samples  are  exhibited  at  Vienna  by  the 
Innerberger  Gewerkschaft,  of  Styria. 

No.  7,  white  iron. — The  form  of  this  iron  in  section  when  cold  is  con¬ 
cave.  When  poured,  this  iron  has  a  white  color,  but  this  very  soon 
changes  to  red,  while  the  metallic  luster  is  very  strong.  The  splitting 
or  opening  up  of  the  skin  does  not  last  long,  but  soon  makes  room  for 
the  formation  of  large  gas-bubbles,  which  may  be  observed  violently 
agitating  the  mass.  These  bubbles  burst,  and  the  discharge  of  gas 
takes  place  with  such  force  that  fine  particles  of  burning  iron  are 
thrown  out  in  all  directions.  The  surface  next  begins  to  sink,  and  soon 
after  a  dark  skin  begins  to  spread  like  a  shadow  over  the  surface 


288 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


of  the  still  red-hot  mass,  from  the  circumference  toward  the  ceuter. 
Finally  this  skin  becomes  lighter  and  peels  off,  showing  a  number  of  the 
shallow  cavities  described  above.  The  fracture  of  this  iron  is  white, 
and  the  metal  is  too  hard  to  allow  of  its  being  worked. 

The  characteristic  appearances  of  the  various  sorts  of  iron  depend  upon 
and  are  intimately  connected  with  the  proportions  of  silicium,  manga¬ 
nese,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  &c.,  which  the  iron  contains.  If,  for  instance, 
in  an  otherwise  normal  state  of  the  iron,  the  contents  of  sulphur  in  the 
latter  is  proportionately  large,  the  so-called  “Braunen,”  with  the  leaving 
behind  of  flat  holes,  may  be  observed.  The  shape  of  the  figures  due  to 
the  fissures  in  the  skin  is  also  altered  if  an  addition  of  zinc,  copper,  &c., 
is  made,  and,  for  instance,  the  addition  of  tin  causes  these  figures  to  alter 
their  shape  entirely,  and  gives  rise  to  beautiful  formations.  It  is  ofteu 
surprising  how,  for  similar  reasons,  the  irou,  which,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  observations  described  in  our  former  article,  showed  a  distinct  char¬ 
acteristic,  alters  in  its  appearance  suddenly  and  unexpectedly. 

The  formation  of  distinct  figures  by  the  division  of  the  surface  skill 
was  formerly  attributed  chiefly  to  the  inclination  of  the  iron  towards 
crystallization,  but  a  closer  knowledge  of  the  composition  of  the  irou 
has  shown  that  the  generation  of  gas  dependent  on  this  composition,' 
and  accelerated  and  acting  through  the  presence  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  mixed  with  the  metal  by  the  act  of  pouring  out,  must  exercise  an 
influence  upon  the  formation ;  this  generation  of  gas  being  proved  by 
the  bubbles  that  riso  and  escape. 

The  question  now  is,  whether  conclusions  cannot  be  drawn  beforehand 
from  these  observations  respecting  the  composition  of  the  iron,  and 
whether  a  preliminary  determination  of  the  contents  of  sulphur,  phos¬ 
phorus,  carbon,  manganese,  &c.,  cannot  approximately  be  made.  IIow 
important  these  observations  would  be  for  the  industry  of  irou  if,  as  has 
not  so  far  been  the  case,  they  could  be  connected  with  chemical  analy¬ 
sis,  and  how  much  more  instructive  would  they  be  if  microscopic  inves¬ 
tigations  of  the  crystalline  formation  could  be  added.  The  latter  inves¬ 
tigations  certainly  deserve  more  thorough  study  than  they  have  hitherto 
received,  a  neglect  which  can  only  be  explained  by  the  difficulty  of  the 
observations,  the  leus  necessarily  having  to  be  placed  close  to  the  surface 
of  the  iron  that  is  under  examination,  and  it  thus  being  impossible  to 
obtain  a  large  field  of  view,  a  few  particles  only  being  in  the  right 
focus. 

Long  and  continued  study  and  practical  observation  have  made  the 
present  writer  acquainted  with  the  treatment  of  iron  in  the  foundery,  and 
he  is  thus  in  the  positiou  to  state  briefly  a  few  rules  which  may  be  use¬ 
ful  for  determining  the  suitable  sort  of  iron  for  special  classes  of  art- 
castings.  The  following  statements  are  therefore  laid  before  the  public, 
with  the  request  of  an  indulgent  and  unprejudiced  judgment. 

In  iron  bars,  which  show  after  the  settiug  hollow  iuternal  spaces, 
(such  as  must  necessarily  be  produced  in  consequence  of  the  setting 
growing  from  out  to  inside,  if  nothiug  is  done  for  their  prevention,) 


CHARACTERISTICS  OP  CAST  IRON. 


289 


there  are  to  be  found  in  these  hollow  spaces  octahedral  crystals  more  or 
less  beautifully  formed  according  to  the  degree  of  fluidity  of  the  iron. 
Now,  notwithstanding  the  exact  resemblance  of  the  fundamental  shape 
of  the  crystal,  it  will  be  found,  if  the  various  samples  of  iron  are  com¬ 
pared  with  each  other  in  this  respect,  that  one  difference  may  be  ob¬ 
served,  namely,  the  different  proportions  between  longitudinal  and  cross 
axes  of  the  crystals.  The  more  beautifully  the  crystals  are  shaped,  the 
more  clearly  is  this  difference  of  proportion  observable.  Very  large 
formations  of  crystals  are  often  to  be  seen  in  the  more  capacious  cavities 
of  large  castings,  but  these  are  seldom  of  such  pure  and  delicate  forms 
as  those  to  be  found  in  smaller  cavities.  If  they  are  completely  formed 
they  resemble  small  fir-trees,  as  octahedral  needles  at  certain  distances, 
forming  also  an  octahedral-like  space,  and  will  be  found  to  have  arranged 
themselves  around  a  central  axis. 

By  the  aid  of  a  powerful  lens  a  similar  appearance  is  to  be  found  in 
the  surfaces  of  fractures  of  iron  which  are  more  minutely  examined, 
whilst  even  a  smaller  magnifying  power  shows  the  triangular  surfaces 
of  the  crystals  and  their  proportionately  different  longitudinal  axes. 

The  same  class  of  crystals  is  to  be  found  in  all  kinds  of  iron  and  steel, 

|  and  the  similarity  is  often  so  great  that  the  assertion  might  almost  be 
made  that  cast  iron  is  nothing  else  but  a  compound  of  bar-iron  crystals 
and  graphite,  and  that  the  quality  of  the  cast  iron  depends  upon  the 
proportion  and  character  of  the  mixture  of  these  components. 

Such  an  opportunity  as  is  at  present  given  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition 
for  the  study  and  comparison  of  various  sorts  of  iron  is  very  seldom 
offered,  and  never  again  perhaps  will  such  a  perfect  series  of  samples 
of  iron  and  steel  from  all  parts  of  the  world  be  found  collected  to¬ 
gether  as  at  present  at  Vienna.  Examining  now  these  various  sorts 
of  iron,  it  will  be  acknowledged  that  to  produce  a  certain  class  of  cast¬ 
ings,  the  pig  iron  forming  the  charges  of  the  cupola  or  melting-furnace 
should  be  selected  and  examined  with  the  same  care  as  the  ores  for  the 
charges  of  a  blast-furnace;  but  while  in  the  latter  case  the  nature  and 
quality  of  the  ores  to  be  used  are  thoroughly  investigated  before  being 
fed  into  the  furnace,  the  iron  for  the  cupola  is  but  too  generally  exam¬ 
ined  only  slightly  and  superficially,  and  a  microscopic  examination, 
which  would  offer  some  reliable  data,  is  seldom  resorted  to.  Instead  of 
this,  however,  the  quality  of  the  iron  is  estimated  from  the  place  of  its 
production,  and  if  the  nature  of  a  certain  brand  of  iron,  supplied  by 
known  iron-works,  has  once  been  ascertained,  it  is  generally  taken  for 
granted  that  all  further  supplies  from  the  same  works  will  have  the 
same  qualities.  Where,  however,  (as  is  generally  the  case,)  the  charges 
of  the  blast-furnace  are  not  always  the  same,  the  iron  produced  should 
be  chemically,  or  at  least  microscopically,  examined  before  being  used 
in  the  cupola  for  the  production  of  castings  of  a  given  quality. 

This  matter,  which  is  of  such  great  importance,  has  hitherto  been  so 
little  or  so  seldom  cared  for,  that  the  present  writer  desires  to  direct 
especial  attention  to  his  own  experimental  observations,  in  the  hope  that 
19  i 


290 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


other  professional  men  will  also  take  some  interest  in  the  development 
of  this  important  subject.  The  importance  of  this  matter  for  the  whole 
of  the  iron  and  steel  industry  will  be  distinctly  seen  in  the  diversity  of 
the  conditions  of  the  various  sorts  of  Bessemer  pig  after  the  changes  in 
the  different  stages  of  the  Bessemer  process,  and  a  comparison  of  the 
processes  brought,  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  before  the  public  is  highly 
interesting. 

While,  for  instance,  the  gray  Swedish  Bessemer  pig  changes  under 
the  slightest  treatment  quickly  at  first  into  spiegeleisen,  the  Bessemer 
metal  exhibited  in  the  various  stages  of  treatment  by  Ockhowo,  Gov¬ 
ernment  Ekateiiuoshan,  (Russia,)  shows,  even  in  the  higher  stages  of 
the  Bessemer  process,  still  some  graphite.  With  respect  to  the  foundery, 
the  iron  containing  carbon  in  a  fixed  state  cannot  be  cast  well,  (the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  malleable  cast  iron  should  be  considered,)  nor  does  it 
allow  of  any  working  treatment,  and  is  thus  not  so  good  as  that  (accord¬ 
ing  to  thi‘  opinion  expressed  above)  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  wrought- 
iron  crystals  and  graphite;  it  is  therefore  of  great  importance  for  the 
foundery  that  a  pig-iron  should  be  used  which  has  not  the  qualities  of 
the  Swedish  iron,  but  that  of  the  iron  exhibited  by  Ockhowo. 

ft  has  to  be  considered  that  the  iron,  having  become  fluid  in  the 
higher  temperatures  of  the  ordinary  cupola,  has  to  pass  in  its  descent 
through  the  current  of  air  still  saturated  with  oxygen,  that  it  is  subjected 
to  an  alteration  similar  to  the  lining  process,  and  that  it  will  become 
white  and  hard  if  the  formation  of  graphite  has  not  been  reconstituted 
by  the  abundance  of  carbon.  In  connection  with  this  matter  we  may 
mention  the  cupola-furnace  invented  by  Herr  Krigar,  of  Hanover,  this 
furnace  being  constructed  so  that  the  molten  iron  is  withdrawn  from 
contact  with  the  coke  and  blast,  the  hearth  for  receiving  the  iron  being 
to  one  side  of  the  furnace  and  not  directly  below  the  crucible  as  usual. 
When  this  furnace  has  been  correctly  put  up,  its  use  has  always  been 
attended  with  an  economy  of  coke;  but  this  is  not  its  only  advantage. 
A  leading  feature  is  the  decrease  of  the  danger  of  producing  white  and 
hard  iron.  Hence  in  a  furnace  on  Krigar's  system,  a  larger  percentage 
of  coke  iron  may  be  added  to  charcoal-iron  without  producing  a  white 
metal  than  is  po'Sihle  under  ordinary  circumstances.  In  fact  in  Krigar’s 
furnace  a  suitable  metal  for  art-castings  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
coke-iron,  although,  of  course,  charcoal  iron  is  always  to  be  preferred. 

In  support  of  the  opinion  that  no  iron  having  ad  inclination  to  get 
white  should  be  applied  for  art-castiugs,  we  may  refer  to  the  fine  iron 
castings  exhibited  by  RastorgoniefF,  of  the  Usines  de  Kisehtim,  near 
Perm,  iu  the  Ural,  (Russia,)  which  have  been  produced  by  previously 
submitting  the  iron  used  for  them  to  a  trial  in  open  sand  molds,  when 
it  was  first  determined  that  the  iron  would  uot  get  white,  but  would 
remain  gray;  if  this  was  not  the  case  it  was  not  used. 

It  is  further  certainly  erroueous  to  suppose  that  a  large  percentage  of 
phosphorus,  which  tends  to  make  iron  become  white,  is  especially 
advantageous  for  art-castings,  and  this  opinion  is  only  correct  in  so  far 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CAST  IRON. 


29  L 


that  the  normal  working  of  a  blast-furnace  using  limonite  ores  produces 
an  iron  free  from  u  kisli”  or  iron  froth,  and  which  is  of  a  very  fluid 
nature,  penetrating  sharply  into  every  form,  although  it  is  hard  aud 
possesses  the  necessary  strength. 

This  quality  and  that  of  other  sorts  of  iron  corresponds  exactly  with 
their  point  of  fusion,  and  many  occurrences,  often  of  considerable  disad¬ 
vantage,  depend  upon  it;  among  the  most  disadvantageous  is,  how¬ 
ever,  that  of  the  so-called  burning  ( Anbrandes )  which  shows  itself  by 
rough  or  file-like  surfaces,  which  take  away  from  the  castings  all  fineness 
and  exactness,  and  make  them  look  imperfect  and  almost  useless.  A 
closer  examination  shows  that  these  rough  surfaces  have  been  produced 
by  the  accumulation  of  small  projection's,  which  partly  cover  the  casting, 
and  with  a  certain  thickness.  This  appearance  is  entirely  independent 
of  the  molder’s  work,  and  if  the  latter  has  been  executed  as  carefully  as 
possible,  and  the  best  casting  might  have  been  expected,  the  surfaces 
are,  nevertheless,  covered  with  projections  and  grains.  The  reason  for 
this  can,  therefore,  only  be  in  the  quality  of  the  iron.  It  has  been  en¬ 
deavored  to  ascertain  the  reason  for  this  chemically,  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  discovered  that  the  projections  forming  the  rough  surfaces 
were  special  compounds  of  iron  aud  other  bodies.  This,  as  will  be  seen 
hereafter,  is  correct;  but  it  alone  does  not  explain  the  mechanical  pro¬ 
cesses  that  take  place  in  connection  with  it.  Our  own  opinion  on  this 
matter  is  as  follows : 

The  iron  in  a  fluid  state  will  be  no  homogeneous  body,  but  a  compo¬ 
sition  of  various  compounds  between  iron  and  phosphorus,  iron  and 
sulphur,  iron-  and  manganese,  iron  and  carbon,  iron  and  siliciura,  &c. 
Each  compound  has,  however,  a  certain  point  of  fusion,  the  one  lower 
than  the  other.  How  if  mixtures  which  differ  much  with  respect  to 
their  point  of  fusion  form  the  iron,  one  portion  of  the  latter  will  set 
while  the  other  portion  remains  in  a  fluid  state,  this  latter  part  being 
forced  by  the  contraction  of  the  former  portion  through  the  pores,  which 
are  still  open  during  the  red-hot  state  of  this  portion  of  the  iron,  and  in 
this  manner  the  so  called  burning  or  “  Anbrand  ”  is  produced. 

After  having  recognized  this  cause,  it  became  possible  to  produce 
another  sort  of  iron  by  other  charges.  The  writer  is  able  to  show  ex¬ 
amples  of  iron  upon  which  are  to  be  seen  small  balls  of  the  size  of  peas, 
in  consequence  of  the  great  difference  between  the  points  of  fusion  of 
different  parts  of  the  metal.  Many  other  similar  occurrences  might  be 
explained  in  the  same  manner.* 

*  Professor  Griiuer,  in  his  article  on  steel,  Auuales  des  Mines,  xii,  vi  serie,  4  liv. 
1867,  says,  “From  these  results  (various  analyses  of  pig-iron)  it  will  be  seen  that  in 
the  varieties  of  gray  pig-iron  rich  in  manganese  the  silicium  is  mostly  combined  with 
the  manganese.”  Further:  “The  analyses  show  that  the  varieties  of  gray  pig-iron 
must  often  contain  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  foreign  bodies,  and  that  their  number 
must  be  very  considerable,  &c. ;  even  the  white  sorts  of  iron  produced  from  spiegelei- 
sen,  which  are  acknowledged  as  being  very  pure,  have,  in  reality,  a  very  complicated 
composition.” 


292 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


190.  A  consideration  of  the  facts  above  stated  showing  that  it  is  de¬ 
sirable  to  possess  some  simple  mode  of  determining  the  relative  points 
of  fusion  of  different  classes  of  iron,  Mr.  Schott,  the  director  of  the 
celebrated  llsenberg  Foundery,  some  years  ago  devised  the  following 
method,  which,  although  of  course  only  capable  of  affording  approxi¬ 
mate  results,  he  has  found  answer  well  in  practice. 

An  iron  vessel,  weighing  about  25  kilograms,  is  tilled  to  a  certain 
height  with  water,  so  that  it  contains  exactly  IS  kilograms.  When 
fluid  iron  is  poured  in,  the  temperature  of  the  water  will  increase  in 
proportion  to  the  temperature  and  the  volume  of  the  iron  ;  and  this  in¬ 
crease  of  temperature  is  then  applied  for  determining  the  relative  points 
of  fusion  of  the  various  sorts  of  iron  in  the  following  manner: 

After  having  measured  the  temperature  of  the  water,  a  portion  of 
fluid  iron,  as  taken  from  the  blast-furnace  or  the  cupola,  is  poured  into 
it  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  water  is  then  stirred,  when  the  tempera¬ 
ture  is  again  observed.  The  water  is  now  carefully  tapped  off,  and  the 
iron  is  taken  out,  dried,  and  weighed.  The  weight  is  thus  obtained 
which  at  a  certaiu  temperature  produced  the  observed  increase  of  the 
temperature  of  the  48  kilograms  of  water.  Various  degrees  of  heat 
will  produce  various  differences  of  temperature,  but  as  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  use  equally  large  quantities  of  iron,  while  the  results  are  in 
proportion  to  these  quantities,  the  following  formula  has  been  found  to 
give  tin1  relative  weight  for  a  certain  degree  of  heat  of  the  iron : 

Let  the  quantities  of  water  used  in  two  experiments,  carried  out  in 
the  way  above  described,  be  represented  by  W  and  to  respectively,  and 
let  also  1  and  i  be  the  corresponding  quantities  of  iron  used;  T  and  t 
the  differences  of  temperature  produced  in  the  water,  and  H  and  li  the 
quantities  of  heat  imparted  to  the  latter  per  unit  of  weight  of  the  iron. 
Then  evidently 

I  l 

But  the  quantity  of  water  is  constant,  or  W  =  /r,  therefore 
H:  h  =  :  *,  or  H  :  7t=T  i :  t  I, 

whence  it.  follows  that,  if  we  give  the  result,  H,  obtained,  in  any  one 
instauce  a  certain  standard  value,  the  corresponding  value  of  h,  derived 
from  another  experiment,  will  be  given  by  the  simple  formula : 

,  Hxtxl 
'  “  Txi  ' 

It  is  evident  that  H  and  h,  instead  of  being  expressed  in  pound-de¬ 
grees  of  heat  given  out  per  unit  of  weight  of  iron,  may,  for  practical 
purposes,  be  more  conveniently  expressed  by  the  degrees  of  tempera¬ 
ture  representing  the  respective  meltiug  points,  and  this  is  really  what 
isdone  at  llsenberg,  the  temperature  of  1,200  degrees  Reaumur  (2, 732  deg. 
Fahr.)  being  taken  as  the  standard  value,  while  differences  of  tempera¬ 
ture  of  370  degrees  Reaumur  (S64£  deg.  Fahr.)  have  been  found.  It  is 


FUSING  POINTS  OF  IRON. 


293 


to  be  noted  that  this  mode  of  estimating  relative  melting  points  takes 
no  account  of  the  latent  beat  set  free  during  the  solidifying  of  the  iron, 
but  regards  all  the  heat  imparted  to  the  water  as  if  it  were  merely  due 
to  the  sensible  heat  abstracted  from  the  iron  during  its  cooling  down 
from  the  melting  point.  No  doubt  this  fact  introduces  an  error,  while 
other  errors  may  be  induced  by  the  want  of  care  in  pouring  the  iron 
into  the  water  just  before  setting;  but  these  errors  do  not  affect  the 
value  of  the  system  as  a  rough-and-ready  practical  method  of  ascer¬ 
taining  the  relative  fusion  points  of  different  samples,  and,  as  we  have 
said,  it  has  been  found  effective  and  useful  at  the  Ilsenberg  foundery. 


&PPENDIX 


TABLE  SHOWING  SEVERAL  MARKS  OF  SWEDISH  IRONS.* 


*  Reprinted  from  the  Report  on  Iron  and  Steel  at  Paris,  1667,  by  A.  S.  Hewitt. 


296 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Mark. 


X ame  of  works. 


Post-office. 


Annual 
production  | 
in  tons. 


Principal  ores. 


PROVINCE  OF  CEFLEBOltG. 


Andersfors 


§  !i 

o  ;•  Arms 

a  ••'■eT  | 


A  /A.  IV 

..>£<•,  it 

;;  b  ::  e 

© 

/3<r  .  -^jr 


W . 


Forsbaeka,  (for  stec-l) 
Gaiuelstilla . 


/w  . 

(lie. 


Gronziiika . 


A 

\  Gy  singe  , 


8 

HP  VP  CP 


Hammarby  . 


Knngsfors  and 
Ubrlora . 


II  o  furs. 


w 

DE  C :  o 

:*R«  W-n 


.••air 

be 


1  |  Montros . 

j  Robcrtsholm . 

1,  iliigbo  and 
,  |  Sandviken ... 


(For  gnu-barrels.) 
■  Kiblafors  . 


]  (For  steel.) 


Ljusne. 


ST  (LB) 


•'CD; 

•M  • 

.T  BM 


<g) 


L&ngviud . 

Mackmy  ra . 

Orkelbo . 

Oslattfors . 

Strom . 

Svabensverk . . . 
Xolffors . 


>jA-  |  N  Woxna. 

-*r  ^  I 


Hudiksvall .. 

150 

Gcfle . 

1,100 

From  Uto,  Enkiirn,  etc. 

Gelle . 

650 

From  Tuna,  Hartberg, 

etc. 

Thors&kcr . . . 

130 

Fiom  Bispberg,  Norberg, 

and  Thort&ker. 

Gysingo  .... 

-110 

Fiom  Norberg,  etc. 

Id . 

910 

From  Daunemora. 

•  ThorsAker . . . 

2,300 

From  Bispberg,  Norberg, 

and  Tbors&ker. 

Oofle . 

From  Bispberg  and 

Thors&kcr. 

Soderliamn  . 

1, 100 

From  Hammarim  and 

Norberg. 

Id . 

130 

From  Norberg,  Uto,  Stri- 

burg,  Daunemora,  etc. 

Id . 

csff 

From  Wigelsbo,  Uto,  and 

Herrang. 

Gcfle . 

370 

Id . 

1,500 

From  Vintjern. 

Id . 

600 

From  Bispberg,  etc. 

Hudikswall. 

720 

From  Ostanberg,  etc. 

550 

From  Vintjern. 

Gcfle . 

260 

From  Bispberg. 

Bollnas . 

630 

From  Gym  As  and  SSrs- 

bog. 

MARKS  OF  SWEDISH  IRON. 


297 


Annual 

Mark. 

Name  of  works. 

Post-office. 

production 
in  tons. 

Principal  ores. 

298 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


MARKS  OF  SWEDISH  IRON. 


299 


300 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Mark. 


Name  of  works. 


Degerfors  0 


Degerfors  X . 

Elfstorp . . 

Frotuua . . 

r 

I  Gammelbo  . . . 

| 

-  |  Finn&ker _ 

:  j 

S  Griiiibo . 

U  Ramsbytta  .. 


(OB) 
HII  AH 


IE 

s*l|  (0) 

HSU 

© 

PV 

K- 


Garpbyttan . . 

Gryn . 

Haddobo  0 . . . 

nad.lcbo  X  . . 
namniarby  . . 
Ilassolfors _ 

i  tlellofors  . ... 

i 

Hogfors . 

Lass&na . 

Laxft . 

Petersfors  ... 
Ramsberg .... 
Ramshytta  .. 
Rockesbolm  . 
Rockhammar 


CWS  Mn 


Sikfors  . . . . 
Skogabolm 
Skyllberg . 


Post-office. 

Annual 

production 

in  tons. 

Atorp . | 

150 

Degerfors  N.'W. 

850 

S.  B. 

Xora . 

720 

Arboga . 

390 

c  f 

'Z 

Ramsberg  .. 

270 

_  ■ 

Arboga  . 

1,050 

1,1 . 

2*20 

Nora . 

120 

0 

Orobro . 

200 

Palsboilu  W.  S. 

B. 

1,020 

id . 

210 

Id . 

290 

Xora . 

1,000 

ITasselfors  X. 

AV.  S.  B. 

COO 

Grytbyttokcd.. 

2,810 

Nya  Kopparbcrg 

120 

Lax&AV.  S.B... 

430 

Id . 

850 

Xora . 

150 

Ramsberg . 

150 

Id . 

140 

Xora . 

260 

Arboga . 

1,050 

Grytbyttehed.. 

150 

Palsboda  AV.  S. 

B. 

510 

Hallsberg  AV.S. 

B. 

800 

Principal  ores. 


From  Dalkarlsberg  and 
Striberg. 

From  Persberg,  Dalkarls¬ 
berg,  Striberg  &.  Viker. 
From  Hogborn. 


Prom  Ramsberg  and 
Persbytta. 


From  Persbytta  and  Mo- 
graft's,  etc. 

From  Nora. 

Id. 

Id. 

From  Ilagby,  Lerberg, 
etc. 

From  Dalkarlsberg,  Stri¬ 
berg,  and  Viker. 

From  Lomberg  and  Svar- 
vik,  etc. 

Id. 

From  Xora. 

From  Dalkarlsberg,  Stri¬ 
berg,  and  Viker. 

From  Jernbo&s. 

From  Str&ssaand  Blanka. 


Id. 


From  Skarhytta  and  Hog¬ 
born. 

From  Strips,  Mossgnefva, 
etc. 

From  Finnberg,  etc. 
From  Xora. 

From  Xora. 


MARKS  OF  SWEDISH  IRON. 


301 


Mark. 


(K)  (e)  (sft 

(bc)  (c) 


DB  yV 


r 

cVf 


B  H 

V 

iW) 

BS 


'K'- 

■AXY 

IK 


BGG  Q 


K  / 


/Sn\ 

OPS 


i 

BPS 

-sac-. 

\G:GJ 

EN’ 

a;  ft 


@) 

AJ  *C 


Name  of  works. 

Post-office. 

Annual 

production 

in  tODS. 

Principal  ores. 

Stjernfors . 

Nya  Kopparberg. 

470 

From  Lomberg  and  Svart- 

vik,  etc. 

Svart& . 

SvartS.  N.W.  S.B. 

700 

From  Dalkarlsberg,  Stri- 

berg,Yiker,&  Persberg. 

360 

Id. 

Willingsberg  .... 

Orebro . 

500 

Id. 

Wrethammar .... 

Ramsberg . 

130 

From  Str&ssa  and  Blanka. 

Abyhammar _ 

Arboga . 

170 

PROVINCE  OF  SKARABORG. 

300 

Fredriksfors . 

"Wassbaoken . 

270 

Id. 

Lagerfors . 

MobolmW.  S.  B.. 

300 

Id. 

Ribbingsfors . 

Mariestad . 

350 

Id. 

1 

^  Skagersholra . 

Finnorodja  W. 

430 

Id. 

) 

S.  B. 

PROVINCE  OF  CARLSTAD. 

^  Ackharn . 

Christinekamn. . . 

550 

From  Filipstad. 

150 

Id. 

c  Bjorneborg  and 

>  Christineharun. . . 

1,000 

From  Persberg,  Dalkarls- 

i  Jonsbol . 

5 

berg,  Streberg.&Viker. 

|  Borgvik  and 

>  Carlstad . 

2,  000 

From  Persberg. 

j  Brunsberg . 

1 

1 

j  Brattfor9,  etc _ 

j 

Id . 

850 

Id. 

Cbarlottenberg  .. 

Arvika . 

400 

From  Persberg  and  Nora. 

Dornle . 

Carlstad . 

470 

From  Filipstad. 

Id . . 

940 

Id. 

1,280 

From  Nordmark  and 

Finshytta. 

425 

340 

Gnstafstrom . 

Grytbytteked . . . . 

550 

From  Persberg.  Bjorn 

bbjde,  Fagerberg,  and 

1  Helybodafors  . . . 

Arvika . 

160 

Langvan. 

302 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Mark. 


k: 

Cffl  KB 

1^1 

BE 

D.S. 

KF,f«F,  1E,UF. 
ibPj 
[nm] 

K; 

*  K; 

:S:H; 

•Jir 

OAS 


@ 

(Jch 

VOij/ 

PG 

OL 

LNS 

NM 


UvA 


(Lps 

c 


W 


Ctf  SB 

m 

CU  UG 


Name  of  works. 

Post-office. 

Annual 

production 
in  tons. 

Principal  ores. 

Hbkanbol . 

Atorp . 

230 

From  Dalkarlsberg. 

1  .. 

630 

i 

> 

210 

Krontorp . 

Cbristienbamn 

370 

600 

Leejofora . 

Filipstad . 

1,200 

From  L&ngban  and  Pers- 
berg. 

R&da . 

220 

Li(le fora  0 . 

Atorp  . 

150 

From  Dalkarlsberg  and 
Striberg. 

Id . 

ICO 

Id. 

850 

From  Persberg. 

260 

Mitandersfnrs  . . . 

Id . 

200 

850 

From  Persberg. 

Niclasdam  . 

Cbristincbaniu. 

260 

Noreborg . 

Arvika . 

1-10 

150 

Qvarntorp . 

Id . 

170 

1(1 . 

160 

Id . 

180 

Id . 

160 

640 

Raraen  orLijendal 

1 

Filipstad . 

680 

From  Langban,  Persberg, 
and  Filipstad. 

|  Storfors . 

Christinebamn. 

1,530 

From  Persberg  and  Ny- 
kroppa. 

StomnedJ . 

Carlstad . 

260 

Sraneholm . 

Amll . 

460 

From  Filipstad. 

MARKS  OF  SWEDISH  IRON. 


SOB 


_ 

Mark. 


@@ 

A 


KB) 


i 


Name  of  works. 

Post-office. 

Annual 
production 
in  tons. 

Principal  ores. 

Salboda . 

Arvika . 

1,230 

From  Persberg. 

Thorsbv  . . 

630 

4,  300 

Persburg,  and  L&ngban. 

230 

Wagsjofors . 

Sunne  . 

170 

PROVINCE  OF  ELF8BORG. 

Backefors . 

Im&l . 

1,520 

From  Persburg. 

Id . 

460 

Id . 

390 

700 

Upperad . 

Wenersborg _ ... 

320 

PROVINCE  OF  NYKOPING. 

Forssa . . . 

KatrineholraW.  S.  B 

260 

Id . 

310 

From  Skalunda,  etc. 

Id . 

230 

Nj-by . 

Thorskalla . 

340 

Nykbping . 

Nykoping . 

G30 

Skepsta,  (steel) . 

Bjornluuda  W.  S.  B 

350 

Smedstorp . 

Malmkoping . 

170 

From  Staf. 

vii-a . 

NorikopiDg . 

260 

PROVINCE  OF  OSTERGOTLAND. 

Borgg&rd . 

Tjellmo . 

260 

Borkbult  . 

Soderkoping  . 

190 

From  Uto,  etc. 

I 


304 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Mark. 


B  b 


TGE  N:G 
ykr 

C:  F: 

(i£) 

CDB 

H 


E 


Name  of  works. 

Post-office. 

Annual 

production 
in  tons. 

Principal  ores. 

6*10 

Borggjol . 

1G0 

i 

i 

Id . 

2,  200 

From  TJpsala.  Stiibf-rg, 

Ulo,  etc. 

510 

Godog&rd . 

Ilallaberg  W.  S.  B.. 

270 

From  Nora  and  Sarnia. 

ISO 

1  Unit . 

2.70 

Il&fla . 

Id . 

CflO 

From  Nora. 

Ililttorp . 

Tjollmo . 

170 

Pjung . 

Linkoping: . 

550 

310 

1  Motala  Werkstad' 

Motala . 

2, 100 

380 

Sonstorp . 

Xorrkoping . 

550 

PROVINCE  OF 

CALM AH. 

Ankararum . 

1  Westervik . 

830 

From  Stenbo,  Narlorp, 

Sjosa,  Herraug,  ami 

Norberg. 

Ed 

Soderkoping . 

280 

From  Stenbo,  Heriang, 

Uto,  and  Nartorp. 

260 

From  Skramstad.Obabu, 

and  Tjto. 

310 

From  Striberg  and  Sabi- 

sta. 

Tofvernm . 

PTimmesby . 

170 

350 

From  Sjosa,  TTto,  Stens- 

nas,  Olofsrum,  etc. 

MARKS  OF  SWEDISH  IRONS. 


305 


Mark. 


Name  of  works. 

Post-office. 

Annual 

production 
in  tons. 

Principal  ores. 

PROVINCE  OF  JONKOPING. 

140 

Prom  Taberg. 

Id . 

180 

Id. 

390 

Id. 

•290 

Id. 

Nissafors . 

Jonkoping . 

370 

From  Taberg  and  Nora. 

PROVINCE  OF  KRONOBERG. 

160 

Id . 

150 

Id . 

240 

Orrefors  . 

Id  . 

240 

Id . 

210 

Siifsjostrom . 

Id  . . 

190 

¥i 


\2S\ 


ST: 


:7tT': 


FN 


[KB) 

IS 

/Ss'.\ 

•kb; 

(o  f) 

@) 
/.8>. 
i  S  ; 

■ex*-' 


For  information  as  to  the  prices  and]  qualities  of  the  irons,  one  can  ■write  directly  to  the  forges  them¬ 
selves.  For  example  :  “  Brukskontoren  a  Safsjostrom,  j  "Wexid,  Sweden  ;  or  ”  Brukskontoren  &  Nissa- 
fors,  Jonkoping,  Sweden,”  &c. 

But  as  all  the  marks  are  not  indicated  here,  and  since  all  the  forges  have  agents,  it  will  he  better  to 
■ask  the  name  of  their  agent,  who  will  be  able  to  give  all  the  necessary  information. 


20  I 


INDEX. 


;  o  Art  Pa«e- 

Akerman’s  memoir  on  the  iron  and  steel  of  Sweden .  127  152 

on  Bessemer  process .  142  175 

bog-ores  and  limonite .  137  167 

cement-steel .  143  177 

composition  of  Swedish  ores .  147  182 

distribution  of  ores  in  Sweden .  129  153 

geology  of  Swedish  iron-ores .  134  158 

locality  of  greatest  production .  146  182 

Martin  steel . 143  177 

means  and  methods  of  transportation .  139  171 

methods  and  cost  of  mining .  136  165 

production  of  iron-ore .  135  162 

pig-iron .  138  168 

puddling  process .  141  175 

rolling-mills . 144  177 

sources  of  fuel . 130  154 

_  statistics  of  iron  and  steel  industry  in  Sweden . 145  178 

Swedish  iron-making .  128  152 

transportation .  131  155 

use  of  English  coke .  132  156 

water-power  in  Sweden .  133  157 

wrought-iron  and  steel .  140  172 

Algerian  ores  and  mines .  106  128 

Arrangement  of  French  exhibits .  92  118 

Art  castings . 

Artillery,  exhibits  by  Krupp .  61  76 

Austrian  display  of  iron  and  steel,  extent  of .  4  5 

Empire,  iron  and  steel  industry .  4  5 

Awards  in  1867 .  95  121 

Bessemer  process,  Akerman  on . .  142  175 

steel  in  the  Alpine  country,  Austria .  14  15 

Blast-furnaces,  Buttgenbach’s .  62  82 

European,  dimensions  of .  24  41 

Bloomaries  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  21  19 

Blowing-engines... . 114  136 

Bochum  cast-steel  bells .  86  112 

works  .  80  111 

coal-mines . .  81  111 

coke  blast-furnaces . 83  111 

furnaces  .  84  111 

iron  mines .  82  111 

miniug  and  steel  works .  79  110 

steel  castings  .  85  112 

Bog-ores  and  limonite,  Akerman  on .  137  167 

Borsig’s  exhibit .  45  59 


308  INDEX. 

Art.  Page. 

British  exhibitors,  principal .  154  224 

exhibit,  character  of .  152  223 

exports .  .  I53  223 

iron  and  steel  industry .  152  003 

Burbach  Works .  57  55 

Buttgenbach’s  blast-furnaces .  62  82 

Carintliian  furnaces,  seel  ions  of .  23  21 

Cast-steel  bells,  Bochum .  86  122 

in  the  Alpine  country .  13  14 

works,  Bochum .  80  111 

Chinese  iron-making .  168  252 

Churches  for  work-people  of  Goorgs-Marieu-IILitte  Company .  68  101 

Club-houses  of  Georgs-Marieu-Hutte  Company .  76  106 

Coal-mines,  Bochum .  61  111 

Coal,  Russian  production  of .  151  217 

Cockerill  Company  of  Soraing,  history  of  the .  110  131 

Coke  blast-furnaces,  Bochum .  83  111 

furnaces  at  Bochum .  84  111 

Courts  of  justice  of  Georgs-Maricn-lIiitte  Company .  71  102, 

Creusot ;  Schneider  A  Co .  91  118 

Dillinger  Company,  exhibit  of .  46  60 

Ehrenwerth’s  puddler .  33  50 

✓ 

Essox  County  (Now  York)  iron-ore .  161  236 

Exhibits,  artillery,  by  Krupp .  61  76 

Austrian,  neatness  of  arrangement  of .  6  7 

Belgian,  and  production  of  iron  and  steel .  107  12!) 

British,  character  of,  production .  152  223 

Dillinger  Company . 46  60 

French,  production  of  iron'and  steel .  90  116 

German,  extent  and  arrangement  of .  36  55 

Gleiwitz  furnace . —  89  114 

Judenberger  Iron-Works .  31  49 

machinery,  by  Krupp .  60  72 

Resicza  State  Railway .  26  46 

Rositzer  Mining  Company .  30  48 

Styrum  Company .  47  60 

Swedish,  character  of  the .  120  141 

United  Kdnigs  and  Laurahiitte .  49  60 

United  States,  character  of .  158  .  234 

various .  105  127 

Exhibitors,  German,  number  of .  44  59 

Fagersta  iron-ores  and  limestone' . .  122  142 

steel,  experiments  by  Kirkaldy .  124  147 

gun-barrels .  123  144 

plate,  tests  of .  125  150 

works,  exhibit .  121  141 

Ferro-manganese  of  Resicza .  27  46 

Laibach .  29  48 

Forging,  hydraulic .  34  53 

Forged  cranks,  Haswell's .  184  270 

Forms  assumed  by  furnaces  after  loug  working .  25  41 

Fouuderies  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  10  10 

Furnace,  Gleiwitz,  exhibit  of  the .  ®0  114 

Geology  of  Swedish  iron-ores .  134  138 

Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  G4  04 


INDEX. 


309 

Art.  Page. 

German  Empire,  display  of  iron  and  steel .  36  55 

exhibits,  extent  aud  arrangement  of .  36  55 

production  of  iron  and  steel .  37  55 

Girders  and  columns,  iron  .  56  64 

Gleiwitz  furnace,  exhibit  of .  89  114 

Growth  of  the  German  iron  and  steel  industry,  graphic  illustration  of....  42  57 

production  of  iron  and  steel . • .  39  56 

steel-making .  40  56 

Hamm  wire-works .  52  62 

Haswell’s  apparatus  for  forging .  176  258 

cylinder-heads .  182  267 

exhibit  of  locomotive  hydraulic  forgiug .  174  257 

forged  cranks .  184  270 

hydraulic  forging,  the  process  of .  177  258 

press .  178  259 

I  link-motion  blocks .  181  262 

method  of  hydraulic  forging .  175  257 

solid  locomotive  wheels .  183  267 

wrought-iron  cross-heads .  179  259 

journal-boxes .  180  262 

(Houses  for  work-people  of  Georgs-Marien-IIiitte  Company .  66  98 

Hospitals  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  73  104 

Hot  blast-stores,  Wliitwell .  155  225 

Hydraulic  forging . 34  53 

Industrial  schools  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  69  101 

Investigations,  scientific,  of  the  quality  of  iron  and  steel .  100  125 

Ilsenburg  cast-iron  art-work . 187  276 

iron,  its  quality .  189  283 

molding-sand . 188  279 

temperature  of  fusion .  190  292 

Iron  and  steel  forgiugs . 117  138 

making,  Russian,  statistics  of .  149  208 

of  British  India .  170  253 

works,  Osnabriick .  63  92 

girders  and  columns .  56  64 

industries  of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  16  16 

linings  for  shafts  of  mines . 104  127 

making  aud  ore  extracting,  Prussian .  41  56 

Chinese .  168  252 

manufactures  in  Sweden .  127  152 

mines,  Spanish .  148  207 

ores  aud  limestone,  Fagersta .  122  142 

ores  aud  steel  of  Japan .  167  251 

Indian . 172  255 

production  of  the  United  States,  statistics .  166  241 

shoes  for  railway-brakes .  48  60 

wire  from  Westphalia .  50  60 

works  and  mining  property  of  the  Cockerill  Company .  110  131 

Russian . . .  150  210 

Judeuberger  iron-works,  exhibit  of .  31  49 

Krupp,  Friedrich,  exhibits  of  artillery  by . 61  76 

machinery  by .  60  72 

works  of .  59  69 

Laibach,  ferro-manganese  of .  29  48 

Lake  Superior  ores . 159  224 


310 


INDEX. 


Art.  Page. 

Libraries  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  70  102 

Link-motion  blocks,  Haswell’s .  181  262 

Lippstadt  wire-works .  54  63 

Locomotive  engines .  115  137 

Lodging-houses  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  75  105 

Marine  steam-engines  and  machinery .  113  135 

Martin  steel .  143  177 

in  the  Alpine  country . 15  16 

Mining  and  steel-works,  Bochum .  79  110 

of  iron-ore  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  17  17 

methods  and  cost  of,  Akermau  on .  136  165 

property  and  iron-works .  Ill  132 

Nachrodt  wire-works . 53  62 

Ore  and  furnace-charges . 28  47 

Swedish,  composition  of .  147  182 

Ores  and  mines,  Algerian .  106  128 

Osnabriick  iron  and  steel  works .  63  92 

Park,  Brother  &  Company’s  cast  steel .  160  235 

Pennsylvania  aud  Alabama  ores .  162  238 

Plate,  tests  of,  Fagersta .  125  150 

Production  of  coal,  Russian .  157  232 

iron  and  steel,  Austrian .  7  8" 

in  the  Alpine  region .  8  8 

world .  2  2 

ore  in  Sweden,  Akerman  on .  135  162 

pig-iron  in  the  Alpine  region .  9  10 

Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  18  18 

steel-works,  Belgian .  118  139 

Prussian  iron-making  and  ore-extraction .  41  56 

Puddlev,  Ehrenwerth’s .  33  50 

Puddling  process,  Akerman  on .  141  175 

works  in  the  Alpine  region .  10  11 

Resilience  of  steels  made  at  Creusot .  99  125 

Rock-drills .  116  137 

Rod  and  bar- iron  produced .  11  13 

Rolled  tyres .  109  130 

Rolling-mills .  144  177 

of  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia .  20  19 

Rotary  puddling-furnaces .  32  50 

Russian  iron- works,  production .  150  210 

Sellers'  high  rolls .  165  241 

puddling-machine .  164  239 

Schaltenbrand's  irou  cross-ties .  58  66 

Schools  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  67  101 

Siemens’  direct  process .  156  232 

Society  Anonyme  des  Hants-Fourneanx .  108  130 

Statistics  of  commerce  in  metals . - .  43  69 

mining . - .  5  6 

production  of  iron  and  steel  at  Creusot .  94  12o 

Russian  iron  and  steel  making .  149  208 

the  iron-making  industry,  Akerman  on .  145  178 

Steel  castings,  Bochum .  85  122 

gun-barrels .  123  144 

made  in  the  Alpine  country .  12  13 

making,  growth  in  the  German  Empire .  40  56 


INDEX.  3  1 1 

Art.  Page. 

Store  uuiou,  of  Georgs-Marien-HutteCompany .  74  104 

<  Styrum  Company,  exhibit  of .  47  60 

Transportation,  Akerman  on .  131  155 

:  Tnrn-halle  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  77  106 

Water-power  in  Sweden,  Akerman  on . 133  157 

Whitwell’s  hot-blast  stoves .  155  225 

Wire-rope  traces .  35  54 

Wire-works,  Hamm .  52  67 

Lippstadt  .  54  63 

Nachrodt .  53  62 

Berdohl .  55  64 

Wootz,  or  Indian  steel .  171  254 

Workingmen’s  association  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  72  102 

Work-people,  care  of,  by  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company .  65  98 

Wrought  iron  and  steel,  Akerman  on .  140  172 

cross-heads .  179  259 

journal-boxes... .  180  262 

gates  and  railways .  186  276 


F. 


METALLURGY  OF  LEAD,  SILVER,  ETC. 


H.  PAINTER. 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


REPORT 

OX  THE 

METALLURGY 


LEAD,  SILVER,  COPPER,  AND  ZINC, 


HOWARD  PAINTER, 

HONORARY  COMMISSIONER  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 


METALLURGY. 


ERRATA. 


The  author,  who  has  been  professionally  engaged  in  the  mining-districts  of  the  West, 
did  not  receive  proofs  of  this  report,  and  desires  to  make  the  following  corrections  and 
alterations : 

Page  xiii,  line  30,  read  “Tajova.” 

Page  xiii,  line  38,  read  “Tajova.” 

Page  xiii,  line  46,  read  “  Reichverbleiuug.”. 

Page  xv,  line  9,  read  “  Nagy  Banya.” 

Page  2,  line  10,  read  “  the  policy.” 

Page  3,' line  2,  omit 

Page  4,  line  6,  read  “  tetrahedrite.” 

Page  4,  line  13,  for  “  1.45”  read  “  145.” 

Page  4,  line  37,  for  “  3.5”  read  “.35.” 

Page  5,  line  9,  for  “silverized  ”  read  “desilverized.” 

Page  5,  line  23,  add,  at  end  of  line,  “  silver.” 

Page  5,  line  25,  read  “  Flachs.” 

Page  6,  line  8,  insert  a  comma  after  “'zinc.” 

Page  7,  line  24,  read  “  that  country.” 

Page  12, line  7  from  bottom, omit  all  after  “cent.” 

Page  13,  line  23,  omit  comma  after  “  iron.” 

Page  14,  line  l,omit  “a.” 

Page  14,  line  10,  read  “Arabians.” 

Page  14, line  27, for  “Russia”  read  “Prussia.” 

Page  15,  line  13,  for  0.06”  read  “  0.6;  ”  for  “0.11  ”  read  “  1.1.” 

Page  22,  lines  24-26,  read  “  10,740,000 ;  ”  14,955,000  ;  ”  “  25,695,000.” 

Page  25, line  12, insert  “cwt.”  between  “  127-|”  and  “copper.” 

Page  27,  line  29,  read  “  for”  after  “  smelting.” 

Page  30,  line  8,  read  “OKER  SAIGER.” 

Page  32,  line  9  from  bottom,  semicolon  after  “  silver.” 

Page  33, line  l,omit  dash,  and  insert  comma  after  “pipe.” 

Page  34,  line  18,  read  “Erbstolln.” 

Page  34,  lines  24-27,  read  “47,505.64;”  “13,070.44  ;”  “34,433.20.” 

Page  35, line  44, for  “sulphuric ”  read  “sulphurous.” 

Page  36,  line  10,  omit  “two  of.” 

Page  37,  line  3  from  bottom,  read  “  smelting.” 

Page  38,  line  6,  omit  “,  and  ”  and  insert  “ ;  as  it.” 

Page  38,  line  46,  for  “  0.782  ”  read  “  0.0782.” 

Page  39,  line  34,  omit  comma  after  “  ore.” 

Page  39,  line  35,  omit  “  and.” 

Page  43, lines  19-20, transpose  the  words  “ upper”  and  “ lower.” 

Page  44,  line  10,  for  “  9,400  cwt.”  read  “  6,000  kilograms.” 

Page  44,  line  13,  for  “  9,600  ”  read  “  10,000.” 

Page  49,  line  28,  omit  “  1-5  ”  and  insert  “  1,  5.” 

Page  5.1,  line  22,  for  “  20,000  and  12,500  ”  read.  “  4,000  and  125.” 

Page  58,  line  3,  for  “  millimeters  ”  read  “  meters.” 

Page  58,  line  47,  for  “0.003  ”  read  “  0.03.” 

Page  65,  line  7  from  the  bottom,  for  “  1,000  ”  read  “  7,000.” 

Page  76,  line  21,  for  “3,500  to  4,000  ”  read  “35,000  to  40,000.” 

Page  76,  line  31,  for  “  strong  ”  read  “  light.” 

Page  81,  line  26,  read  “  100  cwt.” 

Page  83,  line  43,  omit  “  as.” 

Page  84,  line  9,  for  “oxide  ”  read  “  sulphide.” 

Page  84,  line  18,  omit  comma  after  “  siliceous.” 

Page  89,  line  32,  for  “  upper  ”  read  “  uuder.” 

Page  94,  line  22,  read  “  sulphate  of  copper.” 

Page  94,  line  23,  read  “  sulphate  of  copper.” 

Page  94,  line  43,  for  “  hurried  ”  read  “  humid.” 

Page  100,  line  12,  for  “  slimo  ”  read  “  slime.” 

Page  101,  line  40,  for  “  meters  ”  read  “  per  cent.” 

Page  106,  line  32,  for  “  to  ”  read  “  from.” 

Page  108,  line  4,  insert  “  ;  it”  between  “  copper  ”  and  “  is.” 

Page  119, line  28, for  “smelting”  read  “melting.” 

Page  122,  line  12,  for  “  millimeter  ”  read  “  meter.” 

Page  124,  line  44,  for  “  break  ”  read  “  treat.” 

Page  125,  line  2,  after  “  zinc  ”  insert  a  semicolon. 

Page  127,  line  26,  omit  “  natron  ”  and  insert  “  soda.” 


METALLURGY. 


Page  127,  line  28,  after  “  acid  ”  insert  a  semicolon. 

Page  128,  line  1,  omit  comma  after  “  Herzog.” 

Page  134,  line  11,  for  1830  ”  read  “  1843.” 

Page  134,  line  15,  for  “  view ”  read  “review.” 

Page  135,  line  11,  omit  “  iron  ”  and  insert  “  copper.” 

Page  135,  line  28,  for  “  blast  ”  read  “  roasting.” 

Page  140,  line  24,  for  “  abstract  ”  read  “  abstrich.” 

Page  141,  line  2,  after  “  combine  ”  insert  “  a.” 

Page  141,  lino  19,  for  “cast”  read  “  wrought.” 

Page  142,  line  20,  for  “estimated  ”  read  “eliminated.” 

Page  143,  line  23,  for  “  running,”  read  “  mining.” 

Page  144,  line  11,  for  “  pisquisilicate  ”  read  “bisilicate.” 

Page  145,  line  4,  insert  a  comma  after  “  by  zinc.” 

Page  145, line  17, add, after  “zinc,”  “chloride  of  potassium,  and  chloride  of  magne¬ 
sium.” 

Page  147,  line  34,  for  “  Fig.  I,”  read  “  Fig.  III.” 

Pago  148,  line  41,  for  “  purer  ”  read  “  impurer.” 

Page  150,  lino  19,  for  “  a  ”  read  “  attached.” 

Page  150,  line  35,  read  “  Binsfeldliammer.” 

Page  153,  line  14,  for  “  45  ”  read  “4.5.” 

Page  153,  lino  29,  for  “20  ”  read  “  2.” 

Page  154,  line  24,  omit  “  to  0  ”  after  “  2." 

Page  154,  line  29,  for  “70”  read  “7.” 

l’age  156,  line  14,  for  “quicksilver”  read  “  water.” 

Page  156,  line  22,  for  “  desilverization”  read  “desilverized.” 

Page  157,  line  9,  read  “Zsarnowitz”  and  “Taj ova.” 

Page  157,  line  10,  for  “  Barya ”  read  “  Banya.” 

Page  158,  line  13  from  bottom,  insert  brackets  before  and  after  “  English.” 

Page  159,  line  24,  for  “  washing”  read  “ roasting.” 

Pago  163,  lino  6  from  bottom, omit  “  these”  and  insert  “the  following.” 

Page  163,  line  35,  for  “  1,822,688  ”  read  “  1,822.688.” 

Page  164,  line  12,  for  “  crystallizing  ”  read  “cupellation.” 

Page  167,  line  25,  insert  “  a  ”  after  “  lirst.” 

Page  167,  lines  25-26,  omit  “0.5  to  1  per  cent,  iron." 

Pago  169,  line  39,  for  “  sulphate  ”  read  “  sulphide.” 

Pago  172, lino  41,  make  the  words  “for  about  an  hour”  follow  the  word  “decreased.” 
Page  173,  line  21,  read  “  Kuschel  zinc.” 

Page  175,  line  28,  for  “  ton  ”  read  “  cwt.” 

Page  177,  lino  6,  for  “  smelting  ”  read  “  meltings.” 

Page  177,  line  7,  for  “  crucible  furnaces  ”  read  “  crucibles.” 

Page  179,  line  2,  read  “  Zsarnowitz." 

Pago  180,  lines  38-39,  transfer  comma  to  follow  the  word  “  furnace  ”  instead  of  after 
“  combined.” 

Pago  183,  lino  28.  for  “  wasting-dump  "  read  “  roasting-dump .” 

Page  184,  line  5,  for  “  gadens  ”  read  “  Wardein.” 

Page  213,  line  32,  Siebruglmrger  read  “  Siobenbiirger.” 

Page  215,  line  34,  for  “50  ”  read  “0.5.” 

Page  216,  line  1,  for  “30  ”  read  “0.3.” 

Page  216,  line  4,  for  “Atridaberg  ”  read  “Atvidalmrg.” 

Pago  221,  line  33,  insert.  “  west  of  north  ”  after  “80°.” 

Page  223,  line  1,  for  “  1870  ”  read  “  1872 ;”  for  “7,568,942”  read  “  62,000,000.” 

Insert  foot-note  after  table  as  follows: 

“  The  value  of  the  metals  produced  in  the  United  States  is  estimated;  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  other  countries  is  from  official  sources.  The  production  of  the  six  mining 
districts  of  Germauy  and  of  the  eight  of  Austro-Hungary  is  first  given  separately, 
and  then  the  total  of  all  under  the  headings  of  Germany  and  Austro-Hungary.  The 
production  of  these  districts  should,  therefore,  be  subtracted  from  the  total  production, 
which  would  theu  read  : 

“Lead,  264,832,398  kilograms;  silver,  266,262  kilograms;  copper,  45,037,102  kilo¬ 
grams  ;  zinc,  131,204,392  kilograms. 

“  With  the  exception  of  the  United  States,  of  which  country  the  production  is  giveu 
in  dollars,  the  figures  given  show  approximately  the  total  production  of  lead,  silver, 
copper,  and  zinc  for  the  world.” 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Art  Page- 

introduction .  1 


CHAPTER  I.— UNITED  STATES,  (pp.  3-7.) 

1.  Character  of  exhibits .  3 

Products  exhibited  by— 

2.  H.  T.  Blow . 3 

3.  Santee  and  Wagner..., .  3 

4.  Grand  Pier  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company .  3 

5.  Mineral  City  Mining  and  Smelting  Company .  3 

6.  E.  B.  Ward . 3 

7.  Joseph  Wharton .  3 

!8.  P.  P.  Peck .  3 

9.  Guido  Kustel . - .  3 

10.  Method  of  zinc  desilverization  practiced  at  Germania  Smelting  and  Re¬ 
fining  Works.. . .. .  4 

111.  Exhibits  by  Sutro  Tunnel  Company .  6 

CHAPTER  II.— SPAIN,  (pp.  7-9.) 

12.  Small  display .  7 


Products  exhibited- 


13.  From  Granada,  Almeria,  and  Henlon .  7 

14.  From  Santander .  7 

15.  By  Madrid  Mining  Academy .  7 

16.  From  the  Almaden  mines .  7 

17.  Age  and  progress  of  mining  and  metallurgy .  7 

18.  Growth  of  production . 

CHAPTER  III.— FRANCE,  (pp.  9-13.) 

Exhibits — 

19.  By  M.  Laveissiere  et  Fils .  9 

20.  By  Manhes  Pere  et  Fils .  9 

21.  By  Henry  Merle  et  Cie . 9 

22.  From  Algiers .  9 

.23.  Progress  and  condition  of  metal  industry .  9 

Lead-refining — 

24.  Corduri6’s  method .  9 

25.  Payen’s  method .  9 

26.  Rozan’s  improvements .  10 

27.  Manipulations  of  Rozan’s  method .  11 

28.  Gain  by  its  use  at  Saint  Louis,  Les  Marseilles .  12 

29.  Objections  to  Rozan’s  method .  12 

CHAPTER  IV.— ITALY,  pp.  13-17.) 

30.  Condition  of  metal  industry . . . .  13 

Products  exhibited— 

31.  From  the  works  of .  13 

32.  By  the  Campagnia  del  Boltino .  13 

33.  By  Domingikus  Ing  Santelli .  13 

34.  By  Simonis,  Cornelissen  &  Company .  13 


IV 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


The  Inland  of  Sardinia. 

Art.  Page. 

35.  History,  growth,  and  condition  of  metal  industry .  13 

36.  Products  exhibited  by  the  Societa* . .  14 

37.  Miscellaneous  exhibits .  14 

38.  Smelting  processes .  14 

39.  Production .  15 

40.  Cost  of  mining  and  shipping  ores .  15 

CHAPTER  V.— BELGIUM,  (pp.  17-21.) 

41.  Exhibits  from  Bleyberg .  17 

42.  Bleyberg  smelting-process .  17 

43.  Comparison  of  Belgian  and  English  reverberatory  smelting-furnaces .  18 

Products  exhibited — 

44.  By  A.  B.  Lovegree . .  19 

45.  By  the  Zinc  Mining  and  Smelting  Company  de  la  Vieilie  Montague..  19 

46.  History  of  the  Zinc  Mining  Company  and  description  of  the  works .  19 

CHAPTER  VI.— SWEDEN,  (pp.  21-26.) 

47.  Character  of  ores ;  principal  reducing-works .  21 

48.  Treatment  of  ores . 21 

49.  Experiments  on  M.  Lundin’s  furnace . _. . . .  21 

The  Stora-Kopparlberg  Copper-Works. 

50.  Exhibits . 22 

51.  Production  in  1871 .  22 

The  Kafreltrops  Stock  Company. 

52.  Ores  exhibited .  23 

53.  Description  of  the  works .  23 

54.  Newly-discovered  minerals  exhibited .  23 

55.  Miscellaneous  exhibits .  23 

Copper  extraction — 

56.  Process  lately  introduced .  23 

57.  Process  ordinarily  employed .  23 

58.  Preparation  of  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  process . .  24 

59.  Manipulations  of  the  process .  24 

60.  Statistics  of  cost  and  production .  25 

61.  Production  of  silver-zinc  ores .  25 

CHAPTER  VII.— NORWAY,  (pp.  26-30.) 

62.  Most  important  ores . . .  26 

63.  Statistics  of  mines  and  works  for  1870  .  26 

Exhibits — 

64.  Ores  and  intermediate  products,  by  the  Altener  Copper-Works .  26 

65.  Copper  minerals,  zinc  and  lead  ores .  28 

The  Konsberg  Silver-Works. 

66.  Statistics .  28 

67.  Exhibits . 28 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Y 


CHAPTER  VIII.— GERMANY,  (pp.  30-156.) 

Art. 

I  38.  Display  made  at  Exhibition . . . 

G9.  Growth  of  mining  and  metallurgical  industries . .  . . 

70.  Aid  rendered  by  science.. . 

71.  Germany’s  metallurgical  rank . 

72.  Arrangement  of  the  exhibits  . 

73.  Exhibits  by  “  combined  lead,  silver,  aud  copper  works” . 

Freiberg. 

j  74.  Products  exhibited  . . 

J  75.  Principal  ores  treated . 

76.  Classification  of  veins  in  Freiberg  mining-district . 

77.  Water-power  and  drainage  of  the  mines . 

Growth  of  metallurgical  works — 

78.  Advantages  of  centralization . 

79.  Introduction  of  slag-hearths . 

80.  Introduction  of  sbaft-roastiug  furnaces . 

81.  Latest  improvements . 

I  Shaft-roasting  furnaces — 

82.  Classification . : . . 

83.  Description  of  Gerstenhofer  furnace . 

84.  Ores  roasted  in  this  furnace . . 

85.  Roasting  results .  . . 

86.  Advantages  and  disadvantages . . 

87.  Principal  improvements . . 

88.  Development  of  shaft-furnaces . . 

89.  Conclusions  on  shape  of  shafts . . 

90.  Use  of  iron  water-tuyeres . 

91.  First  use  of  furnace  with  widening  top . . 

92.  Alger’s  elliptical  furnace . 

93.  Raschette  furnace . 

94.  Pilz  furnace . . . . 

95.  Latest  form  of  Pilz  furnace . . 

96.  Distinctive  features . . 

97.  Smelting  campaigns  at  the  Muldener  and  Halsbriickner  Works 


The  Freiberg  metallurgical  process — 
98.  Character . 


Ores. 


99. 

100. 

101. 

102. 

102. 

102. 

103. 

104. 

105. 

106. 
107. 


Classification  as  payable  and  non-payable 
Classification  according  to  composition  .. 

Boasting. 

Methods  employed . . 

Description  of  furnaces . 

Fuel . . . .  . 

Modus  operandi,  (roasting) . 

Cost  of  roasting  . . 

Comparison  of  furnaces  with . 

Single  and  double  hearths . 

Roasting  in  heaps . . 

Roasting  in  double  Wellner  stalls _ _ 


The  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

108.  Ores  and  products  used . . 

109.  Treatment  . . 

110.  “  Stockel  ”  roasting . . 


Page. 

30 

30 

31 

31 

32 
32 


32 

33 
33 
33 


34 


35 


35 

35 

35 

35 

36 


36 

37 
37 

37 

38 


38 

38 

38 

38 


38 

39 
39 
39 


40 


40 

41 

42 

43 
43 
43 

43 

44 

45 
45 
45 


46 

47 


VI 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Art. 

The  Freiberg  metallurgical  process — Continued. 

111.  Canals  and  condensing-chambers . 

112.  Lead-chambers . 

113.  Production  of  nitric  acid . 

114.  Gay-Lussac  apparatus . 

115.  Regulating  the  strength  of  the  acid _ 

116.  Daily  production . 

117.  Systems  at  the  Muldener  Works . 

118.  Purifying  the  chamber-acid . 

119.  Evaporation  of  the  purified  acid . 

120.  Concentration  of  the  acid . 


Page. 

48 

48 

48 

49 
49 
49 

49 

50 

51 
51 


The  manufacture  of  arsenical  products. 

121.  List  of  products  and  ores  treated . 

122.  Production  of  arseuious  acid . 

123.  Products  of  arsenical  ores . 

124.  Pots  for  melting  arseuious  acid . . 

125.  Manipulations,  (melting  arseuious  acid) . 

126.  Production  of  orpemint . 

127.  Products  treated  for  realgar . 

128.  Production  of  realgar . 

129.  Clarifying  the  realgar . 

130.  Treatment  of  sulphide  of  arsenic  for  the  production  of  realgar _ 

131.  Production  of  metallic  arsenic . 

132.  Preparation  of  the  blcmlic  pyntous  ores  in  reverberatory  furnaces. 

133.  Products  of  the  operation . . 

134.  Advantage  of  the  process . 

135.  Production  of  metallic  zinc . . 


51 

52 
52 

52 

53 

53 

54 

54 

55 

55 

56 

56 

57 
57 
57 


Smelt  i  ng-processcs. 

136.  General  requirement .  58 

137.  Composition  of  charge  for  blast-furnace  smelting .  58 

138.  Treatment .  59 

139.  Ore-smelting  in  Stolberg  furnaces .  59 

140.  Method  of  producing  blast . . .  60 

141.  Manipulations  iu  Stolberg  furnace .  61 

142.  Products .  62 

143.  Statistics  of  operation  of  Stolberg  furnace .  62 

144.  Gases  and  fumes  from  smelting-furnace .  62 

145.  Round  and  octagonal  furnaces  at  Muldener  and  Halsbriickner 

Works .  62 

146.  Blowing  in  the  octagonal  furnace .  64 

147.  Charge  and  products  of  octagonal  furnace .  64 

143.  Charge  for  round  furnace .  64 

149.  Composition  of  charges  at  Muldener  and  Halsbriickner  Works -  65 

150.  Statistics  of  production  at  these  works . .  65 

151.  Liquation  of  silver-lead .  66 

152.  Products  of  the  process .  66 

Eefining  of  the  silver-lead. 

153.  Furnace  employed .  66 

154.  Fuel .  67 

155.  Manipulation .  67 

156.  Products .  67 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


VII 


Production  of  antimonial  lead. 

Art.  Page. 

The  Freiberg  metallurgical  process — Continued. 

157.  Materials  employed .  68 

158.  Products . 68 

159.  Manipulation .  68 

The  Pattinson  process. 

160.  Kettles .  69 

161.  Manipulation  without  the  removal  of  intermediate  crystals .  69 

162.  Manipulation  with  the  removal  of  intermediate  crystals .  70 

163.  Composition  of  poor  and  rich  lead . . .  70 

164.  Composition  for  each  kettle .  70 

165.  Men  required .  70 

165.  Products .  70 

Cupellalion  of  the  silver-lead. 

166.  Description  of  furnace .  71 

167.  Construction  of  the  hearth .  71 

168.  Charging  the  furnace .  72 

169.  Manipulation.. .  72 

170.  Products . 72 

171.  Removing  the  products  from  the  furnace . . .  73 

172.  Stopping  the  process .  73 

173.  Reasons  for  stopping  before  the  silver  brightens .  74 

174.  Treatment  of  hearth  after  completion  of  cupellation .  74 

Silver  refining. 

175.  Furnace .  74 

176.  Manipulation .  75 

177.  Granulation  of  the  silver .  75 

178.  Length  of  refining  operations .  75 

179.  Products _ - .  75 

180.  Liquation  of  Pattinson  dross .  75 

181.  Products  of  the  process .  76 

Reduction  of  litharge. 

182.  Operation .  76 

183.  Men  and  fuel  required .  76 

184.  Products .  76 

185.  Manipulation  of  speiss .  76 

186.  Products  of  the  manipulation .  77 

Smelting  of  the  roasted  matte. 

187.  Smelting-charge .  77 

188.  Products .  77 

189.  Effect  of  process  in  removing  accretions  from  furnace . 

Resmelting  of  the  lead-slags. 

190.  Object  of  the  operation .  78 

191.  Smelting-charge .  78 

192.  Composition  of  slag  produced .  79 

193.  Products .  79 

Second  smelting  of  matte. 

194.  Effect  of  the  operation . 79 

195.  Smelting-charge . 80 

196.  Products .  80 

197.  Changes  in  matte  by  operations  of  concentration .  80 


VIII 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Boasting  of  the  concentrated  copper-matte. 

Art.  Tagc. 

The  Freiberg  metallurgical  process — Continued. 

198.  Character  of  operation .  81 

199.  Manipulation .  81 

5200.  Composition  of  roasted  matte .  81 

Concentration  of  the  concentrated  matte  in  reverberatory  furnace. 

201.  Description  of  furnace .  81 

202.  Melting  on  the  hearth  .  83 

203.  Reactions  iu  treating  the  roasted  matte .  83 

204.  Composition  of  charge .  84 

205.  Manipulations .  84 

206.  Attendance  and  fuel .  86 

207.  Products . 86  ' 

Manufacture  of  copper-vitriol. 

208.  Chemical  composition  of  concentrated  copper-uiatte .  86 

209.  Crushing  and  roasting  the  concentrated  matte .  86 

210.  Attendance  and  fuel  required  for  roasting .  87 

211.  Composition  of  the  roasted  matte .  87 

212.  Reactions  of  matte  when  treated  with  sulphuric  acid .  88 

213.  Products  after  treatment .  88 

214.  Method  of  dissolving  the  matte  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid..  88 

215.  Crystallizing  the  vitriol .  89 

216.  Annual  production  of  copper-vitriol .  90 

217.  Treatment  of  mother-liquid  and  residues .  90 

218.  Statistics  of  production  of  copper-vitriol  iu  1869 .  90 

219.  Estimate  of  the  amount  of  metal  extracted  from  matte  in  1869 .  91 

Separation  of  gold  from  silver. 

220.  Dissolving  refiued  silver .  93 

221.  Precipitation  of  silver  from  the  solution . .. .  93 

222.  Treatment  of  gold-residue .  94 

223.  Extraction  of  bismuth .  94 

224.  Products  of  the  operation .  95 

225.  Machines,  furnaces,  and  apparatus  at  the  Freiberg  smelting-works  '.*6 

226.  Production  of  the  Saxon  mines  in  1871 . 97 

227.  Products  of  the  Freiberg  metallurgical  works  in  1871 .  98 

The  Jlarz. 

228.  Products  exhibited .  93 

The  Harz  metallurgical  process — 

229.  Development  of  improvement  in  smelting  processes .  99 

230.  Smelting  with  slags  from  pyritons  ore .  100 

231.  Substitution  of  roasted  lead-matte  for  a  portion  of  the  copper-slag.  100 

232.  Experiments  on  construction  of  shaft-furnaces .  101 

233.  Results  and  conclusions .  101 

234.  Experiments  on  round  furnace  with  eight  tuyeres .  102 

235.  Experiments  to  determine  size  of  blast-nozzles .  103 

236.  Experiments  with  heated  blast .  103 

237.  Distribution  of  metallurgical  operations .  103 

Lead-smelting  at  Clausthal. 

238.  Ores  treated .  104 

239.  SmeltiDg-furnaces .  104 

240.  Charge .  104 

241.  Products .  105 

242.  Capacity  of  works .  106 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


IX 


Processes  at  Altenau. 

Art.  Page. 

The  Harz  metallurgical  process — Continued. 

243.  Ores  treated . 106 

244.  Treatment  of  lead-ore .  107 

245.  Products  of  ore-smelting .  107 

246.  Treatment  of  lead-matte .  .  107 

247.  Products  of  the  operation .  108 

248.  Second  treatment  of  lead-matte .  108 

249.  Former  treatment  of  lead-matte .  108 

250.  Composition  after  second  treatment .  108 

251.  Roasting  the  copper-matte .  109 

252.  Smelting  the  roasted  matte .  109 

253.  Further  treatment  of  the  copper-matte .  109 

254.  Analysis  of  slags  from  the  smelting  of  copper-products .  110 

255.  Analysis  of  copper-matte  from  the  various  smeltings .  110 

256.  Furnace  for  refining  black  copper .  110 

257.  Manipulation,  refining  black  copper .  Ill 

258.  Analysis  of  the  refined  copper . Ill 

259.  Composition  of  resulting  slags .  Ill 

260.  Dissolving  vessels  for  the  desilverization  of  copper .  112 

261.  Dissolving  the  copper  and  manufacturing  copper-vitriol .  112 

262.  Crystallization  from  the  solution  .  113 

263.  Analysis  of  copper-vitriol  and  argentiferous  slime .  114 

264.  Treatment  of  argentiferous  slime .  114 

265.  Treatment  of  products  resulting  from  the  operation .  114 

266.  Annual  production  of  copper-vitriol .  115 

Andreaslerg. 

267.  Ores  treated .  115 

268.  Smelting  processes .  115 

269.  Amount  of  gold  contained  in  the  silver  extracted  from  ores .  116 

270.  Treatment  of  silver-ores .  117 

271.  Treatment  of  the  matte .  117 

272.  Production  in  1871 .  118 

Lautenthal. 

273.  Roasting  and  smelting  processes .  118 

274.  Products  treated . , . .  118 

275.  Methods  of  desilverization  of  lead .  118 

276.  Composition  of  silver-lead  from  different  works . 118 

277.  Plant  for  the  desilverization  of  silver-lead  by  means  of  zinc. .  119 

278.  Melting  the  charge  and  removing  the  scum .  119 

279.  First  addition  of  zinc  for  the  extraction  of  gold  and  copper .  120 

■  280.  Theories  in  regard  to  action  of  zinc .  120 

281.  Second  addition  of  zinc  for  the  extraction  of  silver . .  121 

282.  Third  addition  of  zinc .  121 

283.  Treatment  of  the  silver-zinc  alloy .  121 

284.  Oxidizing  the  zinc .  121 

285.  Oxidizing  the  antimony .  122 

286.  Testing  the  lead  for  zinc  and  other  impurities .  122 

287.  Assay  of  the  lead  before  casting .  122 

288.  Regulation  of  temperature  in  oxidizing  zinc  and  antimony .  122 

289.  Liquation  of  the  zinc-scum .  123 

290.  Dezinckifying  the  zinc-dust .  123 

291.  Cupellation  of  the  enriched  silver-lead .  124 


X 


TABLE  OF  CONTEXTS. 


Art.  Page. 

The  Harz  metallurgical  process — Continued. 

292.  Liquation  of  skimmings . 124 

293.  Treatment  of  skimmings .  124 

294.  Manufacture  of  yellow  paint . 125 

295.  Time  required  for  desilverizing  12,500  kilograms  silver-lead,  and 

products  of  the  operation .  125 

29G.  Results  of  the  silver-lead  treatment  for  1869 .  126 

297.  Genealogical  tree  of  zinc-desilverization  process .  126 

298.  Advantages  of  the  process .  127 

The  Lower  Harz. 

Exhibits — 

299.  By  the  “  Oker  Saiger  Hiitte”. .  127 

299.  By  tbe  Julius  Hiitte .  127 

Copper-melting. 

Process  at  the  “  Oker  Saiger  Hutte” — 

300.  Ores  from  Rammelsberg  mines .  127 

301.  Treatment  of  ores .  127 

302.  Former  furnaces  for  smelting  copper .  128 

303.  Experiments  on  shaft-furnaces .  129 

304.  Present  furnaces .  129 

/  305.  Manipulations .  130 

Manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  coppcr-cilriot. 

306.  Methods  employed .  130 

307.  Experiments  iu  concentrating  sulphuric  acid .  131 

308.  Production  in  1872 .  131 

Process  at  the  “Herzog  Julius  Hiitte” — 

309.  Treatment  of  roasted  ores  from  Oker .  131 

310.  Manufacture  of  zinc-vitriol .  131 

Lead-smeltimj. 

311.  Furnace  employed,  and  charge .  132 

312.  Products  of  the  operation  .  132 

313.  Production  in  1870 .  133 

The  Mansfeld  Copper- Works — 

314.  Exhibits .  133 

315.  Description  of  copper-smelting  furnace .  133 

316.  Ores  treated .  134 

317.  Augustin  process  for  the  extraction  of  silver .  134 

318.  The  Zieroogel  process .  134 

319.  Plant  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid .  135 

320.  Present  copper-extraction  process .  135 

Upper  Silesia. 

321.  Products  exhibited .  135 

322.  Ores .  136 

The  Tarnowitz  lead  and  smelting  works — 

323.  Description  of  furnaces .  136 

324.  Smelting  processes .  137 

325.  Results  of  smelting  operations,  (1863  to  1865) .  139 

325.  Comparison  of  the  new  furnace  with  other  reverberatory  smelting- 

furnaces  . 


139 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  XI 

The  zinc-desilverization  process. 

A  rt.  Page. 

Tlie  Tarnowitz  lead  and  smelting  works— Continued. 

326.  Experiments  by  Karsten .  139 

327.  Development  of  the  present  process .  140 

328.  Manipulations  of  the  process . .  141 

329.  Gerhard t’s  lining  for  clay  zinc-  muffles .  141 

330.  Products  of  the  distillation  of  zinc . . .  142 

331.  Advantages  of  the  process .  142 

332.  Exhibits  and  statistics  of  the .  142 

The  Rhine  provinces. 

333.  Progress  and  condition  of  lead  mining  and  smelting . .  143 

334.  Ores . 143 

Herbst  &  Co. — 

335.  Exhibits  and  statistics .  143 

Zinc-desilverization. 

336.  Manipulations .  144 

337.  Products .  144 

338.  Treatment  of  poor  lead .  144 

339.  Dezinckifying  the  zinc-scum . 145 

340.  Liquation  of  copper-scum .  145 

341.  Products  of  the  liquation . 145 

342.  Treatment  of  matte . 145 

343.  Analysis  of  the  products  of  the  process .  146 

The  Stolberg  Stock  Company  for  mining,  and  the  production  of  lead  and 

zinc — 

344.  Exhibits — Ores  treated . 146 

345.  Hasenclever  and  Helbig’s  roasting-furnace .  147 

346.  Roasting  and  smelting  lead-ores . .  148 

Desilverization  of  silver-lead. 

347.  Treatment  of  pure  grades  by  zinc  process .  148 

348.  Treatment  of  poor  lead .  149 

349.  Mechanical  pattinsonizing  of  silver;  lead  free  from  impurities _  149 

350.  Annual  production .  150 

The  Rhine  Nassau  Smelting  Company — 

351.  Exhibits,  classification  of  works .  150 

352.  Roasting  and  smelting  furnaces  at  Binsfeldhammer... .  150 

353.  Advantages  of  the  regenerative  furnaces .  151 

354.  Roasting  and  smelting  process  at  Holzappel . . .  151 

355.  Production  in  1872 .  151 

The  Mechernicher  Smelting-Works — 

356.  Exhibits  and  statistics . . 151 

357.  Ore  from  the  Mechernicher  Bleiberg  mine .  152 

358.  Roasting  and  smelting  process .  152 

Zinc-desilverization  process. 

359.  Charge . 153 

360.  Treatment  of  poor  lead .  154 

361.  Production  in  1872 .  154 

The  Ems  Smelting- Works — 

362.  Products  exhibited .  154 

363.  Processes  emp’oyed .  155 


XII  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Art.  Tage. 

The  Ems  Smelting- Works — Continued. 

364.  Roasting  the  ore .  155 

365.  Smelting-furnaces .  155 

366.  Treatment  of  lead-matte .  155 

367.  Zinc-desilverizatiou  process . 155 

368.  Production  in  1872 .  156 

CHAPTER  IX . — AUSTRIAN!  I  UN  GAR  I  AN  EMPIRE,  (pp.  157-214.) 

369.  Condition  of  metal  industry .  157 

370.  Display  made .  157 

Bohemia  exhibit’s. 

The  Pribram  Smelting- Works — 

371.  Products .  157 

372.  Arrangement  of  products .  156 

373.  Rittinger’s  continually-acting  percussion-table .  158 

374.  Cupellation-furnaco .  156 

375.  Latest  improvements  in  the  metallurgical  process .  159 

376.  Results  of  6meltiug  process  in  1871 .  162 

377.  Plant  in  use  at  present .  162 

378.  Production  in  1871 .  163 

379.  Products  exhibited  by  Kscheutzischcr,  Zeche,  and  Mies .  163 

Tyrol. 

Brixlegg  Smelting- Works — 

380.  Products  exhibited .  164 

381.  Model  of  furnace  exhibited .  164 

382.  Plan  of  works .  164 

383.  Composition  of  ores  treated .  164 

384.  Processes  employed .  165 

385.  The  copper-smelting  process .  165 

386.  The  lead-smelting  process .  165 

387.  Annual  production .  165 

•  -388.  Exhibits  and  description  of  the  Jochberg  Smelting- Works .  166 

Miiklbach  Smelting- Works- 

389.  Exhibits — composition  of  ore .  166 

390.  Smeltiug  process . 166 

391.  New  blast-furnace .  166 

392.  Capacity  of  new  furnace .  167 

Cari  lit  hia. 

Bleiberg  Smelt iug-Compauy — 

393.  Products  exhibited .  166 

394.  Plan  of  works .  168 

395.  Analysis  of  Villach  lead .  168 

396.  Smelting-furnace .  169 

397.  Carinthian  smelting  inocess .  169 

398.  Production .  170 

399.  Exhibits  and  production  of  Egger  Smelting- Works .  170 

400.  Exliibits  by  J.  Raiuer . 170 

401.  Production  of  smaller  Carinthian  Smeltiug- Works . . .  171 

Raible  Smelting- Works — 

402 .  171 

403.  Product'on-analysis  of  Raible  lead .  171 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


xiir 


Art.  Page. 

Puntschard  White-Lead  Works- 

404.  White  lead  exhibited .  171 

405.  Former  process  of  manufacture .  171'. 

406.  Introduction  of  lead-chambers... .  172 

407.  Improvements  by  Herr  Puntschard .  172 

408.  White  lead  exhibited  by  F.  P.  Herbst .  172 

Styria. — Ludwig's  Kursch  Smelting-Works. 

409.  Products  exhibited .  172 

410.  Smelting  process .  172 

411.  Zinc-desilverization  process . 172 

412.  Annual  production . 173 

Krain  Ludwig's  Kursch  Zinc-Works. 

413.  Products  exhibited.. . 173 

414.  Kuschel  and  Hinterhuber’s  roasting-furnace .  173 

415.  Comparison  of  this  furnace  with  the  Mansfield  double-hearth  reverberatory 

furnace . 175 

416.  Annual  production . . .  176* 

Bulgaria. 

417.  Products  exhibited .  176- 

418.  Production  in  1871 .  176 

Hungary. 

Royal  Hungarian  Mint — 

419.  Articles  exhibited .  176 

New  method  of  separating  silver  from  copper. 

420.  Description  and  exhibits  illustrating  the  process .  177 

421.  Advantages  of  the  process .  178 

422.  Exhibits  from  smelting-works  at  Schemnitz,  Ivremnitz,  Zsarnowitz,  and 

Neusohl . 179 

423.  Exhibits  from  smelting-works  at  Tajora .  179 

Metallurgical  process  in  the  Lower  Hungarian  mining-districts — 

424.  Growth  of  metal-industry .  179 

425.  Classification  of  processes .  179 

Description  of  works. 

426.  Schemnitz . 179 

427.  Zsarnowitz .  180 

428.  Neusohl . .' .  180 

429.  Kremnitz . 180 

430.  Tajora . 180 

431.  Dillner .  180 

432.  Principal  steps  of  lead  and  silver  smelting .  181 

433.  Ore-smelting  for  matte .  181 

Beichverhleiung. 

434.  Ores  and  products  treated . . . - .  182 

435.  Classification  of  manipulations .  183 

436.  Roasting . 183 

437.  Reichverblei .  184 

438.  Matte-smelting .  188 

439.  Second  matte-smelting .  188 

440.  Production  at  silver- smelting  works,  1868,  1869 .  189 


XIV 


TABLE  OF  CONTEXTS. 


Cupellaiion. 

Art.  Page. 

Metallurgical  process  in  Lower  Hungarian  mining-districts — Continued. 

441.  Products  of  the  operation .  190 

442.  Production  1868  to  1870  . , .  190 

443.  Liquation .  191 

444.  Cost  and  statistics  of  production  of  lead  and  silver,  1868  to  1870  ..  191 

Copper-smelting. 

445.  Ores  and  products  treated .  194 

446.  Classification  of  manipulations .  194 

447.  Smeltiug  for  argentiferous  matte .  195 

448.  Smelting  of  the  roasted  argentiferous  matte .  195 

449.  Smelting  of  the  roasted-lead  products .  196 

450.  Extraction  of  black  copper .  196 

451.  Reduction  of  residues .  197 

452.  Smelting  of  non-argeutiferous  dross  .  197 

453.  Refining  the  copper .  198 

454.  Cost  of  each  manipulation .  193 

Jte-imbursement  of  ores  anil  slimes  from  the  mines  hg  the  government  smelting-works. 

4  455.  Manner  of  arranging  regulation-tariffs .  198 

456.  Tariff-tables .  200 

Metallic  deduction. 

457.  Gold  and  silver .  201 

458.  Lead-contents .  201 

Smelting  expenses. 

459.  Table  of  cost  for  1873  .  201 

460.  Superintendence .  202 

461.  Administration .  202 

462.  Interest  on  the  purchasing  capital .  202 

463.  Duty  for  gold-extraction .  203 

464.  Mint-charges .  203 

465.  Illustrated  example .  203 

466.  Purchase-regulations  for  copper-ore  and  products .  203 

467.  Growth  of  improvements  in  metallurgical  operations .  204 

468.  Comparison  of  tariff  with  that  iu  vogue  in  Freiberg  and  the  Upper 

Harz .  205 

469.  Changes  in  the  metallurgical  processes .  207 

470.  Genealogical  tree  of  the  metallurgical  process .  209 

Upper  Hungary. 

Wald  Burgher  Schaft  Smeltiug-Works — 

471.  Exhibits .  211 

472.  Ores  treated .  211 

473.  Quicksilver  distillation .  211 

474.  Treatment  of  residue  from  quicksilver .  212 

475.  Treatment  of  non-argeutiferous  ore .  212 

476.  Production  in  1871 .  212 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


XV 


Zalatlma. 

Art.  Page. 

Transylvania — 

477.  Exhibits . . . 213 

478.  Plan  of  works .  213 

479.  New  process  for  reducing  ores . . .  213 

480.  Annual  production . < .  213 

481.  Exhibits  and  statistics  of  the  Siebenbiirgen  copper-works .  213 

Nagy  Barya — 

482.  Exhibits  and  statistics .  213 

483.  Extraction  of  gold  and  silver .  214 

484.  Annual  production .  214 

485.  Exhibits  of  zinc-metal  industry  of  Galicia .  214 

CHAPTER  X.— RUSSIA,  (pp.  215-216.) 

486.  Character  of  display .  215 

Smelting-works  at  Wijni  Tagnil. 

487.  Exhibits  . .  215 

488.  Ores  treated . 215 

489.  Furnaces  employed .  215 

490.  Consumption  of  fuel . . „ .  215 

491.  Refining  the  black  copper .  216 

492.  Production  in  1872 .  216 

Exhibits  and  production  of  other  works. 

493.  Bogolorsk .  216 

494.  Jongor . 216 

495.  Verkh-Issetsk . „ . .  216 

496.  Kedaberg .  216 

497.  Paulina  zinc-works .  216 

CHAPTER  XI.— TURKEY,  (pp.  217-218.) 

498.  Exhibits . . .  217 

499.  Condition  of  metal  industry .  217 

500.  Smelting  process . . .  217 

CHAPTER  XII.— GREECE,  (pp.  219-221.) 

Exhibits. 

501.  By  the  “Greek  Commission  Central  ” . 219 

502.  From  Attica .  219 

503.  Results  of  ancient  metallurgical  operations .  219 

504.  Operations  of  the  French-Italian  Company .  220 

505.  “Lead-earth” .  220 

506.  Theories  on  undeveloped  metallic  resources .  221 

507.  Results  of  recent  prospecting .  221 

APPENDIX,  (pp.  223-232.) 

A.  The  production  of  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  zinc,  in  the  principal  countries  of 

the  world .  223 


XVI 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


B.  Regulations  for  the  purchase  of  Saxon  ores  at  the  Royal  Saxon  Fiscal  Smelting-Works  ■ 


Art.  Page. 

$  1.  General  remarks .  224 

$  2.  Condition  of  the  ores  in  general .  224 

$  3.  Uniformity  and  fineness  of  the  ores  to  be  delivered .  224 

$  4.  Disposition  of  tbe  ores  at  tbe  smelting-works .  224  • 

$  5.  Presonce  of  tbe  deliverer  at  tbe  weighing  of  the  ore .  225 

$  (>.  Time  of  delivery .  225 

$  7.  Commencement  of  tbe  general  smelting  administration’s  right  of  possession 

to  delivered  ore .  225 

$  8.  Unit  of  weight  in  weighing  ores .  226 

$  9.  Limits  of  weight .  226 

$  10.  Statement  of  weight .  226 

$11.  Assay  samples  retained  by  laboratory .  228 

$  12.  Ores  containing  native  silver  and  silver-glance .  228 

$  13.  Method  of  assaying .  228 

$  14.  Unit  of  weight  in  assaying  ores .  228 

$  15.  Metallic  contents  of  ores .  228 

$  16.  The  delivery  assay .  229 

$  17.  Purchase  assay .  229 

$  18.  Presentation  of  assay  statement .  230 

$  19.  Determinative  assay .  230 

$  20/  Repetition  of  the  method  of  delivery .  231 

$21.  Deputyship  of  the  judge-assayer .  232 

$  22.  Computation  of  the  ore-prices .  232 


LIST  OF  DRAWINGS. 
Mansfeld  copper-furnace,  Figs.  I,  II. 

Hasenclever  and  Helbig's  roasting-furnace,  Figs.  Ill  to  VI. 
Battery  for  mechanical  pattinssouizing,  Figs.  VII,  VIII. 
New  cnpellation-furnace  at  Pribram,  Figs.  IX  to  XVI. 


METALLURGY. 


LEAD,  SILVER,  COPPER,  AND  ZINC. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Mining  and  metallurgy  were  justly  placed  in  the  first  group  in  the 
general  classification  of  the  Vienna  Exhibition.  Mining  and  smelting 
i  are  not  only  a  principal  source  of  raw  material,  but  their  products  have 
taken  in  the  past  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 
They  are,  and  will  always  be,  an  indispensable  necessity  of  the  never- 
ceasing  demands  of  the  manufacturing  interests,  and  the  further  prog- 
I  ress  of  every  branch  of  industry,  and  therefore  necessary  to  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  civilization  and  the  welfare  of  mankind. 

The  art  of  metallurgy  was  not  as  well  illustrated  by  most  of  the  coun¬ 
tries  represented  as  that  of  mining.  The  larger  exhibit  of  rocks,  vein- 
pieces,  minerals,  ores,  &c.,  was  more  intended  to  show  to  the  world  the 
mineral  resources  and  their  connection  with  the  geological  formation  of 
the  several  countries  than  the  condition  of  the  methods  employed  in  the 
extraction  of  the  various  metals  at  the  present  day. 

Iron,  lead,  and  copper  ores,  and  metallurgical  products,  constituted 
the  principal  metallic  display  of  all  countries  rich  in  minerals. 

Norway,  whose  characteristic  metal  is  copper  made  an  exception  to 
the  above.  Silver  and  zinc  ores  were  but  poorly  represented. 

The  British  display,  in  Group  I,  was  confined  to  iron-ores  and  their 
products,  and  machinery.  There  were  several  collections  of  gold  and 
silver  ore  from  the  English  colonies. 

The  method  of  exhibition,  considered  from  a  professional  point  of  view, 
was  a  very  unfortunate  one.  The  articles  belonging  to  Group  I  were 
scattered  throughout  the  entire  Exhibition,  thus  making  it  exceedingly 
difficult  for  those  seeking  information  on  this  particular  subject  to  gain 
a  thorough  oversight  of  the  products  exhibited. 

The  great  importance  of  this  branch  of  industry  demanded  that  it  should 
have  had  a  separate  and  distinct  building,  (as  the  machinery  building,) 
where  the  products  from  all  countries  could  be  exhibited,  and  a  com¬ 
prehensive  and  connected  view  of  the  whole  offered  to  the  visitor. 

The  quality  of  the  exhibited  products  was  not  to  be  ascertained  by  a 
superficia  examination,  such  as  even  the  International  Jury  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  make. 

More  reliable,  though  not  entirely  so,  was  the  information  offered  to 
the  public  by  several  metallurgical  establishments.  This  was  generally 
in  the  form  of  a  survey  of  the  process  practiced  and  the  extent  of  their 
1  m 


9 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


operations.  It  should  be  here  remarked,  and  the  remark  is  applicable 
to  all  cases  where  interested  persons  describe  the  methods  of  extrac¬ 
tion  and  the  economical  practical  results  obtained,  whether  orally  or  in 
writing,  that  only  the  most  favorable  cases  and  results  are  given;  or, 
if  an  unfavorable  result  should  be  mentioned,  it  would  be  explained 
away  as  though  it  were  an  unavoidable  consequence  of  something  con¬ 
nected  with  the  manipulation.  This  is  the  general  rule.  It  is  not  sel¬ 
dom  the  case  that  falsehoods  are  intentionally  and  foolishly  told  concern¬ 
ing  the  process.  The  several  inducements  for  this  are  apparent,  but 
policy  is  short-sighted  and  weak.  For  this  reason,  such  articles  emanat¬ 
ing  from  interested  persons  should  be  received  with  due  caution  and 
consideration. 

There  have  been  but  few  important  metallurgical  processes  or  appara¬ 
tus  discovered  since  1803.  These  consist  in  the  Gerstenhdfer,  Hassen- 
clever  and  Helhig,  Stetefeldt,  and  Kuschel  and  FT  interim  be  r’s  roasting, 
furnaces  ;  the  1'ilz  round  smelting  furnace,  with  widened  top,  iron  water¬ 
cooling  boxes,  and  tuyeres,  and  Cordurie’s  method  of  eliminating  zinc, 
and  other  elements,  from  lead. 

The  constant  increase  in  wages,  fuel,  and  material,  without  a  corre¬ 
sponding  increase  in  the  price  of  the  products,  have  made  rapid  and 
great  improvements  necessary  for  successful  metallurgical  operations. 
The  immense  strides  that  have  been  made  in  this  branch  of  industry 
have  been  principally  made  toward  increasing  the  production,  viz,  by7 
increasing  the  size  of  the  furnace  and  the  pressure  of  blast ;  but  of 
greatest  importance  is  the  production  of  poorer  waste-products,  as  slag, 
and  by  extracting  small  quantities  of  silver  and  gold,  (improved  zine- 
desilverization,)  and  the  construction  of  extensive  condensation-cham¬ 
bers. 

In  preparing  this  report,  the  products,  exhibited  at  the  Vienna  Ex¬ 
hibition  have  first  been  enumerated  and  described,  with  the  methods 
and  the  latest  improvements  employed  in  their  production,  together 
with  statistics  illustrating  the  scale  on  which  the  above  operations  are 
conducted. 

As  the  data  obtained  at  the  Exhibition  was  in  most  cases  deficient 
and  seldom  of  a  uniform  nature,  I  have  had  recourse  to  private  notes, 
made  when  visiting  the  several  metallurgical  works  in  the  years  1869 
to  1874,  and  to  the  communications  of  several  gentlemen,  which  are 
duly  credited  in  the  proper  places.  I  avail  myself  of  this  opportunity 
to  acknowledge  my  thanks  and  indebtedness  for  courtesies  and  valua¬ 
ble  information  to  my  associates  on  the  jury,  the  Austrian  minister  of 
agriculture,  Vilmos  Ocsovszky,  mayor  of  Schemnitz ;  W.  Wiesner, 
director  of  mines  in  Schemnitz;  Vilibald  Kachelmanu,  director,  and 
Joseph  Wagner,  assayer,  of  the  government  smelting- works  at  the  same 
place;  Franz  Markus,  director  of  the  Xeusohl smelting- works ;  I.  Lan- 
ger,  superintendent  of  the  Pribram  smelting- works  ;  Mr.  Kast,  director 
of  the  Clausthal  smelting- works ;  E.  J.  Strauch,  director,  and  W. 
Schmidt,  assessor,  at  the  Lautenthal  smelting-works. 


CHAPTER  I, 


EXHIBITS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Exhibits  of  H.  T.  Blow,  Santee  &  Wagner,  Grand  Pier  Mining  and  Manufact¬ 
uring  Company,  Mineral  City  Mining  and  Smelting  Company,  E.  B.  Ward, 

Joseph  Wharton,  P.  P.  Peck,  Guido  Kustel;  Method  of  zinc-desilverization 

PRACTICED  AT  THE  GERMANIA  SMELTING  AND  REFINING  WORKS  ;  EXHIBITS  OF  THE 

Sutro  Tunnel  Company. 

1.  The  display  of  metallurgical  products  from  the  United  States  was 
very  small;  only  two  lead  and  smelting  works  being  represented.  The 
mineralogical  specimens  exhibited  were  more  numerous,  and  of  great 
interest  to  those  seeking  information  relating  to  our  extensive  mineral 
resources. 

The  following  are  the  ores  and  products  exhibited  : 

2.  By  Mr.  H.  T.  Blow,  of  Saint  Louis,  Mo. :  Calamine  and  galena,  from 
Granby;  both  the  minerals  were  in  remarkably  large  crystals.  The 
cubes  of  galena  were  about  12  centimeters  in  diameter. 

3.  By  Messrs.  Santee  &  Wagner,  Rolla,  Mo. :  Galena,  blende,  and  cop¬ 
per-pyrites. 

4.  By  the  “  Grand  Pier  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company,”  of 
Shawneetown,  Ill.:  Galena,  blende,’  copper-pyrites,  fluor-spar,  and 
baryte. 

5.  By  the  u  Mineral  City  Mining  and  Smelting  Company,”  of  Mineral 
City,  Ill.:  Fluor-spar,  which  is  used  extensively  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass;  galena  with  about  0.00  per  cent.  =  17  oz.  9  dwt.  19  gr.  silver,  and 
lead-ore  with  68  to  79  per  cent.  lead.  These  mines  have  not  yet  been 
developed,  but  it  is  proposed  to  commence  operations  on  a  large  scale 
as  soon  as  the  necessary  capital  can  be  obtained.  The  ore-deposits  are 
said  to  be  extensive,. 

6.  By  Mr.E.  B.  Ward,  Detroit,  Mich.:  Copper-pyrites  and  native  silver. 

7.  By  Mr.  Joseph  Wharton,  Philadelphia,  Pa. :  Magnetic  pyrites  from 
the  Gap  mine,  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania,  containing  1  per  cent, 
copper,  1.75  per  cent,  nickel,  and  0.1  per  cent,  cobalt;  millerite  ;  metal¬ 
lic  nickel,  cobalt,  and  chemically-pure  zinc;  alloys  of  nickel-cobalt, 
nickel-copper,  cobalt-copper,  and  various  salts  of  nickel,  cobalt,  copper, 
and  irou.  The  smelting-works  are  in  Lancaster  County,  but  the  nickel 
and  cobalt  refining- works  are  in  Camden,  1ST.  J,  The  annual  production 
is  95,000  kilograms  nickel,  4,500  kilograms  cobalt,  and  200  to  500  kilo¬ 
grams  copper. 

8.  By  Mr.  P.  P.  Peck,  of  Denver,  Colo.:  A  collection  of  gold  and  sil¬ 
ver  minerals. 

9.  By  Prof.  Guido  Kustel,  of  San  Fraucisco,  Cal.:  A  small  but  well- 


4 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


selected  collection  of  gold,  silver,  and  lead  minerals  and  ores  from  Utali 
and  California.  All  the  specimens  displayed  were  designed  to  give 
strangers  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  minerals  occurring  in  the  mining 
localities  in  the  two  sections  of  the  country  where  they  occurred.  Of 
especial  interest  to  the  mineralogists,  were  a  series  of  minerals  illustra¬ 
ting  the  transition  of  tetrabedrite  into  stetefeldite.  These  received  much 
attention  from  professional  men,  their  value  being  increased  by  the 
accompanying  analysis  of  each  specimen. 

Several  beautiful  specimens  of  wolframite  also  deserve  mention.  They 
were  unusually  large  (1.5  to  2.5  centimeters  in  diameter)  crystals  of  mod¬ 
ified  tetragonal  tables.  The  same  gentleman  also  exhibited  silver-lead 
and  silver  from  the  “  Germania  Smelting  and  Refining  Works.”  The 
sample  of  silver-lead  exhibited  assayed  0.5  per  cent. =1.45  oz.  10  dwt. 
silver,  and  the  silver  from  the  cupellatiou  furnace  was  fine. 

10.  In  the  year  1372  this  company  erected  smelting-works  with  ap¬ 
paratus  for  the  desilverization  of  argentiferous  lead  by  means  of  zinc. 

The  following  description  of  the  zinc-desilverization  process  practiced 
at  the  Germania  Works  (which  is  the  only  available  one)  was  written  by 
Mr.  IJentham  Fabian,  and  appeared  in  the  Salt  Lake  Tribune  of  Janu¬ 
ary  4,  1S73  : 

As  the  original  description  abounds  in  impossibilities  and  improba¬ 
bilities,  only  the  manipulations  of  the  process  are  here  reproduced.  The 
battery  consists  of  live  Pattinson  kettles,  twoof  which  have  a  capacity 
of  about  25,000  kilograms  ;  the  other  three  are  smaller.  The  kettles 
are  arranged  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  V  ;  the  broad  part  being  formed 
by  the  two  large  or  fusing  kettles,  and  the  smallest  kettle  forming  the 
apex. 

The  zinc  used  is  of  two  qualities,  viz,  commercial  or  good  zinc,  which 
is  brought  from  Illinois,  at  ;r  cost  of  0  cents  per  pound  ;  and  dross. zinc 
(refuse  from  galvanic  Batteries,  which  contains  about  30- per  cent,  of 
iron)  from  New  York,  at  a  cost  of  5  cents  per  pound.  When  the  silver- 
lead  is  tolerably  free  from  impurities,  and  contains  from  0.5  to0.7  percent. 

145  oz.  10  dwt.  to  204  oz.  2  dwt. silver,  about 2.25  to 2.75  percent,  zinc 
or  3  to  3.5  per  cent,  zinc-dross  is  consumed  in  the  desilverization.  The 
manipulations  are  as  follows: 

The  silver-lead  is  fused  in  one  of  the  large  kettles,*  aud  the  first 
addition  of  zinc  made,  which  is  3.5  to  1  per  cent,  of  zinc,  or  0.75  to  1.5 
of  zinc-dross.  This  is  well  stirred  for  half  rtn  hour,  aud  then  allowed 
to  cool,  (the  fire  being  withdrawn,)  and  remain  undisturbed  for  three 
hours,  when  the  zinc-scum  is  removed  aud  ladled  into  the  adjoining 
smaller  kettle.  The  fire  is  then  raised,  and  a  second  addition  of  zinc  is 
made  ;  this  is  0.5  to  0.75  per  cent,  of  zinc,  or  1.0  to  1.5  per  cent,  of  zinc- 
dross,  which  is  stirred,  and  the  metallic  liquid  is  allowed  to  cool. 

*  The  author  of  this  article  has  (evidently  omitted  to  state  that  the  abzug,  composed 
of  a  portion  of  the  copper,  iron.  &c.,  contained  in  the  silver-lead,  is  removed  before 
the  zinc  is  added. 


ZINC-DESILVEKIZATION. 


5 


The  zinc-scum  which  is  in  the  second  kettle  is  now  melted,  stirred, 
and  allowed  to  cool ;  the  skimmiugs,  or  zinc-dust,  are  transferred  to  the 
third  or  smallest  kettle  of  the  series,  and  the  liquated  lead  is  ladled 
back  into  No.  1,  or  the  fusing-kettle;  a  similar  operation  is  repeated  in 
the  third  kettle,  the  scum  being  set  aside  for  treatment  in  a  shaft-fur¬ 
nace,  and  the  liquated  metal  ladled  back  into  No.  2.  The  remainder 
of  the  zinc  having  been  added  to  the  metal  in  the  first  or  fusing-kettle, 
and  the  first  process  repeated,  the  third  zinc-scum  is  set  aside  for 
further  treatment.  The  silverized  lead  is  tapped  from  the  fusing-kettle 
by  means  of  an  iron  pipe  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  same,  and  con¬ 
necting  by  means  of  an  iron  trough  with  a  reverberatory  furnace.  It 
is  there  subjected  to  a  bright-red  heat  for  several  hours,  whereby  the 
impurities  are  eliminated  by  oxidation. 

There  are  two  refining-furnaces,  one  for  each  fusing-kettle.  The 
heartb  is  15  feet  6  inches  long  and  9  feet  4  inches  wide,  with  a  sufficient 
depth  to  contain  the  contents  of  the  fusing-kettle.  The  refined  lead  is 
tapped  from  the  furnace  into  a  market  kettle,  aud  then  cast  iu  molds. 
Each  bar  of  lead  weighs  about  140  pouuds. 

The  whole  operation,  from  the  charging  of  the  silver-lead  in  the 
fusing-kettle  to  the  tapping  of  the  refined  lead,  occupies  twenty-four 
hours  ;  the  capacity  of  the  works  was,  iu  January,  1873,  about  40  tons 
per  day.  The  refined  lead  is  said  to  be  free  from  all  impurities,  and  to 
contain  only  0.0003  per  cent.  =  l  dwt.  17.95  gr.  (?) 

The  rich  alloy  or  liquated  zinc-scum  from  the  first  and  second  addi¬ 
tions  of  zinc  are  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace  according  to  the  Flaclis  pro¬ 
cess.  The  back  wall  of  the  furnace  is  inclined  toward  the  front,  and  at 
a  short  distance  above  the  tuyeres  the  front  wall  recedes  more  abruptly 
from  the  back.  The  furnace  is  2  feet  7  inches  from  breast  to  back,  and 
2  feet  G  inches  wide.  It  has  three  tuyeres,  with  a  diameter  of  1J  inches 
and  a  pressure  of  blast  equal  to  about  21  inches  water-column.  Coke 
serves  as  fuel ;  it  is  obtained  from  Pittsburgh,  and  costs,  delivered  at 
the  works,  about  $28  per  ton.  The  hematite  used  as  a  flux  is  brought 
from  Rawlins,  and  costs  about  $15  per  ton.  It  contains  about  G2  per 
cent,  of  iron,  sesquioxide,  aud  15  to  20  per  cent,  of  silicic  acid.  The  lead- 
slag  is  to  be  had  in  the  neighborhood.  The  charge  is,  rich  alloy,  250 
pouuds;  hematite,  180  pounds;  coke,  55  pounds,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  lead  slag.  It  will  have  been  observed  that  the  first  aud  second  zinc- 
scum  are  treated  together  according  to  one  process,  and  the  third  zinc- 
scum  undergoes  another  treatment.  If  this  is  not  an  incorrect  state¬ 
ment,  the  reason  for  so  singular  a  method  should  have  been  explained. 
As  zinc  has  a  greater  affinity  for  copper  and  gold  thau  for  silver,  (and 
none  for  antimony,)  the  two  first  metals,  when  contained  in  the  silver- 
lead,  (and  they  are  contained  in  the  silver-lead  treated  at  the  Germania 
Works,)  are  concentrated  in  the  first  zinc-scum.  This  is  at  other  works 
set  aside  and  treated  by  itself.  The  different  constitution  of  the  alloy 
requires  a  separate  process.  The  second  and  third  zinc-scums  are  of  a 


6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


uniform  composition  ;  the  third  merely  containing  a  smaller  amount  of 
silver  than  the  second.  Therefore,  I  think  it  highly  probable  that  the 
first  zinc-scum  is  treated  in  the  liquating  (“  roasting”)  furnace,  aud  the 
second  aud  third  are  liquated  together  in  the  smaller  kettles.  The 
charge  given  above  is  most  likely  that  used  in  smelting  the  enriched 
scum  from  the  second  and  third  additions  of  zinc,  and  which  is  nou- 
cupriferons.  In  smelting,  the  enriched  scum  from  the  first  addition  of 
ziuc  unroasted  matte,  or  some  other  substance  rich  in  sulphur,  is  proba¬ 
bly  added  to  the  charge,  which  would  be  the  means  of  concentrating  the 
copper  iu  the  matte.  The  matte  would  also  contain  small  quantities  of 
lead  and  silver,  but  these  could  be  extracted  with  a  small  loss  by  roast¬ 
ing  the  matte  and  adding  it  to  the  ore  charge,  or  desilverizing  it  by 
smelting  with  lead  lluxes  which  are  free  from  silver.  Another  error 
here  reproduced  is,  that  the  pressure  of  blast  is  equal  to  24  iuclies=0.G2 
meter  water-column.  The  maximum  pressure  of  blast  is  stated  by 
Kerl  to  be  0.157  meter  water-column.  The  pressure  at  the  Mechernich 
Works  is  (>.131  meter ;  at  Ems,  0.13  meter  water-column.  It  is  true 
that  when  the  pressure  is  too  small  the  amount  of  zinc  volatilized  is  de¬ 
creased,  but  when  the  pressure  is  too  great,  lead  (and  silver)  is  volatil¬ 
ized  in  large  quantities,  and  the  formation  of  salamanders,  containing 
silver  and  lead,  is  increased. 

11.  By  the  Sutro  Tunnel  Company,  ofSutro,  Nevada:  Topographical 
charts  and  a  model  of  the  celebrated  Comstock  lode.  It  was  of  cast  iron, 
and  in  two  sections,  so  made  as  to  represent  the  Sutro  Tunnel.  Informa¬ 
tion  concerning  the  latter  was  circulated  by  means  of  pamphlets.  As 
the  history  of  and  progress  made  by  this  gigantic  undertaking  has  long 
since  attracted  the  attention  of  the  engineering  world,  this  model  was 
regarded  with  great  interest  by  a  multitude  of  scientific  visitors  who 
saw  in  it  professional  enterprise  which  bears  the  impression  of  Ameri- 


CHAPTER  II. 


SPANISH  EXHIBITS. 

From  Granada,  Almeria,  Henlon,  Santander,  the  Madrid  Mining  Academy,  and 

the  Almaden  Mines  ;  Age  and  Progress  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  :  Growth 

of  Production. 

12.  The  metallurgical  exhibit  of  Spain  was  small,  and  it  was  only  in 
I  exceptional  cases  that  the  products  displayed  were  accompanied  by  the 

name  of  the  locality  whence  they  were.  This  imperfect  representation 
i  of  Spain’s  immense  metallic  treasures  is,  probably  with  justice,  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  very  unsettled  condition  of  the  country. 

13.  Granada  and  Almeria  were  represented  by  specimens  of  black 
and  refined  copper.  Hueloa,  by  pure  refined  copper. 

14.  From  Santander  there  were  specimens  of  argentiferous  galena, 
calamine,  blende,  copper-ores,  copper  and  silver  lead. 

15.  The  Madrid  Mining  Academy  exhibited  a  uiineralogical  collection, 
among  which  were  specimens  of  lead,  silver,  and  quicksilver  ores. 

1G.  A  very  interesting  display  of  cinnabar,  native  mercury,  slag  from 
quicksilver-ores,  and  mercury,  from  the  celebrated  mines  of  Almaden, 
was  made  by  Davilla,  Madrid. 

17.  A  great  amount  of  galena  and  argentiferous  lead  (chiefly  extracted 
by  English  companies)  is  Sent  to  foreign  countries,  principally  to 
England. 

The  extraction  of  the  metals  iu  Spain  was  commenced  in  ancient  times. 
The  Phoenicians,  Carthaginians,  and  Romans  imported  large  quanti¬ 
ties  of  silver  from  Spain  ;  and  this  country  for  a  long  time  was  consid¬ 
ered  the  richest  country  in  the  world  iu  silver. 

Strabo,  who  gives  us  the  first  accounts  of  the  mining  and  the  extrac¬ 
tion  of  silver  from  its  ores,  describes  the  largest  and  oldest  works  in 
Spain,  situated  at  hTew  Carthage. 

The  extraction  of  copper  from  its  ores  has  also  been  carried  on  for  a 
long  time  iu  Spain.  The  production  of  copper  has  never  been  great, 
but  the  product  possessed  an  excellent  reputation  with  the  Romans. 

18.  A  large  increase  in  the  production  of  lead  took  place  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  last  century.  Karsten  was  of  the  opinion  that 
Spain  probably  possessed  greater  riches  in  lead  than  any  other  country 
in  the  world,  and  was  also  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  Spanish  mines 
were  worked  with  the  same  energy  as  the  British,  she  would  easily 
excel  the  extraordinarily  large  production  of  England.  This  latter  proved 
in  time  to  be  correct,  for  the  same  author  computed  the  production  of  lead 


8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


in  Spain  in  the  year  182S,  or  thereabouts,  at  25,000,000  kilograms,  and 
this  was  merely  the  quantity  produced  in  a  few  districts.  He  remarked, 
at  the  same  time,  that  full  statistics  were  wanting,  and  this  produc¬ 
tion  took  place  without  any  increase  of  labor  or  energy;  at  the  same 
time  in  England  (182S)  40,150,000  kilograms  were  produced.  In  the 
year  1868,  forty  years  later,  during  which  time  England  had  made 
gigantic  strides,  tbe  production  amounted  to  72,200,000  kilograms.  In 
the  year  1808,  at  which  time  the  art  of  mining  and  metallurgy  in  Spain 
was  still  at  a  low  point,  the  production  of  lead  increased  to  72,S00,000 
kilograms,  and  the  difference  becomes  much  greater  when  it  is  consid¬ 
ered  that  not  a  small  proportion  of  the  lead  produced  in  England  is 
extracted  from  foreign,  and  even  from  Spanish  ores. 


CHAPTER  III. 


FRENCH  EXHIBITS. 

Exhibits  of  M.  Laveissi4be  et  Fils,  Manhes  Pere  et  Fils,  Henry  Merle  & 

Co.,  from  Algiers  ;  Progress  and  condition  of  Metal  Industry  ;  Cordurie’s 

METHOD  OF  LEAD  EEFINING ;  P  A  YEN’S  METHOD  ;  ROZAN’S  IMPROVEMENTS  ;  MANIP¬ 
ULATIONS  of  Eozan’s  method;  Objections  to  Rozan’s  method. 

19.  The  exhibit  of  metallurgical  products  from  France  was  very  small. 

An  elaborate  display  was  made  by  M.  Laveissiere  et  Fils,  Paris,  of 

copper  ingots,  kettles,  also  copper  and  brass  pipes  of  various  sizes.  The 
manufactured  articles  were  tastefully  and  artistically  arranged  in  the 
dome  of  the  Exposition,  so  as  to  represent  a  feudal  castle.  The  walls 
and  pillars  were  formed  by  copper  and  brass  pipes  alternating;  on  the 
parapet,  pipes  were  made  to  represent  cannons ;  inverted  copper  ket¬ 
tles  served  as  arches  for  the  portals. 

20.  Manhes  Pere  et  Fils,  of  Lyons,  exhibited  a  large  number  of 
wrought-copper  kettles  and  rolled  sheet-copper. 

2L  Henry  Merle  et  Cie.,of  Alais,  exhibited  several  bricks  of  fine  silver- 

22.  Algiers  was  represented  by  several  small  exhibits  of  argentiferous 
galena,  silver,  and  copper  ores. 

23.  The  metal  industry  in  France  has  of  late  assumed  immense  pro¬ 
portions.  This  is  partly  to  be  attributed  to  the  increasing  commercial 
facilities  of  that  country  and  the  inventive  spirit  of  the  French.  Frauce’s 
metallic  mineral — i.  e.,  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  zinc — resources  are  far 
from  being  extensive,  yet  owing  to  the  enterprise  of  her  citizens  in  this 
great  branch  of  industry,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  it  has  advanced, 
until  France  at  present  stands  at  the  head  of  the  copper-producing 
countries,  and  fourth  iu  lead  and  silver.  Copper-ores  are  chiefly  im¬ 
ported  from  Chili,  lead-ores  and  silver-lead  from  Sardinia  and  Greece. 

24.  The  lead  metallurgist  is  indebted  to  the  French  for  valuable  im¬ 
provements,  the  most  important  of  which  is,  perhaps,  the  method  of 
refining  lead  by  means  of  steam,  (Cordurie’s  method,)  which,  now  that 
the  advantages  of  zinc-desilverization  are  in  Europe  and  America  so 
universally  acknowledged,  has  become  of  especial  interest. 

25.  In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  is  to  be  regretted  the  “  new  im¬ 
provement  in  refining  lead  and  products  therefrom,”  by  Thomas  Payen, 
E.  &  H.  Eoux,  of  Marseilles,  France,  which  appeared  in  the  catalogue, 
(No.  31,)  and  which  was  awarded  a  prize  by  the  International  Jury, 
(Group  I,)  was,  as  the  writer  ascertained  by  a  careful  and  thorough 
inquiry,  not  placed  on  exhibition.  This  u  improvement”  is  to  be  intro- 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


duced  at  the  lead  smelting-works  at  Marseilles,  and  it  is  intended  by 
the  use  of  soda  and  a  small  proportion  of  saltpeter  to  remove  antimony, 
but  especially  arsenic,  from  the  silver-lead  in  the  reverberatory  refining- 
furnace.  The  process  is  to  precede  the  crystallization  desilverization 
process. 

20.  An  important  improvement  in  pattinsonizing and  refining  silver- 
lead  by  means  of  steam  has  been  made  by  M.  Rozan,  and  introduced  in 
Marseilles.  This  will  be  of  interest  not  only  to  those  metallurgists 
who  practice  the  crystallization  process,  but  also  to  those  who  may 
intend  erecting  separating-works.  The  description  is  from  the  Ann.  do 
Mines,  Sept,  ser.,  tom.  iii,  livr.  2,  1S73,  p.  ICO. 

The  first  results  of  thus  applying  steam  to  desilverization  were  made 
public  in  1871,  but  the  following  are  the  manipulations  attending  the 
working  of  silver-lead  containing  0.123  per  cent. =35  oz.  16  dwt. 
silver,  as  carried  out  in  1872,  together  with  the  exposition  of  the  prac¬ 
ticability  of  the  same.  The  principle  of  this  process  is.  that  by  conduct¬ 
ing  steam  into  the  molten  metal  contained  in  a  Tattinson  pot,  the  thick, 
heavy  liquid  is  thrown  into  a  violent  commotion,  thus  dispensing  with 
maqual  or  mechanical  stirring.  According  to  M.  Kazan,  practice  has 
proven  that  this  violently  continued  action  is  very  favorable  to  the 
separation  of  silver  and  lead  in  poor  crystals  and  enriched  liquid  lead; 
only  very  hard  lead  requires  a  previous  softening.  The  action  of  the 
steam  is  principally  mechanical,  but  the  lead  undergoes  a  partial  refining, 
which  is  a  consequence  of  different  particles  of  the  hot  lead  constantly 
coming  in  contact  with  the  air.  Asa  chemical  reaction  is  not  believed 
to  occur,  the  purity  of  the  commercial  lead  is  partly  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  various  partial  refinings  which  the  silver-lead  undergoes  by  being 
repeatedly  remelted  in  a  red  heat.  M.  Rozan  has,  however,  observed 
that  the  steam  takes  an  active  part;  that  the  oxides  which  are  formed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  crystallization  are  yellow  and  dirty;  but  as  the 
operation  approaches  the  end,  they  grow,  dark  and  contain  considerable 
copper;  a  circumstance  that  by  the  most  lively  stirring  does  not  occur. 
At  the  end  of  the  crystallization,  while  the  steam  is  bubbling  in  the 
liquid  lead,  in  which  the  silver,  copper,  antimony,  and  arsenic  have 
been  concentrated,  the  poor  lead  is  freed  from  the  copper.  The  action 
of  antimony  is  not  similar,  but  it  is  gradually  oxidized  by  the  action  of 
the  heat  and  air  in  the  successive  re-smeltings.  It  has  also  been 
observed  that  soft  lead,  under  equal  circumstances,  produces  a  greater 
quantity  of  oxide  than  hard  lead,  especially  autimonal  lead,  (in  Tarno- 
witz,)  which  proves  that  antimony  oxidizes  first,  and  then  prevents  the 
lead  from  oxidizing.  The  action  of  the  steam  is  undoubtedly  decisive  and 
strong.  It  is  said  that  the  commercial  lead  falling  from  this  process  is  per¬ 
fectly  soft,  and  contains  from  0.0012  to  0.002  per  ceut.  =  ll  dwt.  15  gr.,  to  6 
dwt.  22  gr. silver.  The  enriched  cupellation-lead  contains,  according  to  the 
nature  and  contents  of  the  original  silver-lead,  from  1.6  to  2.0  per  cent.,  =465 
oz.  IS  dwt.,  to  5S2  oz.  silver,  while  the  steam -process  universally  produces 


rozan’s  method  of  refining  silver-lead. 


11 


lead  enriched  to  the  above  extent,  and  thus,  as  we  shall  presently  see, 
materially  reduces  the  cost  of  desilverization ;  it  is  ouly  accomplished 
after  a  great  number  of  operations  with  the  usually  conducted  Pattinson 
process.  This  process  possesses  not  ouly  the  advantage  of  not  requiring 
a  special  refining  of  lead,  which  is  not  very  hard,  but  is  said  to  be  accom  - 
panied  by  a  smaller  oxidization  of  lead,  and  consequently  the  loss  and 
expenses  of  resilverization  are  diminished.  There  is  also  a  great  saving 
of  time  and  labor.  The  lead  is  crystallized  in  much  shorter  time  than  is 
the  case  by  pattinsonizing,  viz,  13  to  16  tons,  while  with  the  latter  ouly 
9  to  10  tons  are  treated  in  the  same  time.  A  serious  disadvantage  in 
this  method  is  the  concentration  of  autimouy  and  some  copper  in  the 
rich  lead,  which  causes  such  objectionable  features,  by  cupellatiou  and 
undesirable  processes,  necessary  to  a  subsequent  treatment  of  the  prod¬ 
ucts  therefrom. 

27.  The  manipulations  are  as  follows:  The  battery  consists  of  two 
Pattinson  kettles;  one  kettle  is  placed  so  that  its  bottom  is  on  a  level 
with  the  top  of  the  second.  The  upper,  or  fusing-kettle,  is  intended  for 
a  charge  of  9,000  to  10,000  kilograms  silver-lead  ;  the  lower,  or  crystal- 
lizing-kettle,  will  contain  15,000  to  16,000  kilograms.  After  the  silver- 
lead  has  been  fused  and  the  dross  removed,  it  is  tapped  into  the  lower 
kettle  by  means  of  an  iron  pipe  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the  upper. 
At  the  same  time  that  the  silver-lead  is  tapped  from  the  upper  a  small 
amount  of  steam  is  conducted  into  the  lower  kettle,  in  order  that  the 
crystals  from  the  former  operation  may  be  easily  mixed  with  the  silver  - 
:  lead.  A  small  stream  of  water  is  now  thrown  on  the  surface  of  the  me¬ 
tallic  bath,  which  hastens  the  cooling  and  assists  the  crystallization. 
Steam  is  conducted  into  the-  metallic  bath,  under  a  pressure  of  three 
atmospheres,  through  an  iron  pipe,  wdiich  terminates  at  the  bottom  of 
the  kettle.  The  steam  upon  entering  strikes  against  an  iron  plate,  and 
is  diffused  through  the  bath.  The  lead  is  prevented  from  entering  the 
steam-pipe  by  means  of  a  hinge- valve.  The  kettle  is  covered  with  a  hood, 
which  is  connected  with  the  condensation-chambers.  The  oxides  which 
form  are  first  removed  and  the  operation  then  commences.  The  hood  is 
raised  every  five  or  ten  minutes,  and  the  lead  adhering  to  it  is  scraped 
off.  The  operation  is  finished  when  two-tliirds  of  the  lead  is  crj’Stallized. 
The  mother-liquid  is  then  tapped  off  by  means  of  iron  pipes  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  kettles.  The  crystals  are  prevented  from  escaping 
with  the  mother-liquid  by  means  of  an  iron  sieve,  which  is  fastened 
over  the  pipe.  The  lead  is  run  into  large  cakes  of  2,500  kilograms 
each.  These  are  arranged  according  to  their  silver  contents  around 
the  battery;  they  are  added  to  succeeding  operations.  The  lead-cakes 
having  a  larger  percentage  of  silver  than  the  original  silver-lead  are 
set  aside  until  a  sufficiently  large  quantity  has  accumulated  for  a  new 
series  of  operations,  whose  starting-point  is  based  on  the  silver  con¬ 
tained  in  these  cakes.  After  the  enriched  lead  has  been  tapped  off,  a 
new  quantity  of  lead,  which  has  in  the  mean  time  been  melted  in  the 


12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


upper  kettle,  is  added  to  tlie  crystals  iu  the  louver.  The  operations  are 
repeated  until  commercial  lead,  or  complementary  lead,  in  the  form  of 
crystals,  is  obtained.  When  the  lower  kettle  is  heated  the  crystals  are 
fused  and  tapped  off.  By  “an  operation”  all  the  manipulations  are  under¬ 
stood  which  occur  from  the  tapping  of  the  lead  from  the  upper  kettle 
to  the  casting  of  the  enriched  lead  into  cakes.  One  operation  lasts  one 
and  a  half  to  two  hours.  The  casting  of  commercial  and  complementary 
lead  occupies  the  time  of  two  operations,  as  the  time  consumed  in  melt¬ 
ing  the  crystals  is  twice  as  great  as  that  employed  in  crystallizing  the 
silver-lead.  The  number  of  operations  represented  by  the  casting  of 
the  commercial  and  complementary  lead  is,  for  silver-lead  assaying  0.123 
per  cent.  =35  oz.  10  dwt.  1  gr.  silver,  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
number  of  operations.  From  sixteen  to  seventeen  operations  are  made 
in  twenty-four  hours.  This  is  dependent  upon  the  temperature  used. 
The  number  of  operations  necessary  for  the  treatment  of  a  certain 
amount  of  silver-lead  varies  with  the  silver  contents  of  the  same.  One 
battery,  which  treats  silver-lead  with  0.123  percent,  of  silver,  produces 
0,000  to  7,000  kilograms  commercial  lead  in  twenty-four  hours.  After 
the  latter  has  been  cast,  the  kettle  is  refilled  with  silver-lead  of  the  orig¬ 
inal  percentage  of  silver  and  the  operations  are  continued  until  all  of  the 
complementary  lead  has  been  treated  with  0.003  per  eent.  =  17  dwt.  11.5 
gr.  silver.  The  crystals  are  then  fused  and  cast  into  cakes  to  be  used  as 
complementary  lead  in  a  new  series  of  operations.  Several  series  of 
operations  arc  thus  repeated,  commencing  with  the  original  silver-lead, 
or  lead  with  a  greater  percentage  of  silver,  and  producing  enriched 
silver-lead  and  commercial  lead. 

28.  A  comparison  between  this  process  and  the  mechanical  pattinsou- 
izing,  as  formerly  practiced  at  the  works  at  St.  Louis  Les  Marseille, 
shows  that  as  pattinsonizing  costs  46.51  francs,  and  this  process  25.32 
francs,  this  process  effects  a  saving  of  20.72  francs  per  1,000  kilograms 
in  silver-lead.  The  lead-loss  is  2.1  per  cent,  in  pattinsonizing,  and  3  per 
cent,  in  the  steam  process.  The  silver-loss  in  each  is  1.5  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  silver  paid  for  according  to  the  assay.  The  saving  is  owing 
to  a  less  number  of  workmen  being  employed,  by  avoiding  a  prelimi¬ 
nary  refining,  the  decreased  amount  of  products  which  have  to  be 
reduced,  and.  as  the  concentration  is  carried  farther,  (1.7  percent.  = 
495  oz.  2  dwt.  silver,  instead  of  as  in  pattinsonizing,  1.15  per  cent.  = 
331  oz.  16  dwt.  14  gr.  silver,)  so  is  the  decreased  cost  of  cupellatiou. 

29.  The  objections  to  this  process  are  the  small  capacity,  large  amount 
of  intermediate  products,  loss  of  silver  (1.5  per  cent.  =  436  oz.  16  dwt.) 
and  lead,  and  its  complicated  nature.  Although  the  communication 
and  calculation  made  by  the  inventor  shown  decided  improvement  on  the 
mechanical  Pattinson  process,  the  method  described  will  scarcely  be 
introduced  in  works  where  the  virtues  of  t lie  improved  process  of  zinc 
desilverization  are  known,  and  the  silver-lead  is  of  a  qualify  to  permit 
it  to  be  treated  by  the  latter  process. 


CHAPTER  XV. 


ITALIAN  EXHIBITS. 

Condition  op  Metal  Industry  ;  Exhibits  of  “  Compagnia  del  Bottixo,”  Do- 
mingikus  Ing  Santelli,  Simonis  Cornelissen  &  Co. ;  History,  Growth,  and 

(Condition  of  Metal  Industry  on  the  Island  of  Sardinia  ;  Exhibits  by  the 
Societa  ;  Miscellaneous  Exhibits  ;  Smelting  Process  ;  Production  ;  Cost  of 
Mining  and  Shipping  Ores. 

30.  The  metal  industry  of  Italy  has  been  so  greatly  depressed  from 
a  lack  of  fuel  suitable  for  smelting  purposes,  that  it  is  necessary  to  ex¬ 
port  the  richest  ores  for  reduction  ;  the  poorer  ones,  that  will  scarcely 
pay  the  transportation  expenses,  are  worked  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mines  with  a  small  profit.  The  copper-ores  of  Tuscany  and  Liguria  are 
of  the  first  class,  carrying  12  to  25  per  cent,  of  copper,  and  are  ex¬ 
ported  to  England,  while  those  occurring  at  St.  Marcel  in  the  valley  of 
the  Aosta,  and  at  Agordo  in  Yenice,  belong  to  the  second  class,  con¬ 
taining  about  2  per  cent,  of  copper. 

The  production  of  copper  in  Italy  is  300,000  kilograms.  The  con¬ 
sumption  is  estimated  at  over  1,200,000  kilograms.  This  large  difference 
is  obtained  from  foreign  countries. 

31.  There  were  exhibited  from  the  works  of  Agordo,  “  Stabulimento 
Mantanistico  Governativo  di  Agordo,  Yall  Imperiua  Belluno,”  samples 
of  refined  copper,  which  is  renowned  for  its  superior  quality,  and  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  requiring  very  pure  copper.  In 
addition  to  this,  there  were  iron,  vitriol,  and  native  silver. 

32.  The  “Compagnia  del  Bottiuo”  of  Stazzema  Lucca,  Tuscany,  ex¬ 
hibited  silver-lead,  litharge,  and  refined  silver.  Lead-matte,  and  also 
galena  containing  27  per  cent,  of  lead,  are  roasted  in  Schaft  furnaces.  It 
is  charged  in  alternate  layers  of  wood  and  charcoal  and  ore.  The 
roasting  period  is  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  The  lead-matte  is  lixiviated 
in  the  furnace.  The  solution  containing  the  copper  runs  out  of  the 
furnace  into  the  precipitation- vessel.  The  sulphurous-acid  fumes  are 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere.  They  are  believed  to  be  a  pre¬ 
ventive  against  cholera. 

33.  Domingikus  Ing  Santelli,  of  Yinadio  Cuneo,  exhibited  specimens 
of  artificially  produced  argentiferous  galena. 

34.  Simonis  Cornelissen  &  Co.  exhibited  artificially  produced  iron 
aud  copper  pyrites. 

35.  Sardinia. — The  greater  proportion  of  the  argentiferous-lead  and 
zinc  ores,  considered  as  the  production  of  Italy,  are  obtained  from 


14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Sardinia.  The  lead  and  silver  mines  on  this  island*  are  a  very  ancient. 
They  are  said  to  have  first  been  worked  principally  for  silver  by  the 
Phoenicians.  They  were  followed  by  the  Carthaginians  and  Romans. 
Among  the  many  mining  and  metallurgical  relics  discovered  in  and  near 
the  mines  is  a  pig  of  lead  found  near  the  Porto  di  S.  X icolo  which  weighed 
34  kilograms  and  bore  Hadrian’s  name. 

After  being  successively  under  the  reign  of  the  Vandals,  Goths, 
and  the  Byzantine  empire,  the  island  became  free,  and  a  national  gov¬ 
ernment  was  formed.  This  had  not  been  long  in  existence  before  it  was  j 
overthrown  by  the  Aribans,  who  in  turn  were  driven  from  the  island 
by  the  Genoese  and  Pisians.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  after  the  island 
came  under  the  Pisian  rule,  the  first  book  on  mining-law  was  written,  i 
It  was  in  this  period  that  the  large  lead-slag  dumps  near  Villa-Massar- 
gia,  Domus  Novas,  and  Flumiui  Maggiore  were  formed.  The  shafts 
were  about  this  time  sunk  through  the  hard  rock  by  means  of  fire  to 
depths  of  SO  to  100  and  even  200  meters.  In  the  year  1323  the  island 
fell  under  the  Spanish  crown.  The  mineral  industry  thereupon  sank 
and  became  almost  inactive.  This  was  partly  caused  by  the  negligence 
of' the  Spanish  government,  and  partly  by  the  discovery  of  America  j 
with  its  large  treasures  of  gold  and  silver.  The  House  of  Savoy  ob-  ; 
tained  possession  of  Sardinia  in  1720,  but  it  was  in  1S50  that  the  mines  I 
were  successfully  worked  with  renewed  vigor,  and  since  that  time  the 
production  of  lead  and  silver  has  been  steadily  increasing.  Since  1SG5 
calamine  has  been  mined  to  a  large  extent.  The  richer  lead-ores  are 
shipped  to  Pertusola,  in  the  Gulf  of  Spezia,  France,  Belgium,  and  Eng-  S 
land ;  the  silver-lead  to  Genoa  and  France,  and  the  calcined  calamine 
to  England,  Belgium,  and  Russia. 

30.  The  Societa  Anonima  de  Monte-Santo  of  Cagliaza,  in  Sardinia,  ex¬ 
hibited  lead  which  was  designated  as  soft  lead,  but  could  hardly  be  j 
scratched  with  the  finger-nail. 

37.  There  were  several  small  collections  of  minerals  exhibited  of  dif¬ 
ferent  mining  companies;  these  were  composed  of  a  few  specimens  of  ; 
argentiferous  galena,  or  calamine,  or  both. 

3S.  Italian  smelting  process. — There  have  lately  been  several 
works  erected  with  the  intention  of  reducing  oxidized  ores,  poor  ores, 
and  the  old  slags. 

The  reduction-works  of  5fasua  and  Foutanamore  are,  of  the  six  on 
this  island,  the  most  important.  The  former  was  built  in  1862,  and 
treats  oxidized  ores  carrying  32  per  cent,  lead  and  10  to  12  per  cent.  zinc. 
The  latter  smelts  poor  ores  from  Nebida.  These  ores  are  smelted  in 
round  shaft-furnaces,  whose  smelting  zone  is  of  cast-iron  water-cooling 
boxes.  The  charge  is  50  per  ceut.  slag  and  14  per  cent.  English  coke. 
The  blast  is  produced  by  a  steam-fan.  The  campaigu  lasts  from  Decern- 

*  Free  use  is  here  made  of  the  report  “Sulle  Condizioni  dell’  industria  Minevaria  nett 
isola  di  Sardegna,”  submitted  to  the  Italian  chambers  of  deputies  iu  1871,  by  M.  Quiu- 
tino  Sella. 


ITALIAN  LEAD-SMELTING  PROCESS, 


15 


ber  until  July.  The  workmen,  who  are  from  Piedmont,  cannot,  on  account 
of  fever,  remain  ou  the  island  during  the  other  five  months,  or  the  cam¬ 
paign  might  be  still  longer.  Two  furnaces  smelt  in  twenty-four  hours 
18,000  kilograms  of  ore,  producing  in  three  tappings  375  kilograms  lead, 
carrying  0.9  per  cent,  to  1.1  per  cent.— 2G2  to  320  oz.  8  dwt.  stiver.  The 
zinc-oxide  fumes  from  the  condensation  chambers,  containing  33  per 
cent,  lead,  are  agglomerated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  and  then  smelted 
in  a  shaft-furnace,  producing  lead  carrying  0.35  to  0.55  per  cent.=102 
to  1G0  oz.  8  dwt.  silver.  The  silver-lead  is  sent  to  Genoa  and  France 
for  desilverization.  The  old  slags,  containing  10  to  11  per  cent,  lead,  are 
smelted  together  with  poor  ores  at  the  Dumas  Novas,  Flumini,  and 
Villacidro  works.  The  resulting  silver-lead  assays  0.06  to  0.11  per  cent. 
=171  to  320  oz.  8  dwt.  silver. 

Ore  aud  slag  have  been  smelted  since  1858  in  shaft  furnaces  with  coke 
or  charcoal.  In  Masua,  poor  ores  from  Montefroni  were  added  to  the 
lead-slag,  and  the  mass  first  agglomerated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace, 
and  then  smelted  in  shaft-furnaces.  The  lead-slags  have  been  all  smelt¬ 
ed,  and,  on  account  of  contracts  having  been  made  with  metallurgical 
companies  in  Marseilles,  England,  Belgium,  and  Prussia,  for  large  quan¬ 
tities  of  the  rich  ore,  for  a  long  period,  the  Sardinia  smelting-works  will 
have  to  confine  their  operations  to  poor  ores  ;  were  they  not  thus  bound 
by  their  contracts,  they  might  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  of  coal  at  rea¬ 
sonable  rates,  brought  to  Sardinia  as  ballast  by  the  vessels  which  carry 
a  portion  of  the  ores  to  England  and  Belgium,  as  the  works  at  Pertu- 
sola,  in  the  gulf  of  Spezia,  have  obtained  their  fuel  for  several  years. 


39.  Sardinia  produced  in  1868-69 — 

Kilograms. 

Lead-ore  exported,  11,706,000  kilograms,  valued  at  7,515,- 
699  lira*,  contains  70  per  cent,  lead  =  10,241,200  kilo¬ 
grams  ;  deduct  8  per  cent,  loss  in  reduction  =  62 per  cent, 
lead  extracted  from  ore  = .  9, 117,  820 

Lead-ore  and  blende  reduced  in  Sardinia,  990,900  kilo¬ 
grams,  valued  at  120,265  lira,  con  tains  20  per  cent.  lead=  198,  650 

9,316,  470 

Calamine,  39,113,950,  valued  at  5,601,812  lira,  contains  47 
per  cent.  ziuc=  . .  18,  383,  556.  5 


40.  The  statistics  of  cost  of  mining  and  transportation  of  ore  to  the 
vessels  will,  doubtless,  be  very  interesting  to  American  miners. 

In  the  calculation  of  the  value  of  ore,  the  price  of  lead  in  Marseilles 
is  taken  as  the  basis.  The  buyer  estimates  the  cost  of  smelting  at  60  to 
70  lira;  of  desilverization  at  GO  lira  per  ton,  and  a  lead  loss  of  7  to  9 
per  cent.  The  silver  is  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  21  ceutisimi  per  gram. 

The  price  of  zinc  in  London  is  taken  as  the  basis,  and  ore  containing 
45  per  cent,  zinc  is,  accordingly,  worth  on  board  tbe  vessel  from  43  to 
69  lira.  « 

*  The  lira  is  equivalent  to  19  cents  in  the  coin  of  the  United  States. 


16 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


One  ton  of  lead-ore : 

Lira. 

Mining . 55.95 

Hoisting  out  of  mine .  10.19 

Separating  and  dressing .  11.40 

Transportation  on  board  ship .  22.  76 

Superintendence,  &c .  20.  00 

Various  items .  6.03 


132.  33 

The  company,  Malfidino,  engaged  in  mining  calamine  near  the  coast, 
presents  the  following  calculation  of  mining  expenses,  &c.: 

Lira  per  ton. 

Mining . . .  9.33 

Calcining .  9.05 

Transporting  from  the  mine  to  the  coast .  4.05 

Transporting  from  coast  on  board  vessel  .  10.01 

General  expenses .  4.00 


36.  44 


CHAPTER  V. 


BELGIAN  EXHIBITS. 

Exhibits  from  Bleyberg;  Bleyberg  smelting  process;  Comparison  or  Belgian 
and  English  reverberatory  smelting-furnace  ;  Exhibit  of  the  Zinc  Mining 
and  Smelting  Company  of  la  Vieille;  History  of  the  Zinc  Mining  Com¬ 
pany  and  description  of  the  works. 

41.  The  Society  Anonyme  du  Bleyberg  Rsmontzess  exhibited  a  very  in¬ 
teresting  collection  of  minerals,  ores,  and  metallurgical  products,  which 
was  composed  of  dressed  and  undressed  lead  and  zinc  ores,  silver-lead, 
a  large  cake  of  silver  from  the  cupellation-furnace,  refined  commercial 
lead,  guaranteed  not  to  contain  0.00488  per  cent,  of  impurities,  (copper, 
antimony,  silver,  &c.,)  homogeneous  antimonial  lead,  commercial  zinc, 
and  various  other  metallurgical  products,  viz :  mengite,  red  and  yellow 
litharge,  cadmium  sulphide,  fumes  from  the  condensation-chambers,  and 
lead-matte. 

42.  Belgian  smelting  process. — The  Bleyberg  lead-ores  carry 
about  80  per  cent,  lead,  0.0145  per  cent.  =4  oz.  4  dwt.  10  gr.  silver,  0.70 
per  cent,  antimony,  0.00G  per  cent,  copper,  also  blende,  iron-pyrites,  and 
a  small  amount  of  quartz.  The  ores  are  carefully  dressed,  and  are  easily 
smelted.  The  furnaces  used  for  ore-smelting  greatly  resemble  the  Flint¬ 
shire  furnaces.  The  principal  difference  is,  the  Belgian  has  two  fire¬ 
places,  one  at  each  end,  instead  of  one,  as  at  Flintshire  ;  and  the  hearth, 
instead  of  being  concave,  as  at  Flintshire,  slightly  inclines  at  an  angle 
of  0°.2  per  meter  from  both  fire-places  toward  the  center.  The  object  of 
the  two  fire-places  is  to  economize  fuel  and  afford  a  greater  uniformity 
of  temperature.  The  molten  lead  is  tapped  into  a  pot  in  front  of  one  of 
the  middle  doors.  The  charge,  1,000  kilograms,  remains  in  the  furnace 
sixteen  hours,  whereby  400  kilograms  bituminous  coal  are  consumed  in 
its  treatment,  and  two  workmen  employed.  From  the  above  charge  there 
results  524  kilograms  silver-lead,  with  0.0258  per  cent.  =  7  oz.  10  gr.  silver, 
and  331  kilograms  dross,  with  66.3G  per  cent,  lead,  2.0  per  cent,  antimony^ 
and  0.0024  per  cent.^1  dwt.  silver. 

When  the  furnace  is  first  charged  the  temperature  is  kept  for  about 
half  an  hour  at  a  red  heat;  at  the  end  of  this  time  the  charge  is  worked, 
with  short  intermissions,  for  six  hours,  the  temperature  being  raised 
toward  the  last  to  a  cherry-red  heat.  Molten  lead  now  appears;  the 
doors  are  closed,  and  the  temperature  is  raised.  In  about  four  hours, 
2  M 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


during  which  the  ore  is  turned  every  half  hour,  lead  ceases  to  flow; 
when  powdered  charcoal  and  lime  are  mixed  with  the  charge  to  make  it 
pasty,  and  to  reduce  the  oxides  and  sulphates  which  have  formed,  the 
charge  is  heated  (being  repeatedly  worked)  for  about  four  hours  longer, 
great  care  being  taken  that  t lie  temperature  does  not  rise  above  a  cer¬ 
tain  limit,  lest  other  metals  should  also  be  reduced.  The  dross  is  now 
subjected  to  an  increased  temperature  for  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an 
hour,  whereby  it  is  agglomerated.  It  is  then  withdrawn  from  the  fur¬ 
nace  and  smelted  in  a  low-blast  furnace,  with  slag  from  the  smelting  of 
the  impure  ores,  dross  from  the  lead-retining  furnace,  and  agglomerated 
fumes  from  the  condensation  chambers.  It  is  from  the  latter  smelting 
that  the  exhibited  homogeneous  hard  lead  is  produced.  The  object  in 
thus  slowly  roasting  the  ore  and  conducting  the  reaction  process  by  a 
low  temperature  is  manifold.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  ore 
contains  considerable  copper  and  antimony.  The  reduction  of  these  in 
the  comparatively  low  temperature  is  avoided,  and  in  the  first  reaction 
period  the  lead  is  not  only  purer,  but  holds  the  greater  portion  of  the 
silver  contained  in  the  ore,  and,  as  the  operation  ceases  when  the  lead  in 
the  dross  reaches  (10  per  cent.,  the  volatilization  of  lead  is  diminished, 
which  accompanies  such  high  temperature  as  the  production  of  dross 
containing  only  10  per  cent,  of  lead  would  necessitate.  The  loss  of  lead 
amounts,  according  to  the  assay,  to  only  5  per  cent.  The  amount  of 
dross  is  great,  but  the  combined  losses,  occurring  both  in  the  reverbera¬ 
tory  and  the  following  smelting  in  a  low-blast  furnace,  is  much  smaller 
than  it  would  lx*  were  the  reduction  originally  carried  on  to  a  greater 
extent  in  the  reverberatory  furnace.  In  July,  1872,  when  the  writer 
visited  these  works,*  the  silver  was  separated  from  the  silver-lead  by 
the  zinc  desilverization  process.  Steam  was  used  to  oxidize  the  zinc 
and  antimony.  The  silver-zinc  dross  was  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace 
with  iron  tap-cinder.  There  were  no  products  of  desilverization  exhib¬ 
ited  by  this  company. 

43.  Comparative  trials  between  the  Bleyberg  and  English  (Flintshire) 
furnaces  have  been  reported  by  M.  Cahen,  and  commented  upon. by 
Percy,  whose  comments,  together  with  the  result  collected  by  M.  Cahen, 
1  here  give.  The  furnace  employed  differed  considerably  in  its  relative 
dimensions,  form,  and  in  a  few  other  particulars.  The  ores  treated 
assayed  79  per  cent.  lead.  The  length  of  the  furnace-bed  was  2.7  milli¬ 
meters,  (S'  10".3,)  and  its  mean  width  2.9  millimeters,  (9'  G".17 ;)  the 
grate  was  2.0  millimeters  (O'  G".74)  long  and  0.5  millimeters  (1'  7".G9) 
wide;  the  width  of  the  fire-bridge  was  0.6  millimeters,  (1'  11". 62;)  its 
height  from  the  bed  0.3  millimeters,  (11". 81 ;)  the  height  of  the  roof  from 
the  tire-bridge  was  0.3  millimeters,  (11".81.) 

*  The  writer  was  neither  able  to  obtain  admittance  into  the  desilverization-works, 
nor  was  information  concerning  the  process  to  be  had  from  the  officials,  therefore  he 
is  not  able  to  give  an  accurate  description  of  the  process  here. 


FURNACE  TRIALS. 


19 


RESULTS  OF  FURNACE  TRIALS. 


I. 

n. 

m. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

Charge,  kilograms . 

1,000 

1,  000 

800 

1,000 

1,  000 

1,600 

2,000 

2,  000 

Duration  of  a  charge,  hours . 

9 

9 

9 

9 

12 

16 

16 

12 

Lead  obtained,  kilograms . 

627.  7 

560 

468 

477 

030 

1,  096 

1,  304.  4 

1,036 

Gray  slag  obtained,  kilograms . 

153 

290 

225* 

354 

223 

158 

310 

744 

Lead  in  gray  slag,  per  cent . 

39 

50 

44 

74 

35 

22 

30 

62 

Lead  in  gray  slag,  kilograms . 

59.  8 

145 

99 

262 

78 

34.  76 

93 

463 

Direct  yield  of  lead,  per  cent . 

62.  77 

56.0 

58.  5 

47.  7 

63.0 

68.  5 

65.3 

51.  8 

Yield  inclusive  of  lead  in  eray  slag,  per  cent- 

68.  75 

70.  50 

70.  87 

73.  9 

70.  8 

70.  67 

69.  97 

74.  86 

Loss  of  lead  on  100  kilograms  of  ore . 

10.  25 

8.5 

8.  13 

5.  1 

8.2 

8.  33 

903 

4.  14 

Loss  of  lead  on  100  kilograms  of  lead . 

12.  97 

10.  7 

10.  3 

6.  45 

10.  4 

10.5 

11.  4 

5.2 

Coal  per  100  kilograms,  kilograms . 

712 

562 

633 

506 

700 

917 

734 

375 

Labor  per  1,000  kilograms  of  galena,  francs. . 
Smithery  costs  per  1,000  kilograms  of  galena, 

3.  75 

3.  75 

4.  70 

3.  75 

5.  00 

7.  91 

6.33 

4.  75 

fcancs  . 

4.80 

2.  00 

2.  40 

2.  00 

3.20 

3.  20 

2.  40 

0.80 

The  most  favorable  result  recorded  in  the  table  is  declared  to  be  that 
in  column  VIII,  in  which  the  direct  yield  of  lead  from  ore  containing 
79  per  cent,  is  51.8  per  cent.,  with  the  production  of  37.7  per  cent,  of 
gray  slag,  containing  02  per  cent,  of  lead  ;  the  loss  being  5.2  per  cent, 
lead,  inclusive  of  what  is  estimated  to  be  recovered  from  the  gray  slag. 
The  results  obtained  in  smelting  galeua  in  the  Flintshire  furnace,  yield¬ 
ing  about  81  per  cent,  of  lead  by  assay  in  the  iron  dish,  are  as  follows  : 
The  direct  yield  was  60.9  percent.,  witli  the  production  of  11.9  per  cent, 
of  gray  slag,  containing  about  55  per  cent,  of  lead ;  the  loss,  inclusive 
of  what  occurs  in  smelting  the  slag,  is  5  per  cent.  The  consumption  of 
coal,  however,  was  much  less  in  the  trial  reported  in  column  VIII  than  in 
the  English  trials,  but  then  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  direct 
yield  of  lead  was  much  smaller,  and  the  production  of  gray  slag  much 
greater  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  From  the  preceding  consider¬ 
ations  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  Belgian  trials  in  the  so-called  Eng¬ 
lish  furnace  could  not  have  been  satisfactorily  conducted,  owing  to  de¬ 
ficient  skill,  to  faulty  construction  of  the  furnace,  or,  as  is  possible,  to 
both  causes.  The  difference  between  the  Belgian  and  English  results 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  galena  treated  in 
the  two  cases,  as  it  was  similar,  both  being  easily  reducible. 

44.  Alphonse  Bodart  a  Lovegree  exhibited  several  specimens  of  ga¬ 
lena,  blende,  and  iron  pyrites. 

45.  The  “  Societe  Anonyme  des  Mines  et  Fouderies  de  Zinc  de  la 
Vieille  Montague  a  Liege’7  exhibited,  in  a  separate  pavillion,  an  exten¬ 
sive  collection  of  articles  manufactured  from  zinc  and  galvanized  iron. 
The  latter  was  shown  in  various  patterns  for  buildings,  viz,  for  roofiug, 
sides  of  houses  and  moldings  for  ornamental  purposes. 

46.  This  large  Belgian  corporation  was  founded  in  1837,  and  has  estab¬ 
lished  an  immense  trade  throughout  the  world,  having  branch  estab¬ 
lishments  in  Prussia,  Sweden,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Algiers.  The 
value  of  the  ore  extracted  from  the  mines  near  Altenberg,  in  1872,  was 
$720,000  in  gold.  In  the  mining  of  this,  1,000  laborers  were  employed. 
Its  headquarters  is  in  Liege,  but  it  possesses  metallurgical  works  near 


20 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Moresnet,  (Altenberg,)  Miilheim  on  the  Ruhr,  Borbeck  and  Oberhausen, 
These  works  employed,  in  1872,  900  workmen,  and  produced  raw  ziuc 
valued  at  $1,200,000,  and  sheet  zinc  valued  at  $S00,000.  The  archi- 
medean  screw  is  now  used  to  remove  lead  from  the  remeltiug-furnace. 

In  Moresnet,  the  heat  emanating  from  the  distilling-furnaces  is  utilized 
by  conducting  it  directly  in  a  single-hearth,  reverberatory,  calamine- 
calcining  furnace.  By  means  of  this  economized  heat,  from  3, GOO  to 
4,000  pounds  of  ore  are  calcined  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  cooling  of  the  walls  of  the  distilling  furnace,  and  the  irregulari¬ 
ties  of  the  draught,  are  mostly  avoided  by  building  the  calcining-fur¬ 
nace  between  two  distilling-furnaces,  and  above  the  topmost  row  of  dis-  f 
tilling-tubes ;  the  gases  escape  through  a  chimney  about  7  meters  high, 
whose  draught  is  regulated  by  means  of  dampers. 

The  calcining-furnace  of  these  works,  in  which  fuel  is  used,  has  two 
hearths  and  a  much  greater  capacity  than  those  connected  with  the 
distilling-furnaces.  The  upper  hearth  is  7.2  meters  long,  and  the  lower, 

5  meters  long.  Its  capacity  is  4,000  pounds  in  six  hours= 10,000  pounds 
in  twenty-four  hours,  accompanied  by  a  calcining  loss  of  27  to  30  per  cent 
anjl  a  consumption  of  824  to  880  hectoliters  of  coal.  It  is,  according  to 
the  above,  advantageous  to  combine  every  two  distilling-furnaces  with 
one  calcining-furnace  in  which  the  escaping  heat  may  be  used.  But  as 
the  quantity  of  ore  thus  calcined  would  not  be  sullicieut  to  supply  the 
distilling-tubes  or  muffles,  other  furnaces  must  be  built  to  prepare  a 
sufficient  amount  of  ore. 

The  zinc  oxide  is  reduced  in  Moresnet,  Miilheim,  and  in  Borbeck,  by  | 
means  of  the  Boetius  generator  gas-furnace.  It  is  simpler  and  cheaper 
than  Siemens’s  regenerative  gas-furnace.  Its  economical  results  are 
excellent,  (30  per  cent,  of  fuel  being  saved,)  and  it  is  easily  regulated. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


SWEDISH  EXHIBITS. 

Character  of  ores;  Principal  reducing- works ;  Treatment  of  ores;  Experi¬ 
ments  on  M.  Lundin’s  furnace  ;  Exhibit  of  the  Stora  Kopparberg  Copper- 
Works  ;  The  Kafreltrops  Stock  Company  ;  Description  of  the  works  ;  Ex¬ 
hibit  OF  NEWLY-DISCOVERED  MINERALS  ;  COPPER  EXTRACTIONS,  NEW  PROCESS  ; 

Process  ordinarily  employed;  Preparation  of  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the 
process  ;  Manipulations  of  the  process  ;  Production  of  silver-zinc  ores. 

47.  A  large  proportion  of  Sweden's  ores  is  yearly  exported  to  foreign 
i  countries  for  reduction  (chiefly  to  England)  on  account  of  an  insufficient 

home  supply  of  fuel.  Among  the  metals,  copper,  after  iron,  is  of  the 
most  importance.  The  principal  copper-mines  and  reducing- works  are 
at  Falun  and  Atvidaberg ;  these  have  been  worked  since  the  thirteenth 
century. 

48.  As  the  price  of  fuel  was  yearly  increasing,  it  was  proposed  to 
dress  the  ore  thoroughly  and  combine  a  smelting  with  a  wet  process, 
viz,  the  poor  ore,  consisting  of  the  greater  part  of  the  product  from 

I  the  dressing- works,  is  roasted  with  salt  and  then  lixiviated,  while  the 
;  concentrated  ore  only  is  smelted.  With  this  object  in  view,  the  “Berg- 
werk  Gesellschaft  Stora-Kopparberg  ”  at  Falun,  erected  in  1870-’72  an 
immense  ore-dressing  establishment.  The  quartzose  ores  are  crushed 
and  assorted  by  means  of  machinery.  The  copper  is  refined  in  gas 
'  reverberatory  furnaces,  according  to  M.  Lundin’s*  construction,  with 
Siemens’s  regenerator,  in  which  wood  and  sawdust  are  burned. 

49.  This  sawdust  gas-furnace,  with  Lundin’s  condenser  and  Siemens’s 
regenerator,  has  been  introduced  in  iron- works  in  Prevali,  in  Carinthia, 
and  a  series  of  experiments,  conducted  by  M.  J.  Dagmer,  has  led  to  the 
following  conclusions,  taken  from  the  “  Karntner  Zeitschrift,”  1871, 
Nos.  4,  6,  and  7.  From  this  comparison  it  was  conceded  that  Lundin’s 
method  undoubtedly  is  of  great  practical  value,  or,  at  least,  applicable 
even  under  unfavorable  circumstances. 

49.  The  fluctuations  in  the  production  of  gas,  caused  by  the  periodical 
addition  of  cold  fuel,  the  varying  amounts  of  water  and  ash  contained 
in  it,  as  well  as  the  unequal  sizes  of  the  material  used  and  fluctua 
tious  in  the  force  of  the  blast,  &c.,  are  principally  regulated  by  means 
of  the  heat-regulator,  and  the  thick  walls  of  the  generator ;  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  a  common  regulator  for  two  furnaces  guarantees  a  uniformity  iu 
the  amounts  of  the  products  of  distillation  and  a  minimum  in  the  con- 

*  Eor  explanations  and  drawings  of  this  furnace,  see  Mr.  A.  S.  Hewitt’s  Report  upon 
Iron  and  Steel  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  p.  104. 


22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  l»7a. 


sumption  of  fuel.  The  condensation  of  the  carburetted  hydrogen,  which 
compound  is  lost  in  the  condensation,  is  richly  compensated  by  the  larger 
production  of  metal,  the  removal  of  the  water-vapors,  the  separation  of 
alkaline  compounds  and  of  particles  of  coal.  The  only  decrease  of  tem¬ 
perature,  which  can  be  looked  upon  as  an  actual  loss,  is  that  which  the 
gases  suffer  by  their  condensation.  This  loss,  however,  is  a  small  price 
to  pay  for  the  many  important  advantages  which  the  work  allows  with 
purified  gases,  free  from  moisture. 

Peat  and  all  kind  of  forest-wood  can  be  used  to  advaut  ige.  By  the 
gasification  of  these  substitutes  for  fuel,  a  higher  pyrometrical  tempera¬ 
ture  can  be  produced  than  by  the  direct  use  of  a  grate  fire-place  with 
good  fuel,  (which  is  of  especial  importance  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.) 

The  purified  gases  may  be  conducted  for  a  great  length  :  in  Sweden, 
for  example,  fora  distance  of  280  feet.  The  gasification  process  allows 
of  further  improvement. 

*  50.  The  Stora-Kopparberg  Copper- Works  exhibited  the  following: 

ores,  principally  copper-pyrites,  slag,  unroasted  and  roasted  matter 
black  copper,  produced  from  the  smelting  of  matte  which  had  under¬ 
gone  five  roastings,  and  refined  copper,  which  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  brass.  In  addition  to  copper,  which  forms  the  principal 
product,  there  were  also  exhibited  samples  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  red 
ocher,  copper  and  iron  vitriol,  sulphur,  and  sulphuric  acid. 

51.  This  company  treated  in  1S71 — 

Kilograms. 

Quartzose  ......  .  10,  740.  00 

l’yritous  ores . . .  14,  955.  00 

Total .  25,695.00 


In  the  working  of  this  there  was  consumed — 

Charcoal . 

Coke . 

Wood . 


Kilograms. 

8, 083.  80 
3,  322.  35 
6,  8S0.  SO 


Total 


18,  286.  95 


The  production  was — 

Befiued  copper . 

Copper  vitriol . 

Irou  vitriol . 

Sulphur  . . 

Gold . 

Silver . 


Kilograms. 

I  o4, 13o.  o 
113, 600 
23,  982.  5 
380, 000 

6.  52 
92.  365 


Total . -  1,271,810.885 

About  607  men  and  39  women  are  employed  in  the  mines  and  dress¬ 
ing  and  smoltiug  works.  They  receive  from  $1  to  $2.50  fgold)  per  day 


SWEDISH  SMELTING-WORKS. 


23 


52.  The  Kafveltorps  Stock  Company,  Goteborg,  exhibited  samples  of 
copper,  zinc,  and  lead  ores.  The  copper-ore,  viz,  copper-pyrites,  assayed 
4J  to  5  per  cent,  of  copper.  The  lead-ore,  galena,  assayed  25  per  cent, 
lead,  carrying  15  to  30  ounces  of  silver.  The  silver  contained  to  3 
per  cent.  gold.  The  zinc-ore,  blende,  carried  30  to  40  per  cent,  zinc- 
and  10  to  16  per  cent,  argentiferous  lead. 

53.  The  Kafveltorps  copper,  zinc,  and  argentiferous  mines  and  smelt- 
iug-works  are  situated  in  the  county  of  Orebro  and  mining-district  of 
Nya  Kopparberget,  and  have  direct  communication  with  Gottenborg 
and  other  ports  by  rail.  The  mines  have  been  worked  only  since  1864, 

!  and  have  never  been  fully  developed.  It  has  been  calculated  that  these 
mines  and  works  would  produce,  being  conducted  rationally  and  worked 
on  an  enlarged  scale,  as  a  minimum,  600  tons  lead  and  300  tons  copper, 
besides  preparing  1,800  tons  blende  to  about  40  per  cent,  zinc  for  ex¬ 
portation  to  Belgium.  At  present  there  are  three  furnaces  used  in  cal¬ 
cining  and  smelting  copper,  and  one  for  lead.  These  are  now  fully 
occupied,  but  the  erection  of  more  furnaces  will  follow  the  extension  of 
the  mining  operations. 

54.  The  following  newly-discovered  minerals  were  exhibited  by  this 
company:  Walleriitt,  occurs  in  serpentine,  in  the  Kafveltorps  copper 
mine.  It  is  of  the  color  of  copper-pyrites,  very  ductile,  and  having  a 
conchoidal  fracture.  Its  chemical  composition  is  2  Cu.  S,  Fe2  S3-f-2  Mg 
O  (Fe  Al)  03  +  4  H2  O.  Chalkopyrthotiu  occurs,  in  contact  with  garnet, 
in  the  Kafveltorps  copper  mine.  It  has  a  light,  brass  color,  brittle, 
hardness,  3.  Its  chemical  composition  is,  2  (Fe  S.  On  S.)  Fe2  S3. 

55.  There  were  also  exhibited  silver  and  zinc  ores  from  Nasaberg 
in  jSTorrbotteu  Lan,  Auriferous  sand  from  Lundorren  in  Jemtlaud, 
copper-ore  from  Johannesberg  in  Kerike,  and  from  the  Sagmyre  mines 
in  Dalarne,  copper  ore  carrying  8  to  9  per  cent,  copper,  none  of  which  has 
up  to  the  present  time  been  worked;  from  Gladhamer  mines  in  Kalmar 
Liin,  also  specimens  of  copper-pyrites. 

56.  In  the  last  few  years  wet  processes  have  been  introduced  in  two 
different  works.  These  have  proved,  considering  the  local  disadvantages, 
very  profitable.  These  are  the  works  at  Wirum  in  Kalmar  Liin  and 
Saltviken. 

57.  All  other  Swedish  copper-works  (with  the  exception  of  Falun,  and 
that  only  partly)  practice  the  old  method,  viz,  smelting  for  copper  matte? 
when,  after  repeated  roasting  and  smelting  for  black  copper,  refined 
copper  is  produced.  The  process  at  these  two  works*  is  materially  the 
same,  and  consists  in  crushing  the  copper-ore  (at  Saltviken,  with  a  Blake’s 
crusher)  carrying  about  3  per  ceut.  copper;  the  ore  is  then  mixed  with 
13  per  cent,  salt,  and  further  crushed  until  it  is  not  larger  than  5  millime¬ 
ters  in  diameter.  After  it  has  been  dried  on  the  top  of  the  muffle  furnace 
used  for  roasting,  it  is  roasted  twenty-four  hours,  when  4  per  cent,  salt 
is  added,  and  the  roasting  continued  for  two  to  three  hours  longer  ;  at 


From  the  Berg  and  Hilttemanische  Zeitung,  1873,  p.  153. 


24 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

the  end  of  this  period  the  almost  complete  formation  of  copper  chloride 
has  taken  place. 

58.  The  sulphuric  acid  used  in  lixiviating;  copper  chloride  is  obtained 
by  passing  the  gases,  consisting  of  sulphurous  hydrochloric  and  small 
Quantities  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper  chloride,  lirst  through  canals,  in 
order  that  all  particles,  mechanically  carried  off,  may  be  condensed,  and 
then  through  a  coke-tower,  into  which  a  small  stream  of  water  is  pumped. 
This  falls  through  a  sieve,  and  in  descending  absorbs  the  ascending  gases. 
This  acid  need  not,  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  used,  be  stronger 
than  14°  to  15°  Twaddle’s  hydrometer,  but  is  generally  more  concentrated 
than  this. 

59.  The  calcining  hearth  is  8.313  by  3.563  inches  and  0.3  meter  high. 
The  coke-tower  is  built  of  wood,  and  is  23.75  meters  high;  at  the  bot¬ 
tom  it  is  3.266  by  3.266  meters;  at  the  top,  3.12  by  3.12  meters  wide. 
The  bottom  of  the  tower  is  composed  of  two  perforated  stone  arches; 
upon  the  upper  the  coke  is  piled  about  18  meters  high  ;  the  pieces  of 
coke  are-  about  3.5  by  3  centimeters  large.  Above  the  tower  there  is  a 
Hat  roof  with  a  small  chimney  ;  under  this  roof  is  a  false  floor  containing 
numerous  small  holes  through  which  the  water  drops  upon  the  coke. 
Thfere  is  obtained  from  this  tower  about  1,626  liters  of  acid  of  16°  or  1.080 
specific  weight.  As  the  ascending  power  of  the  gases  is  in  proportion  to 
the  differences  between  their  temperature  and  the  temperature  of  the 
external  air,  it  occurs  sometimes,  in  summer,  that  the  furnace  draught 
is  decreased  to  so  great  an  extent  that  the  gases  return  and  escape 
through  the  working  doors.  This  great  objection  to  the  process  is 
increased  by  the  coke  being  crushed  by  its  own  weight,  and  becoming 
choked  by  small  particles  carried  off  by  the  furnace  draught.  These 
latter  obstacles  are  greatly  removed  by  washing  the  coke  weekly  with 
cleau  water.  The  warm  chloridized  ore,  after  being  placed  in  the  lixiv- 
iating-tub,  is  first  treated  with  lmt  water  and  then  with  weak  acid.  This 
solution  is  repeatedly  poured  over  the  mass  until  it  ceases  dissolving; 
then  stronger  acid  is  used,  and  finally  acid  direct  from  the  coke-tower 
The  residue  is  then  washed  with  warm  water,  and,  if  it  does  not  contain 
more  than  0.1  per  cent,  copper,  the  operation  is  finished.  One  tub  con¬ 
taining  1834  centner  ore,  can  be  perfectly  lixiviated  in  twenty-four  hours, 
but  as  the  supply  of  tubs  is  greater  than  the  demand,  the  ore  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  them  for  four  days,  and  the  solutions  passed  through  from 
10  to  30  times.  The  solution  containing  the  copper  chloride  is  warmed, 
to  increase  its  volume,  by  conducting  steam  into  it. 

The  copper  is  precipitated  by  means  of  iron,  wrought  iron  being  pre¬ 
ferred  :  of  the  latter  100  pounds  is  consumed  to  precipitate  80  pounds 
of  copper.  The  quality  of  the  irou  used  determines  the  length  of  time 
necessary  in  precipitation,  which  is  from  three  to  five  days.  The  iron 
and  precipitated  copper  are  placed  in  a  metallic  sieve  having  holes  12 
millimeters  in  diameter.  Water  is  poured  into  the  sieve  and  the  copper 
falls  through  :  the  iron  remaining  in  the  sieve. 


SWEDISH  SMELTING-WORKS.  25 

60.  The  expenses  and  production  of  working  two  furnaces  for  one 
month  were : 

Thaler.* 

183,720  kilograms  ore  cost . 1,166.40 

31,250  kilograms  salt . . . 198.18 

617.5  kilograms  wrought  iron . .. . - .  135.00 

91,800  kilograms  bituminous  coal  for  furnace . .  ^  979  00 

61,200  kilograms  coal  for  engine,  . vu'w 

Wood  for  drying  the  precipitate . .  . . .  1-60 

Wages . .  .  237.75 

2,710.93 

The  production  was  127^  copper  precipitate,  containing  80  per  cent, 
copper,  valued  at  2,812.5  thaler. 

To  produce  1  centner  copper  precipitate,  containing  80  per  cent,  cop¬ 
per  and  20  per  cent,  iron  and  basic  salts  costs  : 

9.15  thaler  for  ore. 

10.44  thaler  for  cost  of  reduction. 

19.59  thaler. 

The  gain  per  1  centner  of  precipitate  is  2.47  thaler.  This  precipitate 
is  exported  to  England. 

61.  Argentiferous  lead  is  found  in  several  places.  The  silver-works 
near  Sala  are  the  oldest  and  most  important.  Sweden  does  not  produce 

:  metallic  zinc,  but  it  is  found  in  large  quantities  at  the  mines  near  Amine- 
berg,  which  are  owned  by  the  company  of  La  Veille  Montague. 

*  1  thaler  =  $1.03  gold. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


- * — 

NORWEGIAN  EXHIBITS. 

Important  ores;  Exhibits  of  the  Altener  Copper  Works,  copper  minerals, 

/INC  AND  LEAD  ORES;  EXHIBITS  AND  STATISTICS  OF  THE  KOXSBERG  SILVER 

Works. 

02.  The  mineral-metallic  wealth  of  Norway,  although  considerable,  is 
not  at  present  sufficient  to  supply  the  internal  demand.  It  is,  therefore, 
necessary  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  importation.  Its  most  important 
metallic  products  are  copper,  iron,  nickel,  silver,  and  cobalt. 

03.  In  the  year  1S7(J  the  seventy-six  mines  then  worked  employed 
2, GOO  workmen.  They  produced  a  total  of  123,S00,000  kilograms  of  ore. 
Of  these,  twenty-seven  were  copper  mines,  employing  1,270  workmen, 
and  producing  47,200,000  kilograms  of  copper-ore.  The  seven  silver 
mines  produced  2,200,000  kilograms  of  ore,  and  employed  3G3  workmen. 
The  production  of  copper  and  silver  has  undergone  no  material  change 
since  1803.  At  present  there  are  eleven  copper-works,  employing  255 
workmen,  and  producing  520,000  kilograms  refined  copper.  Of  these 
copper  metallurgical  works,  those  at  Koras,  founded  in  1044,  and  work¬ 
ing  ore  carrying  7  to  8  per  cent,  of  copper,  are  the  most  important.  The 
next  in  importance  are  the  Altener  Copper- Works,  in  Finland,  founded 
in  1830,  and  the  copper- works  on  the  Vigsnas,  in  Stavanger  district. 
In  1871  Norway  exported  unrefined  copper  valued  at  250,000  spec.,* 
and  imported  copper  valued  at  23,000  spec. 

0  4.  The  Altener  Copper- Works  exhibited  interesting  specimens  of  their 
ores  and  intermediate  products.  These  consisted  of  samples  of  refined 
copper,  which  was  ofa  light-red  color,  line,  granular,  and  contained  the 
following  amounts  of  foreigu  substances: 

Per  cent. 


c  u . . .  99.  05 

Fo .  0.  06 

Ni .  0.  085 

Tb . .  0.20 

Mn .  0.  015 

Ag .  0.  03 

O .  0.  545 

Bi . - .  trace. 


“  Spec.,  or  speciest haler =$1.03  gold. 


99. 985 


THE  ALTENER  COPPER-WORKS. 


27 


Black  copper,  having  the  following  composition : 

Cu . - . 

Fe  . . 

Co  and  Ni . 

Pb . . 

Zn . 

S . . 


Baw  matte,  of  the  following  chemical  composition  : 

Cu . . . 

Fe . . 

Co . 

Ni .  . 

Pb . 

Zn . . . . . 

S . . . . 


Per  cent. 

91.  480 
5.  039 
1.507 
0.  454 
1.  040 
0.  854 


100.  380 

Per  cent. 

19.  24 
49.  83 
2.  50 
trace. 
0.39 
2. 15 
24.  02 


98.  79 


Slag,  from  black  copper  smelting,  having  the  following  composition  : 

Per  cent. 


Si  02  . 20.  00 

Al2  03  .  2.  69 

Ca  O .  0.  57 

Mg  O . 2.40 

FeO . . . 07.57 

CuO  . . 0.44 


99.  67 

Slag,  from  ore-smelting  from  matte  : 

Per  cent. 

Si  02 . . .  31.  00 

Al2  03  .  9.  9 

Ca  O .  1.0 

Mg  O . ; .  3.  70 

Fe  O . . . .  53.  66 

Cu2  O .  0.42 


99.  OS 


In  addition  to  these,  there  were  samples  of  matte  which  had  been 
roasted  from  one  to  seven  times. 

No.  1. — From  the  first  roastiug  ;  of  a  bluish-black  color,  non  lustrous, 
and  on  the  surface  hard. 


28 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


No.  2. — From  the  second  roasting;  black,  with  spots  of  red  (from 
iron  sesquioxide)  and  green,  hard  and  nou-lustrous. 

The  samples  from  third  and  fourth  roastings  presented  a  similar  ap¬ 
pearance  to  No.  2.  1,  2,  3,  and  4  were  porous,  on  account  of  many  large 

air  bubbles.  The  products  from  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  roastings 
were  black,  soft,  easily  pulverized,  full  of  pores,  and  presented  a  nou- 
lustrous  appearance. 

Go.  Specimens  of  copper  minerals  were  also  exhibited  by  M.  Brue- 
nech,  31.  Braun,  31.  Krohn,  and  u  31.  Fasmer  &  Son.”  The  “  Jarlsberg 
icerk,  Grubeninteressentemchaft  ”  exhibited  zinc  and  lead  ores. 

GO.  The  Konsberg  Silver-Works  are  the  principal  works  in  Norway, 
and  have  a  very  ancient  origin.  They  were  louuded  in  1G23,  and  have 
been,  since  that  time,  with  the  exception  of  from  1S05  to  181G,  contin¬ 
ually  worked.  Although  the  production  has  often  varied,  the  works 
have,  as  a  rule,  always  proved  profitable.  Since  1820  they  have  been 
conducted  on  a  limited  scale,  in  order  to  secure  their  longevity.  Iu 
184G-18G0,  the  yearly  surplus  rose  to  130,000  speciethaler.  They  employ 
24  workmen,  and  their  average  production  is  3,700  kilograms  of  silver; 
the  total  production  up  to  1874  being  842,200  kilograms  of  fine  silver. 

G7.  The  large  and  interesting  collection  of  vein  and  mineral  samples 
were  almost  the  same  as  exhibited  at  tbe  Paris  Exhibition.  They  were 
here  displayed  on  a  large  pyramid,  on  the  summit  of  which  was  a  large 
piece  of  (a  gypsum  cast)  argent-sulphide,  surrounded  with  native  silver, 
(secondary  formation,)  which  was  taken  from  the  Koenig  mine,  from  a 
depth  of  500  meters,  weighed  100  kilograms,  and  was  valued  at  7,000 
florins.  This  valuable  and  remakable  collection  consisted  of — 

1.  Piece  of  later  vein-formation,  carrying  no  silver,  (laminated  calcite 
and  quartz,)  cellular,  and  containing  a  plain  impression  of  silver  crystals. 

2.  Pieces  of  later  vein-formation,  with  pyrites  and  calcite  crystals. 

3.  Older  vein  formation,  richly  impregnated  with  silver  and  argent- 
sulphide. 

0.  Older  vein-formation,  containing  silver,  also  anthracite  iu  the  form 
of  shot,  imbedded  iu  calcite. 

7-11.  Fallbander  ;  older  formation,  containing  silver,  and  the  various 
gangue,  viz:  Quartz,  garnets  fluorite,  adular,  calcite,  magnetic-pyrites, 
pyrites,  copper-pyrites,  blende. 

12.  Cube  of  native  silver,  2.5  centimeters  iu  diameter,  having  three 
edges  sharply  crystallized,  and  modified  by  small  octahedral  plaues, 
co  8  co.0. 

13.  A  group  of  beautiful  cubical  crystals  of  native  silver,  (about  1-0 
by  G  centimeters  large,)  between  which  were  small  calcite  crystals, 

co  0  cc.0. 

14.  A  group  (about  10  by  3  centimeters  large)  of  cubical  native  sil¬ 
ver  crystals,  co  0  oo.O.,  rising  in  the  form  of  stairs  ;  between  the  silver 
were  crystals  of  arsenical  pyrites  and  calcite. 

15.  Large  mass,  weighing  about  eight  pounds,  of  crystallized  native 


THE  KONSBERG  SILVER-WORKS. 


29 


silver.  These  distorted  cubes  are  about  1  centimeter  in  diameter  and  4 
centimeters  long,  both  ends  being  curved  and  tapering  to  a  point.  All 
of  these  crystals  were  silver  white. 

16.  A  reddish-white  mass  of  native  silver  on  argent-sulphide  and  cal- 
cite,  ranging  from  capillary  silver  to  2  by  7  centimeters. 

19.  A  remarkably  beautiful  crystal  of  stephanite,  forming  a  sharply- 
crystallized  rhombic  table  1  centimeter  high  and  2  centimeters  broad. 

20.  Reddish-white  silver  of  secondary  formation,  forming  a  triangular 
mass  20  by  14  centimeters  and  silver  glance. 

21.  A  piece  of  red,  white,  and  yellow  silver,  of  secondary  formation, 
containing  plain  impression  of  calcite  crystals. 

22.  Native  silver,  increasing  from  capillary  silver  to  5  centimeters  in 
diameter  to  13  centimeters  long.  This  mass  is  on  and  arouud  calcite 
crystals. 

23.  Was  a  remarkable  calcite  crystal,  3  centimeters  in  diameter,  in 
the  interior  of  which  is  a  piece  of  native  silver. 

In  addition  to  these  there  were  exhibited  granulated  silver  fine, 
(for  jewelers,  photographers,  &c.,)  and  silver  bricks  fine. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


GERMAN  EXHIBITS. 

Growth  of  mining  and  metallurgical  industries;  Germany’s  metallurgical 
hank;  Exhibits  by  combined  lead,  silver,  and  copper  works  ;  Exhibits  from 
Freiberg  ;  Principal  ores  treated  ;  Classification  of  veins  in  Freiberg  min¬ 
ing  district;  Water-power  and  drainage  of  the  mines;  Growth  of  metal¬ 
lurgical  works;  Shaft  boasting-furnaces;  The  Freiberg  metallurgical 
process;  Exhibits  from  tiie  Harz;  Tiie  Harz  metallurgical  process;  Ex¬ 
hibits  of  Oker  Sager  HOtte,  Julius  HOtte;  Process  at  the  Oker  Sager 
HOtte,  the  Herzog  Julius  HOtte;  Tiie  Mansfield  Copper-Works;  Exhibits 
AND  ORES  FROM  UPPER  SiI.ESIA;  TlIE  TaRNOWIIZ  LEAD  AND  SMELTING  WORKS; 
Progress  and  condition  of  lead  mining  and  smelting  of  the  Rhine  prov¬ 
inces;  Exhibits  of  Herbst  X  Co.;  The  Stolberg  Stock  Company  for 
Mining  and  the  Production  of  Lead  and  Zinc;  The  Rhine  Nassau  Smelt¬ 
ing  Company;  The  Mkciigrniuikr  Smelting-Works;  The  Ems  Smelting- 
Works. 

GS.  The  illustration  of  Germany’s  extensive  mineral  treasures  and 
products  of  her  metal  extraction  was,  on  account  of  its  completeness 
and  judicious  arrangement,  unanimously  conceded  to  be  the  model  ex¬ 
hibit  in  Group  I  of  the  entire  Exhibition. 

From  all  the  principal  mining  districts  there  were  collections  made 
by  private  parties,  and  in  some  instances  by  the  government,  (where 
the  property  belonged  to  it,)  comprising  geological  charts,  specimens  of 
the  country’s  rocks  and  minerals:  from  the  reduction-works,  ores,  inter¬ 
mediate  and  final  products.  These  exhibits,  especially  those  of  the 
Saxon  and  Prussian  metallurgical  works,  consisted  in  thorough  and 
systematic  collections,  admirably  arranged,  and  accompanied  by  models 
of  furnaces,  statistics  of  production,  and  diagrams  of  the  processes ; 
tints  presenting  to  the  professional  visitor  an  immediate  and  compre¬ 
hensive  oversight  of  the  character,  size,  and  progress  made  by  the  works 
thus  represented.  It  was  here  made  appareut,  even  to  those  not  well 
informed,  that  Germany,  the  cradle  of  mining  and  metallurgical  skill 
and  science,  by  reason  of  her  immense  progressive  strides,  retains  her 
prominence,  and  is  to-day  the  home  of  that  science  needed  in  the  advance¬ 
ment  of  this  branch  of  industry. 

G9.  If  we  study  closely  the  causeof  the  successof  German  metallurgists, 
we  will  learn  that  it  is  owing  to  several  advantages  they  possess  ;  these 
are  the  result  of  many  years’  experience,  associated  with  science  and 
natural  advantages.  Although  Karsten  says  “that  the  date  of  the 
commencement  of  mining  in  Saxony  is  not  to  be  ascertained,  nor  is  it 
to  be  determined  where  it  first  began  ;  that  we  only  know  with  certainty 


GERMAN  MINING  INDUSTRIES. 


31 


that  silver-ore  was  mined  in  Saxony  (in  the  Erzgebirge)  in  the  second 
half  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  reached  a  prosperous  height  through 
;  the  immigration  of  Harz  miners,  toward  the  end  of  that  century.’’  He 
says,  also,  “  that  the  people  who  overturned  the  Roman  Empire  wan¬ 
dered  to  and  settled  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Saxony  in  the  seventh 
century,  taking  with  them  the  art  of  prospecting  for  ore  and  the  ex¬ 
traction  of  metals.”  As  mining  in  the  Harz  (Rammelsberg  mine)  dates 
from  the  ninth  century,  it  is  in  all  probability  not  so  old  as  it  is  in  Sax¬ 
ony.  There  is  little  or  nothing  extant  from  which  we  can  discover  the 
exact  manner  in  which  the  mining  and  reducing  operations  were  then 
conducted.  But  Sella  informs  us,  “  that  in  the  first  book  on  mining- 
laws,  which  was  written  in  Italy  in  the  thirteenth  century,  there  ap¬ 
peared  numerous  German  technical  phrases,”  which  indicates  that  min¬ 
ing  had  then  its  principal  seat  in  Germany.  Agricola  (1546)  describes 
lead,  silver,  and  copper  extraction  processes,  which  were  conducted  in 
j  a  rude  manner.  We  see  that  mining  here  has  not  so  ancient  an  origin 
as  m  some  other  countries,  but  has  been  prosecuted  with  an  almost  un¬ 
tiring  zeal  and  an  energy  well  worthy  of  imitation.  This  industry  has 
been,  and  is,  fostered  and  protected  by  the  different  governments,  not 
only  through  laws,  subsidies,  and  loans,  but  also  by  establishing  and 
supporting  educational  institutes  which  are  directly  under  govern¬ 
mental  control.  Thus  have  science  and  industry  been  encouraged.  By 
means  of  these  well-regulated  mining  schools  and  academies  a  constant 
supply  is  maintained  of  educated  men,  who  have  been  directly  the  cause 
of  Germany  retaining  her  position  and  leading  other  nations  with  her 
many  valuable  improvements. 

70.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  those  localities  in  Germany  which  are 
in  mining-districts,  and  in  which  government  technical  educational  in¬ 
stitutes  are  established,  have  grown  to  be  great  mining  and  metallurgi¬ 
cal  centers,  and  the  progress  made,  and  the  completeness  of  their  oper¬ 
ations,  is  in  proportion  to  the  thoroughness  and  advancement  made  at 
those  institutes  of  learning.  There  are  other  places  in  Germany  where 
ore  is  very  abundant,  and  where  the  commercial  facilities  are  extensive, 
but  here  the  processes  are  not  so  perfect,  although  the  amount  of  bul¬ 
lion  produced  is  somewhat  greater.  Thus  experience  and  science  going 
hand  in  hand  and  assisting  each  other  to  surmount  the  many  difficulties, 
which  constantly  occur  to  obstruct  their  progress  and  even  their  move¬ 
ments,  the  natural  result — success — is  attained.  The  natural  advan¬ 
tage  of  cheap  labor  and  material,  together  with  a  good  market  for 
the  products,  are  of  very  great  importance  and  are  necessary  for  a  large 
business;  but  these  without  the  former  advantages  would  be  insignifi¬ 
cant,  as  the  value  of  the  former,  without  the  latter,  would  be  greatly 
diminished.  The  technical  superiority  and  financial  success  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  miner  and  metallurgist  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  above  facts. 

71.  Germany  is  at  present  in  the  front  rank  in  the  production  of  zinc; 
in  the  production  of  silver,  second;  iu  lead,  third;  England  and  Spain 
only  producing  a  small  amount  more;  in  copper,  it  ranks  fourth. 


32  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

72.  Tbe  exhibit  of  Group  I,  representing  all  the  countries  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  Empire,  was  displayed  in  three  special  buildings,  one  of  which  was 
devoted  entirely  to  iron.  The  empire  was  divided  into  several  large 
districts.  From  each  district  the  products  of  the  mines  were  arranged 
in  the  center,  and  around  these  the  different  metallurgical  products 
belonging  to  the  same  district  were  displayed.  Immediately  upon  en¬ 
tering  the  main  annex  by  the  middle  door,  the  visitor  saw  the  exhibit 
of  the  five  following  works:  The  Royal  Saxon  Smelting-Works,  at  Frei¬ 
berg,  the  Royal  Prussian  Smelting- Works  in  the  Upper  Harz,  the 
Royal  Prussian  and  Ducal  Bruuswick  Smelting- Works  in  the  Lower 
Ilarz,  the  Incorporated  Mansfield  Smelting- Works  near  Eisleben,  and 
the  Royal  Prussian  Friedrichshtttte  near  Tarnowitz. 

7 3.  The  four  first  named  constitute  the  “combiued  lead,  silver,  and 
copper  works”  of  Germany,  which,  induced  by  the  mutual  desire  to 
treat  foreign  ores,  have  united,  in  order  to  be  better  able  to  conduct 
their  operations  with  greater  advantages  to  all  concerned.  This  idea 
was  here  expressed  in  a  mutual  display,  consisting  in  a  large  and  sys 
tematically  arranged  collection  of  geological  maps,  statistics  of  the 
growth  of  production,  charts  of  processes,  minerals,  ores,  and  the  vari¬ 
ous  metallurgical  products.  The  center  of  this  exhibit  was  formed  by 
a  four-sided  pyramid.  One  side  of  this  pyramid  was  devoted  to  each  of 
the  following  works :  1,  Freiberg;  2,  Ilarz;  3, Mansfield;  4,  Tarnowitz. 

On  the  sides  of  the  pyramid  were  hollow  glass  cubes.  These  cubes 
illustrated  the  different  metallurgical  processes,  as  conducted  at  the 
various  smelting-works,  the  cubes  being  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of 
the  various  intermediate  and  final  products  represented.  Thus,  the  size 
of  the  cube  containing  a  product,  by  being  in  proportion  to  the  cube 
holding  the  ore  and  intervening  products,  was  made  to  illustrate  the 
amount  of  ore  treated  and  the  quantity  of  each  product  therefrom. 
Samples  of  the  products  from  these  works  were  arranged  in  glass  cases 
on  the  sides  of  this  apartment. 

74.  First  in  order  are  the  Freiberg  works.  At  no  other  metallurgical 
establishment  in  the  world  are  to  be  found  so  many  various  and  numer¬ 
ous  ores  for  treatment  as  at  the  Royal  Saxon  Metallurgical  Works  in 
Freiberg,  viz,  the  Muldner  and  llalsbriickner  Hiitten.  Almost  all  known 
metals  are  to  be  found  in  the  ores  there  treated,  as  the  following  ex¬ 
hibited  products  will  show:  Gold,  from  auriferous  silver;  platinum 
sponge,  from  the  refining  of  gold  ;  silver,  bismuth,  extracted  from  the 
litharge  and  test  bottom  of  the  silver-refining  furnace  by  dissolving  in 
hydrochloric  acid  and  precipitation  with  water;  soft  and  antimonial 
lead,  litharge,  zinc:  indium,  extracted  from  zinc-blende,  containing  a 
small  percentage  of  this  seldom  occurring  metal :  arsenic,  white  arsenical 
glass,  (ratsbane,)  red  and  yellow  arsenic  sulphides,  alloy  of  zinc  and 
lead,  lead-speiss,  lead-matte,  concentrated  copper-matte,  slags,  zinc-gray, 
zinc-powder,  lead-fumes,  sulphuric  acid,  soda  sulphate,  copper- vitriol, 
iron  vitriol,  arsenic-sulphide,  from  purifying  the  sulphuric  acid  ;  further 


FREIBERG  ORES. 


33 


on,  sheet-lead,  pipe- wire,  and  shot.  There  was  also  a  model  of  the  newly- 
erected  round  blast-furnace,  with  small  fore-hearth.  These  works  pro¬ 
duce  from  the  ores  treated  seventeen  different  articles  of  commerce. 

75.  The  principal  ores  treated  are  argentiferous  galena  and  silver  ores, 
accompanied  by  copper  aud  iron  pyrites  and  blende ;  they  occur  in  gray 
gneiss,  in  the  Erzgebirge.  The  mines  are  most  extensively  developed 
under  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Freiberg,  where  over  eight  hundred 
veins,  forming  groups  in  four  different  zones,  extend  over  twenty-five 
miles  (English)  in  length. 

76.  The  whole  number  of  veins  known  in  the  Freiberg  district  amounts 
to  more  than  nine  hundred.  They  have  been  divided  by  von  Cotta  into 
the  following  four  classes : 

I.  The  noble  quartz  group,  so  called  because  its  valuable  ores  con¬ 
sist  principally  of  silver  minerals.  The  vein-mass  is  quartz.  The  min¬ 
erals  are  ruby-silver,  silver-glance,  native  silver,  fahlerz,  miargyrite,  poly- 
basiate,  brittle  silver-ore.  Associated  with  these,  in  small  quantities, 
are  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  antimony-glance,  galena,  blende,  fluor-spar, 
calc-spar,  iron-spar,  and  heavy-spar.  This  group  contains  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  veins,  varying  from  3  inches  to  4  feet  in  width. 

II.  The  pyritiferous  lead  and  zinc  group  ;  the  gangue  is  principally 
quartz.  The  ores  are  argentiferous  galena,  blende,  iron,  copper,  and 
arsenical  pyrites.  Associated  with  these  in  small  quantities  are  fluor¬ 
spar,  iron-spar,  heavy-spar,  and  calc-spar.  This  group  contains  about 
three  hundred  veins,  varying  from  2  inches  to  3  feet  in  width. 

III.  The  noble  lead  group,  so  called  on  account  of  silver-ores  occur¬ 
ring  with  the  lead-ores.  It  occurs  in  gray  gneiss.  The  gangue  is  man¬ 
ganese-spar,  brown-spar,  and  quartz.  The  ores  are  rich  argentiferous 
galena  and  blende ;  and,  as  rare  occurrences,  the  following  minerals  are 
to  be  named:  Iron  aud  copper  pyrites  aud  a  few  proper  silver  min¬ 
erals.  This  group  contains  about  three  hundred  and  forty  veins. 

IV.  The  barytic  lead  group,  so  called  from  the  predominance  of  heavy - 
spar  and  fluor-spar  with  silver  and  lead  ores.  The  gangue  is  heavy- 
spar,  fluor-spar,  and  quartz.  The  ores  are  argentiferous  galena  and 
blende. 

The  following  minerals  occur  in  smaller  quantities:  Iron  aud  copper 
pyrites,  fahlerz,  and  proper  silver-ores.  This  group  contains  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  veins,  varying  from  6  inches  to  8  feet  in  width. 

77.  The  mining  machinery  in  this  district  is  mostly  driven  by  water, 
furnished  by  several  systems  of  complicated  cauals,  which  are  many 
miles  in  length.  The  water  is  conducted  on  the  surface,  as  well  as 
great  distances  through  aqueducts  and  subterranean  canals.  This  is 
the  result  of  three  centuries  of  labor.  By  means  of  ingeniously 
conducting  the  water  from  one  mine  to  another,  it  is  thoroughly 
utilized.  The  mines  are  drained  by  fifteen  tunnels.  The  govern¬ 
ment  own  and  control  both  the  water  sources  and  main  draining 
adits.  The  mines  are  furnished  with  water  free  of  expense.  Each 

3  M 


34 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


water-wheel  receives  100  cubic  feet  per  minute,  or  l,00S,O00  cubic 
feet  per  week,  which  is  iu  many  cases  not  sufficient  to  drive  the  large 
and  heavily  laden  wheels.  The  mining  dams  contain  20S,000,000  cubic 
feet  of  water.  As  the  mines  are  gradually  becoming  deeper  and  the 
water-power  is,  therefore,  every  day  becoming  more  and  more  con¬ 
sumed  iu  raising  the  mine  water  from  the  deepest  parts  of  the  mines  to 
the  adits,  the  demand  for  still  lower  adits  has  long  been  a  rapidly 
growing  necessity.  This  was  foreseen  by  Freiberrn  von  Herder,  who 
originated  the  idea  of  constructing  a  tunnel  from  the  lowest  surface  in 
Saxony,  situated  on  the  Elbe,  near  Bothschonberg,  to  the  Freiberg 
mining-district.  His  estimation  of  3,01)0,000  thalers  and  forty-seven 
years  to  construct  it,  was  revised  by  the  government  authorities,  and  a 
plan  made  by  which — first,  an  adit  13,070.44  meters  from  the  same  point 
selected  by  von  Herder,  viz,  liothschdnberg  on  the  Triebishbach  (a 
brook  flowing  into  the  Elbe)  to  llalsbriieke;  finally  to  Freiberg  and 
Brand,  costing  1,300,000  thalers,  and  was  to  be  finished  iu  twenty-two 
years.  At  the  completion  of  this  main  tunnel,  it  was  proposed  to  ex* 
tend  still  farther  an  Arb.stolln  23,720  meters,  at  a  cost  of  1,456,000 
thglers.  The  workings  of  this  celebrated  engineering  project  is  so  well 
know  n  that  a  detailed  description  w  ill  here  be  dispensed  with.  Suffice 
to  say,  that  it  is  calculated  to  strike,  iu  the  year  1876,  the  Bothegrube 
mine,  (situated  iu  the  city  of  Freiberg,)  which  is  also  a  pumping  and 
hoisting  shaft,  at  a  depth  of  122.86  meters  under  the  present  deepest 
adit.  The  whole  length  of  this  tunnel  will  be  4,750,564  meters;  of 
this,  1,307,044  meters,  the  main  adit  from  Botschbnberg  to  llalsbriieke, 
is  being  constructed  by  and  at  the  expense  of  the  government,  and 
3,443,320  meters  of  branch  tunneling  inside  of  the  Freiberg  district,  and 
draining  the  llimmelfahrt,  Junge  Hohe  Birke,  Freidrich  Erbstolln, 
Heizog  August,  Besebert  Gluck,  Veieingt  Feld,  Eiuigkeit,  and  Hiin- 
melstiirst,  is  to  be  paid  for  by  the  above-named  mines,  together  with 
the  “District  Water-Conducting  Association.”  The  expectations  of 
the  successful  working  of  these  mines  in  the  future  are  chiefly  founded 
on  the  Bothsebbuberger  tunnel,  which  is  about  four  times  as  long  as  the 
Mont  Cenis  Tunnel. 

78.  The  metallurgical  works  at  Freiberg  have  attained  their  present 
state  of  perfection  only  after  many  years  of  experience,  assisted  by  the 
progress  of  science.  These  works  date  from  the  year  1710;  before  that 
time,  nearly  every  mining  company  smelted  its  own  ores  as  often  as  they 
had  accumulated  in  sufficient  quantity.  The  advantages  for  both  parties 
of  thus  centralizing  the  reduction-works  are  apparent.  The  smelting- 
woiks  make  larger  profits  than  when  there  weie  several  smaller  ones, 
but  they  also  pay  larger  prices  for  the  ore,  and  make  considerable  loans 
to  mines  that  require  them.  This  is,  in  most  cases,  equal  to  presenting 
them  with  money,  in  order  to  keep  them  in  operation.  The  history  of 
these  works  is  extremely  interesting  ;  it  forms  several  important  epochs 
in  the  history  of  metallurgy. 


SHAFT  ROASTING-FURNACES. 


35 


79.  The  smelting  process  was  greatly  improved,  about  the  middle  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  by  the  introduction  of  slag-hearths,  ( Krummofen .) 
These  were  succeeded  by  low-blast  furnaces,  (Halbhochofen,)  in  1588. 

80.  In  1790,  an  insufficient  supply  of  lead  caused  the  introduction  of 
amalgamation.  This  was  a  modification  of  the  American  amalgama¬ 
tion,  and  called  the  European,  or  barrel  amalgamation.  This  was  par¬ 
tially  superseded  by  the  Augustin  method,  (1843,)  and  finally  by  smelt¬ 
ing  the  poorest  silver-ores  for  matte,  (Eoharbeit.)  The  latter  was  im¬ 
proved  by  conducting  the  process  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  These 
were  first  introduced  in  1845.  In  order  to  thoroughly  utilize  the  sulphur 
in  the  matte  by  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  shaft  roasting-fur- 
naces  were  built  in  1854,  which  were  a  modification  of  the  English  kilns, 
now  well  known  as  the  Freiberg  kilns. 

81.  In  1860  the  present  method  of  extracting  the  silver  from  the 
roasted  copper-matte,  accompanied  by  the  production  of  copper- vitriol, 
was  introduced.  This  was  followed,  in  1862,  by  the  separation  of  silver 
from  gold  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  the  same  year  the  arsenic- 
furnaces  were  built. 

82.  Shaft  roasting  furnaces. — In  1863  Gerstenhofer’s  terrace-furnaces 
were  erected.  A  few  remarks  will  be  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  value 
and  principles  involved  in  this  important  improvement. 

In  general  they  have  the  advantage  of  good  utilization  of  the  heat, 
saving  of  fuel,  rapid  and  continual  work,  and  satisfactory  roasting. 

The  most  important  furnaces  of  this  class  that  have  lately  been 
invented  and  improved  are  those  of  Gerstenhofer,  Stetefeldt,  Hasen- 
clever,  and  Helbig.  We  can  distinguish  here  two  classes :  the  first, 
in“which  the  necessary  temperature  for  roasting  is  supported  by  the 
combustion  of  the  sulphur  in  the  ores;  this  permits  of  the  use  of 
the  gas  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  In  the  second  class,  the 
roasting  temperature  is  effected  by  the  combustion  of  fuel,  and  the 
gases  produced  cannot  be  employed  for  the  production  of  sulphuric 
acid ;  but  by  the  use  of  fuel  a  more  complete  roasting  of  the  charge  is 
effected. 

83.  The  Gerstenhofer  furnace,  also  called  terrace-furnace,  belongs  to 
the  first  class,  and  is  based  upon  the  principle  of  the  meeting  of  the 
finely-crushed  ore,  which  is  to  be  roasted  in  its  descent  with  the  heated 
gaseous  products  of  combustion  streaming  up  through  the  shaft  of  the 
furnace.  The  atmospheric  air  necessary  for  combustion  enters  the  fur¬ 
nace  partly  from  underneath  the  furnace,  and  partly  through  numerous 
holes  in  the  front  of  the  furnace.  These  are  used  also  to  oversee  the 
process.  They  can  be  closed  by  means  of  clay-plugs,  and  the  access  of 
atmospheric  air  is  regulated  by  opening  or  closing  the  holes.  As  they 
are  situated  near  each  bar  or  bridge  in  the  furnace,  they  permit  the  re¬ 
moval  of  any  agglomerated  substance  that  forms  on  the  bridge.  With 
the  exception  of  these  holes,  the  furnaces  are  closed  on  all  sides,  and  it  is 
therefore  possible  to  produce  gases  that  are  very  rich  in  sulphuric  acid 


36 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  roasting  temperature  is  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  sulphur 
contained  in  the  roasting  charge;  and  the  gases,  principally  composed 
of  sulphurous  acid,  after  having  passed  through  the  purifying  canals, 
wherein  most  of  the  arsenious  acid  is  deposited,  are  conducted  into  the 
lead-chambers  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  shafts  of  these 
furnaces  are  rectangular  in  horizontal  section.  They  are  about  5.043 
meters  high,  1.412  meters  wide,  and  0.7S5  meter  deep.  The  wall  is  0,028 
meter  thick  on  the  long  or  front  side,  and  0.47  meter  thick  ou  the  short 
side;  they  are  built  in  a  row,  so  that  several  adjoin  each  other.  From 
side  to  side  of  the  shaft  there  pass  three-sided  bars  of  tire-clay,  two  of 
which  are  so  placed  in  the  sides  of  the  shaft  that  one  of  the  three 
edges  points  upward,  the  others  downward.  There  is  a  slit  in  the  top  of 
the  furnace,  through  which  the  ore  is  charged,  by  means  of  a  revolving- 
feeder,  in  a  fine  stream.  Immediately  under  this  slit  there  is  a  three- 
sided  bar,  upon  which  the  finely-crushed  ore  falls  and  then  slides 
down  on  either  side  of  its  inclined  surfaces.  Thus  falling,  iu  this  man¬ 
ner,  from  one  bar  to  the  other,  its  descent  is  retarded,  and  it  is  kept  for 
a  longer  period  at  the  roasting  temperature.  When  the  ore  reaches 
tin;  bottom  of  the  furnace  in  a  roasted  state,  it  is  free  from  sulphur  to 
within  5  to  12  per  cent.  It  was  attempted  to  roast  the  ores  better  by 
building  a  fire-place  in  the  side  of  the  furnace,  but  this  was  soon 
abandoned.  An  important  objection  to  this  is,  that  it  renders  the  roast- 
ing-gases  valueless  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  roasted 
ore  at  Freiberg,  with  12  per  cent,  sulphur,  is  mixed  with  unroasted  ore, 
so  that  a  charge  will  contain  about  20  per  cent,  sulphur,  and  then 
roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  Before  the  ore  is  charged,  the  furnace 
and  fire-clay  bars  must  be  strongly  heated  and  the  ore  well  dried; 
later,  the  ore  burns  of  itself  and  keeps  the  furnace  at  the  required 
temperature. 

S4.  Pyritous  ores,  concentrated  and  raw  copper  matte,  (at  Mausf’eld,) 
and  zinc-blende,  for  the  fabrication  of  sulphuric  acid,  are  the  principal 
ores  and  products  roasted  iu  this  furnace.  Ores  rich  in  lead  cannot  be 
roasted  iu  this  furnace,  on  account  of  their  agglomeration  on  the  bars 
when  passing  through  the  furnace. 

85.  The  results  of  roasting  vary.  In  Lukawitz,*  Bohemia,  iron-pyrites, 
containing  35  per  cent,  sulphur,  is  roasted  so  that  it  only  coutains  2£ 
per  cent,  sulphur  after  leaving  the  furuaci;  at  the  Augusten  Iliitte, 
n  Beni,*  5  per  cent.  Sulphur;  in  Freiberg,!  bleudic  pyritous  slimes  are 
roasted  until  they  carry  but  12  to  13  per  cent,  sulphur.  According  to 
Bode,  blende  can  be  so  roasted  as  to  contain  ouly  6  per  cent,  sulphur. 
The  advantages  which  this  furnace  possesses  are  numerous  and  valuable, 
particularly  so  where  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  is  desired.  The 
capacity  of  this  furnace  is  2,500  kilograms  pyritous  slimes,  (Freiberg.) 
In  Mausfeld,  about  14.00(1  kilograms  of  granulated  or  ground  matte 

*  Bode.  “  Schwefehaurefabrikation”  1872. 

tKast  and  Brauuing.  “  Freiberger  Pi  ozesse.” 


SHAFT  ROASTING-FURNACES. 


37 


containing  27  per  cent,  sulphur,  is  roasted  in  twenty-four  hours;  50  per 
cent,  of  the  sulphur  is  utilized. 

86.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  consumption  of  fuel  is 
insignificant.  The  principal  requisite  is  that  the  ore  must  be  in  a  finely- 
powdered  state,  and,  further,  the  powder  should  be  as  uniform  in  the 
size  of  its  grains  as  possible.  The  cost  of  crushing  the  ore  should  there¬ 
fore  be  compared  with  the  advantages  which  this  furnace  possesses. 
With  kilns  there  is  the  disadvantage,  that  the  ore  roasting  remains  in 
the  same  position  throughout  the  operation,  and  with  some  other  fur¬ 
naces  (Hasenclever  and  Helbig)  the  air  only  passes  over  a  limited 
surface  of  the  ore  ;  but  in  the  Gastenhofer,  the  ore  particles  are  contin¬ 
ually  changing  their  position,  and  offering  new  surfaces  to  the  hot  stream 
of  air  ascending  the  shaft  of  the  furnace.  The  economical  and  practi¬ 
cal  results  are  good.  They  have,  however,  been  disputed  at  Freiberg, 
where  ores  carrying  lea  1  are  roasted,  but  as  they  are  believed  to  be  the 
most  desirable  furnaces  known,  new  ones  are  being  constructed.  Com¬ 
pressed  air  is  not  now  used,  the  natural  draught  being  sufficient. 

87.  The  principal  improvements  have  been  made :  First,  in  decreasing 
the  metallic  volatilization,  by  charging  the  ore  through  one  opening 
only,  and  by  allowing  the  gases  to  escape  through  four  flues  in  the  sides 
or  corners  of  the  furnace.  In  Mausfeld,  the  fumes  are  equal  to  about  5 
per  cent,  of  the  material  treated.  Second,  in  the  arrangement  for 
emptying  the  furnace  of  its  roasted  charge;  the  best  of  this  kind  is, 
perhaps,  a  box  under  the  receiving-chamber,  in  which  there  is  an  archi- 
medean  screw,  which,  upon  being  revolved,  carries  the  roasted  ore  out 
of  the  furnace,  the  roasting-charge  preventing  the  air  from  entering  or 
escaping.  This  arrangement  has  given  excellent  satisfaction  in  Frei¬ 
berg,  and  has  been  attached  to  all  the  Gerstenliofer  roastiug-furnaces 
at  that  place.  The  first  furnace  built  according  to  this  system  was 
erected  in  Freiberg  in  1863.  The  first  Filz,  or  round-shaft  furnace  with 
widened  top,  was  erected  in  Freiberg,  according  to  a  plan  of  Herrn 
Pilz.  The  success  of  these  principles  caused  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  construction  of  furnaces  in  almost  all  metallurgical  works  where  the 
shaft-furnace  is  employed. 

88.  The  history  of  shaft-furnaces  is  extended  and  complicated.  They 
have  been  at  times  of  very  simple  construction,  and  then  again  were 
very  complex.  The  principal  variation  has  been  in  the  shape  and 
proportions  of  the  shaft.  At  first  the  shaft  was  made  to  decrease  in 
size  toward  the  top  in  order  to  effect  a  better  utilization  of  the  heat  by 
the  more  perfect  penetration  of  the  ascending  gases  throughout  the 
charge ;  second,  diminution  of  loss  by  volatilization,  by  condensing, 
as  it  were,  the  fumes  in  the  narrow  throat  of  the  furnace  ;  third,  a  loos¬ 
ening  up  of  the  finely-crushed  ore  during  its  descent  ;  fourth  and  lastly, 
by  means  of  a  larger  melting-zone  to  spare  the  walls  of  the  furnace,  and 
make  a  larger  production  possible.  The  extreme  of  this  style  of  furnace 
is  to  be  seen  in  Yogel’s  method  of  construction. 


38 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


89.  The  following  are  the  latest  conclusions  as  regards  the  shape  of 
the  furnace-shaft:  By  widening  the  shaft  at  the  top,  the  heat  of  the 
furnace  is  not  so  well  utilized  ;  but  by  the  lessening  of  the  velocity 
of  the  ascending  gases  and  descending  charge,  thereby  effected,  the 
reactions  taking  place  between  them  are  more  perfect,  and,  as  the 
ascending  gas-stream  moves  slower,  aud  spreads  throughout  the  widen¬ 
ing  shaft,  it  cools  oft',  and,  consequently,  a  much  smaller  amount  of  fur¬ 
nace-fumes  are  produced.  The  loosening  up  of  the  finely-crushed  ore  is 
hereby  lost,  (which  is  at  the  present  day  not  thought  to  be  of  great  con¬ 
sequence,)  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tilting  of  the  charge  and  fuel- 
layers  is  ^voided,  as  well  as  the  arrival  of  ore  in  the  smelting-zone  be¬ 
fore  its  due  preparation. 

90.  In  a  small  smelting-zone  the  charge  is  more  perfectly  smelted, 
aud,  by  the  increase  of  temperature  hereby  effected,  the  slag  produced 
is  much  poorer  in  the  metals;  hence,  the  iron  water-tuyeres  have,  in 
consequence  of  their  many  important  advantages,  almost  universally 
supplanted  the  old  method  of  smelting  with  “noses.”  The  sides  of  the 
smelting-zone  are  prevented  from  wearing  away  by  making  use  of  iron 
water-boxes  to  keep  them  cool ;  but  it  is  said  that  the  cooled  smelted 
matter  forms  accretions  on  them  which  destroys  the  boxes,  and  they 
are  such  excellent  conductors  of  heat  that  it  is  very  warm  for  the  work¬ 
men  when  near  the  furnace. 

91.  A  furnace  with  widening  top  was  first  designed  by  Truran  in 
185(1,  for  the  smelting  of  iron-ore. 

92.  Alger  erected,  in  1859,  a  furnace,  elliptical  in  shape  on  the  inside, 
and  having  a  row  of  tuyeres  on  the  opposite  sides;  the  shaft,  however, 
was  not  wider  at  the  top  than  below.  Both  had  in  view  the  better 
utilization  of  the  heat  and  increased  production. 

93.  In  18(12,  Kaehette  made  known  his  method  of  construction.  The 
shaft  is  quadrilateral  in  form,  and  widens  toward  the  top  ;  in  each  of 
the  longer  sides  there  is  a  row  of  tuyeres,  not  exactly  opposite  to  each 
other,  however,  but  alternating;  and,  in  order  that  the  furnace  may  be 
easily  blown  in  during  the  winter  time,  there  is  a  fire-place  under  the  bed¬ 
stone,  which  counects  with  flues  in  the  mantel-walls  of  the  furnace. 
This  plan  of  construction  was  intended  at  first  for  the  treatment  of  all 
kinds  of  ore,  and  was,  accordingly,  called  the  “Universal  furnace.” 
This  furnace  was  a  great  improvement,  but  it  did  not  completely  answer 
to  all  the  wants  of  metallurgical  methods  of  treatment. 

91.  The  most  natural  and,  at  the  same  time,  now  most  often  employed 
construction  is  that  of  Bilz's  desigu.  They  are  round  or  octagonal,  (the 
latter  soon  become  round  on  the  inside  by  the  accretions  formed,)  and 
widen  from  below  upward.  The  tuyeres  were  arranged  about  the  fur¬ 
nace  according  to  Sefstrom’s  principle.  At  first  the  shaft  was  made 
octagonal.  From  the  level  of  the  tuyeres  up  to  the  charging-hole,  it 
measured  0.270  meters  diameter ;  at  the  tuyeres,  1.412  meters;  and  at 
the  charging  hole,  2.354  meters.  It  had  eight  water  tuyeres  0.782  meter 


SHAFT  ROASTING-FURNACES. 


39 


in  diameter,  and  was  furnished  with  a  funnel-shaped  charging  appa¬ 
ratus.  The  furnace  smoke  and  fumes  were  conducted  away  by  means 
of  a  canal,  and,  in  order  to  avoid  explosions,  this  was  made  sufficiently 
large  for  their  free  escape.  The  shaft  was  enveloped  within  a  sheet-iron 
mantle,  which  rested  upon  four  or  eight  hollow  cast-iron  pillars.  The 
hearth  stood  free ;  the  furnace-crucible  was  composed  of  brasque.  There 
were  two  cast-iron  slag-spouts,  three  cast-iron  tap-hearths,  and  also 
several  slag-pots,  for  conveying  the  slag  away. 

95.  Lately,  these  furnaces  have  been  made  perfectly  cylindrical,  3.84 
meters  high  and  1.726  wide.  The  hearth  is  of  fire-brick,  and  the  charg¬ 
ing  arrangement  done  away  with.  They  are  constructed  either  as  cru¬ 
cible  or  hearth  furnaces,  with  eight,  and  sometimes  uine,  tuyeres,  and 
some  are  furnished  with  wronght-iron  water-boxes. 

96.  These  furnaces  are  distinguishable  from  all  others  in  the  following 
particulars,  viz  :  they  are  supported  by  iron  pillars,  and  stand  quite 
alone,  requiring  very  little  space;  irregularities  in  the  smelting  can  be 
easily  discovered,  and  access  to  the  smelting-zone  is  not  difficult.  In 
consequence  of  these  advantages,  the  cost  of  putting  the  furnace  in 
readiuess  for  smelting  is  small,  and  the  smelting  is  conducted  with  little 
trouble.  They  have  the  form,  (round,)  in  which  the  least  amount  of 
accretions  form  on  the  sides,  and  therefore  allow  of  long-continued  and 
regular  smelting  campaigns.  The  amount  of  fuel  consumed  is  small, 
and  the  production  of  fumes  not  large.  Slag  may  be  produced,  which 
carries  but  a  small  percentage  of  the  metals.  The  reduction  is  complete, 
and  the  temperature  can  be  increased  to  the  point  at  which  the  melted 
masses  react  well  upon  each  other.  Covered  hearths  have  been  built 
immediately  in  front  of  the  furnace,  in  order  to  effect  an  increased 
production.  It  was  intended  that  the  smelted  mass  should  settle  and 
separate  in  this  fore-hearth,  but,  after  repeated  experiments,  they  were 
declared  not  to  be  effective.  Heated  blast,  experimented  upon  in 
Clausthal  in  1870,  showed  no  advantages,  as  regards  increased  produc¬ 
tion  and  the  formiug  of  a  slag  carrying  less  metal,  as  the  saving  of  fuel 
thereby  effected  was  canceled  by  the  consumption  of  bituminous  coal 
necessary  for  heating  the  blast.  In  lead-ore,  smelting,  &c.,  charging- 
hoppers  have  generally  been  done  away  with,  and  the  furnace-top  is 
about  a  foot  above  the  charging-floor,  and  the  fumes  are  led  off  from 
the  side. 

97.  At  the  Muldener  Works,  near  Freiberg,  about  30,000  kilograms  ore, 
equal  to  60,000  kilograms  smelting-charge,  are  put  through  in  twenty-four 
hours,  with  6,000  to  7,000  kilograms  of  coke.  At  the  Halsbriickner  Works, 
about  35,000  kilograms  ore,  equal  to  about  50,000  kilograms  smelting- 
charge,  are  put  through  in  twenty-four  hours,  with  5,000  to  5,500  kilograms 
of  coke.  Atthe  first-named  works,  the  ores  contain  more  zinc  than  those  of 
the  latter,  so  that  in  the  treatment  of  blendic  smelting-charges,  at  least 
100  per  cent,  of  slag  from  the  same  manipulation  is  charged  with  it ;  at 
the  latter  works,  however,  50  per  cent,  is  sufficient.  The  smelting-charge 


40 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


is  so  made  up  that  quite  a  large  amount  of  matte  is  formed,  relatively 
speaking,  which  serves  at  the  same  time  as  a  solvent  for  the  zinc-sul¬ 
phide.  The  smelting  campaigns  at  the  Muldener  Works  last  from  ten 
to  twenty  weeks,  and  at  the  Halsbriickner  Hiitte  much  longer.  The 
pressure  of  the  blast  at  both  works  is  equal  to  T  centimeters  quicksilver- 
column.  The  very  complicated  process  of  former  years  has  of  late 
become  much  more  simplified.  The  ores  undergo  preliminary  treat¬ 
ments,  which  are  conducted  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  and  accompanied 
by  the  production  of  such  ingredients  as  are  of  disadvantage  in  the 
smelting  operations.  Ores  carrying  such  substances  are  treated  sep¬ 
arately,  and  then  pass  through  a  common  smelting  process.  The  aux¬ 
iliary  operations  have  thereby  become  of  greater  importance,  especially 
the  operation  of  roasting.  The  processes  at  these  works  are  almost  con¬ 
stantly  changing,  and  as  all  the  communications  thereupon  have  been 
more  or  less  imperfect,  a  full  and  detailed  description  of  the  several 
processes  practiced  at  these  model  metallurgical  works  will  be  given. 
The  processes  at  both  the  Halsbriickner  and  Muldener  works  are  of  a 
similar  nature.  The  methods  here  described  are  practiced  at  the  latter, 
with  the  exception  of  the  copper- vitriol  process  and  gold  separation, 
which  is  conducted  at  the  Halsbriickner  Works.  In  addition  to  notes, 
use  has  been  made  of  Herru  Kast  and  Briiuning’s  communications  to  the 
“  Preussische  Zeitsehrift.”  The  description  of  the  silver  extraction 
from  roasted  copper-matte  is  almost  a  reproduction  of  a  portion  of  Herrn 
ixuhleman’s  communication  to  the  same  paper. 

9S.  Tiie  Freiberg  metallurgical  processes.— The  metallurgical 
processes  of  Freiberg  have  for  their  main  object  the  production  of  silver, 
gold,  lead,  bismuth,  zinc,  copper,  vitriol,  &c.  In  addition  to  the  ores 
delivered  by  the  Saxon  mines  in  and  about  Freiberg, foreign  and  domestic 
ores  are  purchased  and  treated  ;  also  sweepings,  or  dross  containing 
silver,  lead,  copper,  or  gold.  The  sulphur,  present  in  large  quantities  I 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  ores,  is  made  use  of  as  much  as  possible  for 
the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  ;  some  of  the  ores  also  carry  a  large  I 
percentage  of  arsenic.  This  is  also  treated  to  advantage  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  various  arsenical  products,  such  as  arsenious  acid,  (ratsbane,) 
oripiment,  realgar,  and  metallic  arsenic.  The  silver  contained  in  the 
Freiberg  ores  is  more  or  less  finely  distributed  throughout  the  ore  in 
the  form  of  silver- glance,  stephauite,  tctrahedrite,  polybasite,  and  native 
silver.  The  lead  occurs  almost  exclusively  as  galena.  The  copper  occurs 
as  copper-pyrites,  tctrahedrite,  variegated  copper-ore  and  copper  glauce. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Freiberg  ores  contain,  besides  the  metals  already 
mentioned,  unpayable  quantities  of  gold,  bismuth,  cobalt,  and  nickel. 
The  gangue  is  principally  composed  of  calcite,  bitter-spar,  fluorite,  baryte, 
and  quartz. 

99.  Ores. — All  ores  delivered  at  the  smelting-works  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  viz,  payable  and  non-payable.  To  the  first  class  belong  all 
ores  that  contain  over  a  specified  amount  of  metal,  and,  to  the  second  j 


FREIBERG  METALLURGICAL  PROCESSES. 


41 


class,  all  those  that  do  not  reach  this  amount.  For  a  full  and  official 
account  of  what  ores  are  purchasable  and  what  are  not;  the  amounts 
paid  for  ores  containing  various  amounts  of  the  different  metals,  as 
well  as  the  rules  and  regulations  followed  in  the  weighing  and  assaying 
of  the  same,  see  the  translation  of  the  “  Regulativ  fur  deu  Einlcauf 
sachsischer  Erze  bei  deu  WerJceu  der  koniglichen  Generalschmelzadmini - 
stration  vom  Quartal  Crucis  1868,”  (regulations  for  the  purchase  of  Saxon 
ores  at  the  works  of  the  Royal  General  Smelting  Administration,  from 
the  Quarterly  Crucis ,  1868.)  This  will  be  found  in  the  appendix  of  this 
report,  and,  for  this  reason,  much  pertaining  to  the  manner  of  weighiug 
the  ore  when  delivered  at  the  works,  the  rules  followed  in  selecting  the 
assay  samples,  and  carrying  out  the  assays  made  from  them,  can  be 
here  omitted. 

To  the  non-paying  ores  belong,  1.  Dry  silver-ores  ( durrerze )  containing 
from  0.01  to  0.04  per  cent.  =  2  oz.,  18  dwt.  4.80  gr.  to  11  oz.  13  dwt. 
4.80  gr.  silver ;  2.  Copper-ores,  not  containing  4.5  per  cent,  of  silver  and 
copper  together ;  3.  Lead-ores,  not  carrying  more  than  15  per  cent,  of 
lead  ;  and,  4.  Nickel  and  cobalt  ores. 

100.  The  ores  are  classified,  according  to  their  composition,  into  the 
following  nine  classes  :  1.  Lead-ores,  a.  Plumbiferous  ores,  b.  Galenas  ; 
2.  Copper-ores;  3.  Arsenical  ores;  4.  Zinc-ores;  5.  Sulphur-ores;  6. 
Pyritous  silver  ores ;  7.  Quartzose  pyritous  ores ;  8.  Quartzose  dry 
silver-ores ;  and  9.  Spathic  dry  silver-ores.  The  lead-ores  are  all 
argentiferous,  and  compose  about  the  half  of  the  ores  delivered  at  the 
works.  They  are  classified  into  plumbiferous  ores  and  galenas.  Those 
containing  between  15  and  29  per  cent,  lead  belong  to  the  first  class, 
and  those  that  contain  over  30  per  cent,  lead  are  reckoned  in  the  second 
class,  (galenas.)  The  average  percentage  of  lead  contained  in  all  the 
plumbiferous  and  galena  ores  scarcely  amounts  to  40  per  cent.,  and  the 
silver  to  0.15  per  cent.  —  43  oz.  33  dwt.  14.40  gr.  The  copper-ores  are 
also  always  argentiferous ;  they  contain,  from  1  to  10  per  cent,  copper, 
and  the  general  average  is  3  per  cent,  at  the  highest.  The  delivery  of 
copper-ores  from  the  Freiberg  mines  is,  comparatively  speaking,  very 
small,  but  at  times  rich  foreign  ores  are  bought.  The  arsenical  ores 
contain  from  10  to  40  per  cent,  arsenic,  viz:  a.  arsenical  ores,  averaging- 
35  per  cent,  arsenic;  b.  arsenical  pyrites,  averaging  15  per  cent,  arsenic 
and  25  per  cent,  sulphur;  c.  arsenical  lead-ores,  averaging  13  per  cent, 
arsenic  and  18  to  20  per  cent.  lead.  They  are  delivered  over  to  the 
arsenic  works.  The  zinc-ores,  principally  composed  of  zinc-blende, 
contain  from  30  to  40  per  cent.  zinc.  Lead-ores  carrying  less  than  30 
per  cent,  zinc  are  classed  with  the  plumbiferous  ores.  They  are 
delivered  over  to  the  ziuc-works  for  treatment.  All  the  zinc-ores  carry 
more  or  less  silver.  All  Freiberg  ores  that  contain  20  per  cent,  and 
more  of  sulphur  are  classed  with  the  sulphur-ores.  Pyritous  silver- 
ores  are  all  such  as  are  rich  in  silver  and  sulphur,  and  when  they  con- 


42 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


tain  0.20  per  cent.  =  58  oz.  0  dwt.  silver,  and  more,  the  sulphur  is  not 
paid  for.  They  do  not  contain  more  than  1  per  cent,  copper,  or  15  per 
cent.  zinc.  The  quartzose  silver-ores  are  poor  in  silver,  and  carry  a 
very  large  percentage  of  silicic  acid.  By  dry  ores,  ( diirrerze ,)  in  general, 
is  understood  all  such  argentiferous  ores  as  do  not  contain  lead  and 
copper  in  payable  amounts.  By  quartzose  dry-silver  ores,  is  to  be 
understood  all  such  as  are  principally  composed  of  quartz,  and  contain 
only  so  much  pyrites  that  they  are  not  capable  of  producing  20  per 
cent,  of  raw  matte  by  smelting.  The  spathic  dry-silver  ores  are  only 
distinguishable  from  the  quartzose  therein  by  the  associated  gangue 
being  of  a  spathic,  instead  of  silicious,  nature.  The  classification  of  the 
ores  may  be  simplified  as  follows  : 

1.  Lead  ores  : 

a.  Plumbiferous  ores,  with  15  to  29  per  cent.  lead. 

b.  Galena,  with  more  than  30  per  cent.  lead. 

2.  Pyrites,  chiefly  iron  pyrites,  containing  not  more  than  15  per  cent, 
zinc,  and  very  little  arsenic. 

3.  Pyritiferous  ores,  with  15  to  30  per  cent.  zinc. 

1.  Blende,  with  more  than  30  per  cent.  zinc. 

5.  Arsenical  ores,  averaging  35  per  cent,  of  arsenic. 

0.  Arsenical  pyrites,  with  15  per  cent,  arsenic  and  20  to  28  per  cent, 
sulphur. 

7.  Arsenical  lead-ores,  with  12  per  cent,  arsenic,  and  IS  to  20  per  cent, 
lead. 

The  ores  are  also  divided  into  stamped,  jigged,  and  washed  ores,  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  manner  in  which  they  were  dressed  at  the  mines. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  they  are  called  slime  ores.  The  distinction  of  lump 
ore  is  also  made  ;  it  is  ore  in  pieces  of  about  the  size  of  a  walnut. 

H)l.  Roasting. — Roasting  has  for  its  object  the  oxidation  of  the  metallic 
sulphides  and  arsenides;  and  volatilization  of  the  sulphur  and  arsenic 
to  within  a  certain  degree.  The  amount  of  sulphur  contained  in  an 
unroasted  charge  varies  from  20  to  25  per  cent.,  and  that  of  one  having 
passed  through  this  manipulation  2  to  5  per  cent.  The  pyrites,  when 
in  lump  size,  are  roasted  in  kilns,  but  when  in  a  powdered  condition 
(slimes)  are  roasted  in  Gerstenhbfer  furnaces.  Matte  is  roasted  in 
Wellnersstalls  and  reverberatory  furnaces,  but  oftener  in  kilns.  Pyri 
tiferous  ores  are  roasted  iu  the  Gerstenhbfer  furnaces  to  12  per  cent, 
sulphur,  then  in  reverberatory  furnaces;  and  finally  with  residue  from 
the  zinc  and  coke  iu  reverberatory  furnaces.  Arsenical  pyrites  are 
treated  for  realgar,  <S:c.  Tbe  lead  ores  ai’e  mixed  with  the  roasted  py¬ 
rites  from  the  Gerstenhbfer  furnace  and  the  ore  that  lias  been  treated 
for  realgar,  when  they  are  roasted  iu  reverberatory  furnaces  to  within 
2  to  5  per  cent,  sulphur.  The  roasting  of  the  lead-ore  charge  is  con¬ 
ducted  in  long  reverberatory  furnaces,  (Fortsch vnfel ungmfen.)  These 
furnaces  have  two  hearths,  with  the  exception  of  two  at  the  Ilalsbriick- 
ner  Works,  which  have  only  one  each. 


FREIBERG  METALLURGICAL  PROCESSES. 


43 


102.  The  roasting-furnace  with  one  hearth  is  of  the  following  dimen¬ 
sions  :  Length,  of  hearth,  48  feet ;  width  of  same,  10  feet ;  thus  giving  a 
roasting  surface  of  480  square  feet.  A  double  roasting-furnace  has  two 
hearths,  one  over  the  other,  made  of  fire-bricks  or  slabs,  3  inches 
thick.  The  lower  hearth  has  a  length  of  37  feet  0  inches,  and  is  5  feet 
6  inches  wide  ;  the  upper  hearth  is  38  feet  6  inches  long  and  6  feet  wide. 
The  distance  from  the  hearth  to  the  highest  point  in  the  arch  over  the 
same  is  21  inches,  with  both  lower  aud  upper  hearths.  The  lower 
hearth  connects  immediately  with  the  fire  place  and  is  separated  from 
the  same  by  the  fire-bridge.  A  slit  passes  through  the  fire-bridge, 
formed  by  cast-iron  plates ;  cold  air  constantly  passing  through  this 
aperture  serves  to  keep  the  fire-bridge  somewhat  cooler.  The  distance 
from  grate  to  fire-bridge  is  12  inches:  from  hearth  to  top  of  fire-bridge 
8  inches.  The  grate  is  4  feet  6  inches  long  and  2  feet  wide.  The  fire¬ 
bridge  is  4  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  the  distance  between  it  and  the  arch 
is  11  inches.  Both  hearths  connect  with  each  other  by  means  of  an 
aperture  12  inches  square,  situated  at  the  end  opposite  the  fire-place. 
There  are  eight  working  doors  connecting  with  the  lower  roastiug- 
hearth  and  nine  with  the  upper.  The  upper  hearth  has  doors  on  both 
sides,  the  lower  only  on  one.  The  lower  hearth  rests  upon  a  slag-bed, 
covered  with  a  layer  of  sand  4  inches  thick  ;  then  follows  a  C-iuch  layer 
of  brick,  and  upon  this  come  the  fire-clay  slabs,  forming  the  hearth.  On 
top  of  the  furnace  there  is  a  drying-hearth,  and  in  the  center  of  the 
same  is  the  charging  hole,  through  which  the  roasting  charge  is  allowed 
to  fall  upon  the  upper  hearth.  The  gases  from  the  roasting  pass  off 
from  the  upper  hearth  through  a  vertically-descending  flue  into  the 
maiu  canal  leading  to  the  chimney.  The  gases  of  combustion,  coming 
from  the  fire  place  in  company  with  the  roastiug-fumes,  pass  from  the 
furnace  into  a  vertically-descending  flue,  and  from  here  part  of  them 
pass  into  the  lxearth-canal  and  part  into  the  muffle-canal,  or  into  the 
upper  aud  lower  condensation-chambers.  Both  of  these  chambers  stand 
in  connection  with  a  stack  150  feet  high.  The  conducting  of  the  fumes 
into  two  separate  condensing-chambers  is  necessary,  because,  for  exam¬ 
ple,  if  all  the  gases  were  to  be  first  conducted  into  one  chamber  and 
from  there  into  the  other,  they  would  not  be  large  enough  to  hold  them 
all.  In  these  condensing-chambers,  which  are  built  of  brick  dipped  in 
tar,  are  deposited  all  the  condensable  ingredients  contained  in  the  roast¬ 
ing  gases;  these  are,  arsenious  acid,  sulphurous  acid,  zinc-oxide,  aud 
small  particles  of  ore.  In  this  manner  fumes  are  saved  which  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  arsenious  acid.  The  chambers  are  cleaned  out 
four  times  in  the  year,  after  the  furnaces  have  been  burned  out. 

102.  The  fuel  used  in  roasting  is  bituminous  coal,  from  Potchappel. 
The  daily  consumption  per  furnace  in  roasting  lead-ore  charged,  amounts 
to  1,800  kilograms  ;  in  roasting  matte,  to  800  kilograms. 

103.  Modus  operandi. — Each  hearth  is  charged  with  four  to  six  charges, 
weighing  about  750  kilograms  each  ;  when  spread  out  the  charge  is  about 
4  to  5  inches  high.  Every  three  hours,  the  charge  next  to  the  fire-place, 


44 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 

and  which  is  in  a  half-melted  condition,  is  removed  from  the  furnace 
through  a  door  in  the  side  of  the  lower  hearth  and  flows  into  an  iron  car. 
This  door  is  closed  by  an  iron  plate  during  the  roasting  of  the  charge. 
The  space  on  the  hearth  hereby  left  empty  is  now  supplied  with  the 
next  following  charge,  by  shoveling  it  from  its  former  restiug-place 
toward  the  fire-bridge.  Through  the  aperture  in  the  top  of  the  furnace, 
a  new  charge  is  allowed  to  fall,  after  all  the  other  charges  in  the  furnace 
have  been  moved  along  one  place.  This  operation  is  repeated  eight 
times  in  twenty-four  hours;  the  furnace  is  accordingly  supplied  with 
9,400  cwt.  of  lead-ore  mixture  every  twenty-four  hours.  The  single¬ 
hearth  furnace,  at  the  Halsbriickuer  Works  holds  five  charges,  of  1,250 
kilograms  each.  Every  three  hours  one  is  removed,  so  that  in  twenty- 
four  hours  9,000  kilograms  are  roasted.  The  operation  of  roasting  with¬ 
out  agglomerating  the  charge  is  conducted  in  the  same  manner.  The  ag¬ 
glomerating  roasting  is  only  employed  in  the  roasting  of  lead-ore  mix¬ 
tures.  There  are  three  periods  distinguishable  in  the  process  of  roast¬ 
ing,  viz:  the  commencing  period,  the  desulphurization  period,  and  the 
dead-roasting  period.  During  the  first  period,  which  takes  place  on  the 
upi>er  hearth,  the  ore  parts  with  its  moisture.  The  charge  let  on  to  the 
upper  hearth  is  allowed  to  remain,  just  as  it  falls,  without  being  spread 
out ;  the  doors  are  kept  closed,  and  it  remains  thereuntil  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  second  period,  which  takes  place  one  and  a  half  hours  later. 
During  the  desulphurization  period,  sulphur  and  arsenic  are  disengaged, 
and  the  ore  becomes  dark  red.  It  is  now  necessary  to  stir  the  charge 
constantly,  in  order  that  every  part  of  the  same  may  come  in  contact 
with  the  atmospheric  air.  Sulphurous  acid  and  arsenious  acid  are  now 
disengaged  in  voluminous  clouds.  This  period  continues  from  four  to 
five  hours.  During  the  last  three  hours,  the  dead-roasting  is  effected 
and  the  charge  gradually  ceases  to  evolve  any  more  gases.  The  temper¬ 
ature  must  now  be  increased  and  the  charge  well  raked,  in  order  to  free 
it  from  its  last  traces  of  sulphur  and  arsenic.  Each  furnace  is  attended 
by  five  men,  working  twelve-hour  shifts.  The  large  single-hearth  fur¬ 
nace,  however,  is  attended  by  eight  men.  The  roasted  lead-ore  mixture 
is  principally  composed  of  the  metallic  oxide  and  basic  sulphates  of  the 
metals  contained  iu  the  charge,  and  contains  per  50  kilograms  0.15  to 
0.20  per  cent.  =  43  oz.  13  dwt.  14.40  gr.  to  58  oz.  6  dwt.  of  silver,  30  to  25 
per  cent,  lead,  0.5  per  cent,  copper,  S  to  9  per  cent,  zinc,  15  to  20  per 
cent  silicic  acid,  and  2  to  G  per  cent,  sulphur. 

104.  The  cost  of  roasting  1  cwt.  of  ore  amounts  to  3  silbergroscheu 
3  pfeunige*  ;  the  items  are  as  follows  : 

Sgr.  Pf. 


Coal .  1  3 

Wages .  1  G 

Repair  of  tools .  ..  . .  0  6 


3  3 

*  A  silbergroscheu  is  equal  to  about  2^  cents,  and  there  are  Vi  pfeunige  iu  a  groschen. 


FREIBERG  METALLURGICAL  PROCESSES. 


45 


105.  If  a  comparison  be  now  made  between  the  furnace  with  double 
hearth  and  that  with  one  only,  the  latter  has  the  advantage  of  greater  sim¬ 
plicity  and  has  less  need  of  repairs,  and,  furthermore,  is  not  inferior  to 
the  former,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  at  the  present  time,  in  the  consump¬ 
tion  of  coal,  labor  of  manipulation,  and  degree  of  roasting.  The  offi¬ 
cials  at  the  Muldener  Works  have  expressed  the  above  opinion,  but  they 
also,  in  opposition  to  this  view,  commenced  anew  double-hearth  furnace 
in  the  spring  of  1873,  which  was  finished  in  the  following  fall.  I  think, 
were  reliable  data  to  be  had,  that  a  considerable  saving  of  fuel  would  be 
proven. 

106.  It  is  only  the  American  ores  that  are  roasted  in  heaps  or  stalls. 
By  roasting  in  heaps,  the  lump  ore  or  product  is  mixed  with  coke  and  piled 
upon  a  thin  layer  of  wood  and  shavings  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyr¬ 
amid.  In  the  center  of  this  heap  there  is  a  chimney  8  feet  high  and  1 
foot  6  inches  wide,  inside  measurement.  This  chimney  is  perforated  on 
all  sides,  up  as  high  as  the  roastiug-lieap  is  piled  around  it,  and  is 
built  of  brick.  In  order  that  the  heap  may  take  fire  more  easily,  there 
are  four  canals  left  at  the  base,  branching  out  at  right  angles  from  the 
four  sides  of  the  chimney,  and  the  whole  heap  is  covered  with  fine  coke, 
thus  causing  all  the  gases  to  find  their  way  out  through  the  chimney. 
Such  a  heap  generally  receives  three  fires,  or,  in  other  words,  it  is 
roasted  three  times.  During  the  first  fire,  it  burns  for  about  four  weeks; 
during  the  second,  three;  and  during  the  third,  two  w^eeks.  For  the  first 
fii'e  If  klafter  (1  klafter  =  108  cubic  feet)  wood  and  8  scheffel  (1  scheffel  = 
li-  cubic  feet)  coke  are  necessary,  and,  after  this,  f  klafter  wood  and  16 
scheffel  coke  are  consumed  in  the  roasting  of  5,000  kilograms  of  ore 
or  product.  This  operation  is,  at  the  present  time,  only  carried  out 
during  the  winter  months,  during  which  time  the  gases  do  not  affect  the 
surrounding  fields  so  injuriously. 

107.  The  roasting  in  double  Wellner  stalls  is  cheaper,  but  consumes 
more  time  than  roasting  in  kilns  where  coal  takes  the  place  of  wood  for 
fuel.  This  style  of  roasting-stall  is  32  feet  long  and  16  feet  wide,  inside 
measurement,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls  of  slag-stone  7  to  8  feet  high. 
In  one  of  the  longer  sides  (front)  there  are  eight  fire-places,  four  to  each 
stall,  standing  6  inches  apart  and  all  furnished  with  iron  grates.  The 
floor  of  the  stalls  rises  3  feet  in  its  total  length,  rests  upon  crushed 
slag,  and  is  built  of  slag-stone.  Residues  from  the  arsenical  wmrks  and 
lead-matte  are  roasted  in  the  double  stalls.  Both  of  these  products 
have  been  previously  roasted  in  kilns  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  the 
greater  amount  of  their  sulphur  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid ; 
they  consequently  only  require  one  fire  in  the  stalls  to  reduce  their  per¬ 
centage  of  sulphur  down  to  4  or  6  per  cent.  Lately  these  products 
have  been  delivered  over  to  the  operation  of  ore-smelting,  just  as  they 
came  from  the  kiln,  without  further  treatment  in  the  stalls.  Lead- 
matte  containing  over  20  per  cent,  lead  cannot  be  roasted  to  advantage 
in  kilns  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  is,  therefore,  roasted 


46 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


directly  iu  the  stalls,  where  it  is  roasted  in  from  two  to  three  tires.  The 
roasting-heaps  in  this  case  are  never  made  to  contain  over  25,000  kilo¬ 
grams  iu  order  to  avoid  their  agglomerating.  In  charging  a  stall, 
a  thin  layer  of  shavings  is  strewn  on  the  floor,  and  on  top  of  this  is 
given  another  thin  layer  of  tine  coke.  The  product  to  be  roasted  is 
heaped  on  the  fire  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid  and  the  surface  covered 
with  tine  coke.  A  stall  holds  from  about  45, <  00  to  60,000  kilograms. 
The  grate-bars  are  now  placed  within  the  fire-places,  a  fire  is  made,  with 
bituminous  coal,  and  kept  up  until  the  heap  burns  of  its  own  accord. 
This  takes  from  six  to  eight  hours,  and  one  scheffel  of  coal  is  thereby 
consumed.  After  the  completion  of  the  roasting,  the  heap  is  torn  down, 
and  the  properly-roasted  lumps  are  separated  from  that  which  is  not 
thoroughly  roasted.  That  which  is  properly  roasted  is  distinguished 
by  its  porosity,  blackish,  and  earthy  appearance.  The  imperfectly 
roasted  is  generally  melted  together  in  lumps,  and  these  lumps  are 
broken  up  and  roasted  over  again.  After  having  received  from  two  to 
three  fires,  this  product  generally  contains  from  4  to  6  per  ceut.  sulphur, 
which  is  present  principally  in  the  form  of  sulphuric  acid,  in  combina¬ 
tion/  with  the  metallic  oxides  of  iron,  zinc,  copper,  and  lead.  The  roast- 
ing  gases  escape,  through  the  perforated  back  wall  of  the  stalls,  into  a 
canal,  where  they  are  partially  condensed,  and  from  here  the  remainder 
pass  oil  into  a  chimney.  About  15  cwt.  of  coke  and  20  scheffel*  of  bitu¬ 
minous  coal  are  consumed  in  roasting  1,000  cwt.  of  lead-matte,  which  has 
already  been  roasted  once  in  the  kiln  ;  2  scheffel  of  coke  and  20  scheffel 
of  bituminous  coal  are  consumed  in  roasting  1,000  cwt.  of  roasted  resi¬ 
dues;  2  scheffel  coke  and  1  scheffel  bituminous  coal  are  required  for 
roasting  500  cwt.  of  copper  and  rich  lead-matte,  but  in  the  second  fire 
10  scheffel  of  coke  and  2  scheffel  of  coal  are  consumed  in  roasting  the 
same  product. 

108.  The  manufacture  qf  sulphuric  acid. — The  ores  and  metal¬ 
lurgical  products  treated  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  are 
the  following:  Lead-matte,  not  containing  over  20  percent,  lead  and 
20  per  cent,  copper;  blendic  pyritous,  dry  silver-ores  poor  iu  silver, 
and  uon-payable  ores  when  containing  20  per  ceut.  of  sulphur  or 
more;  plumbiferous  ores,  containing  20  per  ceut.  of  sulphur  and  over, 
but  with  less  than  25  per  cent,  lead  ;  residues  from  the  arsenical  works 
that  contain  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  sulphur. 

109.  The  ores  and  products  are  roasted  iu  kilns  and  in  Gersteuhbfer 
furnaces.  All  residues  from  the  arsenical  works,  lump  pyrites,  and 
broken  lead-matte  are  roasted  in  an  English  shaft  roasting  furnace  or 
kiln.  The  general  shape  of  the  shaft  is  similar  to  the  shaft  of  an  iron 
blast-furnace.  There  are  two  kinds,  the  one  larger  than  the  other.  The 
larger  kilns,  3.14  meters  high,  3.14  by  1.5  meters  wide,  are  used  for 
roasting  substances  comparatively  poor  iu  sulphur,  viz,  lead-matte 
and  residues  from  the  arsenical  works;  the  smaller,  3.14  meters  high 

*1  sebeftel=L90  pounds  or  85  kilograms. 


SULPHURIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE. 


47 


aud  2.20  by  l.o7  meters  wide,  for  lump  pyrites.  On  the  front  side, 
there  are  a  number  of  working-doors,  which  are  used  for  getting  at  the 
charge,  with  iron  bars,  in  order  to  free  the  sides  of  the  furnace  from 
any  accretions  of  melted  matter  which  may  have  formed  thereon.  On 
the  top  of  the  kilns  are  charging-holes.  When  a  kiln  is  to  be  set  in 
work,  the  shaft  is  filled,  for  about  two-thirds  of  the  way  up  to  the  top, 
with  lump-pyrites  that  have  been  roasted  ;  a  strong  fire  is  then  made  an 
top  of  this,  and  when  the  furnace  has  become  red-hot,  the  roasting-charge 
is  added.  This  soon  begins  to  burn  of  itself,  and  keeps  the  furnace  at 
the  desired  temperature  without  further  addition  of  fuel.  After  several 
hours  the  roasted  ore  is  hauled  out  of  the  furnace,  through  the  lower 
working-door,  aud  a  new  quantity  added.  About  1,000  kilograms  of 
matte  or  750  kilograms  of  ore  compose  a  charge,  and  about  twelve  hours 
are  necessary  in  roasting  it.  In  charging  the  kilns,  the  ore,  or  matte,  is 
equally  distributed  over  the  whole  section  of  the  shaft.  The  Gersten¬ 
hofer  furnaces  have  already  been  considered.  Their  capacity  is  about 
2,500  kilograms  of  pyritous  slimes  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  gases  pass 
from  the  furnaces  into  the  condensation-chamber,  and  from  there  directly 
into  the  lead-chambers  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  sys¬ 
tem  of  condensation-chambers  is  very  extensive.  This  is  necessary,  as 
all  the  pyrites,  without  exception,  contain  arsenic.  There  are  two  sepa¬ 
rate  systems  of  condensation-chambers  for  the  kilns  and  Gerstenhofer 
furnaces,  as  the  ores  roasted  in  them  are  not  exactly  alike,  and  also  for 
the  reason  of  the  large  number  of  furnaces  employed.  The  amount  of 
sulphurous  acid  contained  in  the  gases  from  the  Gerstenhofer  furnaces 
is  equal  to  6  or  7  per  cent,  of  their  volume  5  the  remainder  is  arsenious 
acid  aud  unaltered  atmospheric  air. 

110.  Before  the  Gerstenhofer  roasting-furnaces  came  into  use,  the  so- 
called  “  Stockel”  roasting  was  employed  at  the  Freiberg  smelting-works 
for  the  roasting  of  pyritous  slimes;  that  is  to  say,  the  pyritous  slimes 
were  mixed  with  clay,  and  out  of  this  mixture  balls  were  made,  and 
then  charged  into  the  kilns  and  roasted.  This  has  been  done  away  with 
altogether  at  the  Muldener  Works,  and  is  only  conducted  on  a  limited 
scale  at  the  Halsbriickuer  Works.  By  the  employment  of  this  method, 
pyritous  slimes  can  be  treated,  which  contain  so  much  lead  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  roast  them  in  Gerstenhofer  furnaces,  as  they 
would  agglomerate.  The  slimes  are  mixed  with  5  per  cent,  of  clay,  and 
made  into  balls.  This  small  quantity,  however,  would  not  be  sufficient, 
if  the  clay  were  not  given  more  consistency,  by  the  addition  of  the  acidu¬ 
lated  mother-liquid  from  the  copper-extraction  process.  In  dissolving 
the  argentiferous  copper-matte,  the  mother-liquid  seemed  to  contain  a 
considerable  quantity  of  iron,  so  that  the  operation  cannot  be  repeated 
so  often,  as  is  possible  in  dissolving  the  argentiferous  copper.  The  em¬ 
ployment  of  this  solution  for  the  forming  of  roasting-balls  (Stockel)  met 
a  want  greatly  felt,  and  also  made  the  solution  of  some  value.  The 
solution  must  be  made  still  more  acid  with  the  addition  of  sulphuric 


48 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

acid,  so  that  the  clay  will  be  partially  dissolved,  in  order  to  make  the 
roasting  balls  durable.  The  balls  are  well  dried  by  the  waste  heat  of 
several  apparatuses;  and  they  then  roast  very  well  in  kilns  to  within 
7  or  8  per  cent,  sulphur,  aud  are  roasted  further  in  stalls  only  in  ex¬ 
ceptional  cases.  Although  at  the  Halsbriickner  Works  there  is  plenty 
of  boy  labor  to  be  had  for  carrying  out  the  work  of  making  the  roast- 
ing-balls,  still  it  costs  21  silbergroschen  to  make  a  hundredweight  or  50 
kilograms.  The  condensation  canals,  in  which  the  gases  from  the  kilus 
and  Gerstenhofer  furnaces  circulate,  are  of  considerable  length,  as  it  is 
of  importance  to  free  the  gases,  as  far  as  possible,  from  the  arseuious 
acid  before  entering  the  sulphuric  acid  chambers. 

111.  The  canals  are  constructed  of  bricks  dipped  in  tar;  these  with¬ 
stand  the  effects  of  the  sulphurous  acid  better  than  common  bricks. 
The  condensing-chambers  are  covered  on  top  with  iron  plates,  because 
they  help  to  cool  the  gases  off;  also  because  an  arch  of  masonry  would 
not  last  long  under  the  influence  of  the  acid  gases.  Subterranean 
canal  connections  are  avoided  as  far  as  possible,  the  draught  being 
effected  thereby;  also  because  the  moisture  absorbs  the  sulphurous  acid 
and  destroys  the  masonry. 

1 12.  Lead-chambers  are  used  for  the  condensation  of  the  roasting- 
gases.  The  gases,  however,  do  not  enter  these  chambers  until  they 
have  circulated  through  the  ordinary  canals.  The  lead-chambers  are 
very  serviceable  in  cooling  off  the  gases.  The  gases  enter  the  sulphuric- 
acid  chambers  perfectly  cool  by  means  of  the  arrangements  above  de¬ 
scribed.  The  lead-chambers,  in  which  the  sulphuric  acid  is  made,  are 
large  parallelo-pipedorical  compartments,  surrounded  on  all  sides  with 
sheet-lead,  which  is  supported  by  a  strong  frame-work  of  timber.  A 
system  consists  of  a  fore-chamber  and  a  roof-chamber.  All  the  cham¬ 
bers  are  connected  with  each  other  by  large  pipes.  The  formation  of 
the  acid  takes  place  in  the  main  chamber,  and  the  sole  object  of  the 
roof  chamber  is  to  condense  the  sulphuric-acid  vapors.  According  to 
the  now  system,  the  fore  chamber  is  connected  with  the  first  main  cham¬ 
ber  thereby,  and  this  is  furnished  with  a  partition-wall  on  one  of  the 
shorter  sides,  where  the  gases  enter.  This  partition  reaches  nearly  to 
the  floor.  Formerly  the  nitric  acid  was  conducted  into  the  fore  cham¬ 
ber.  At  present,  however,  it  is  led  into  the  main  chamber,  where  it 
flows  over  a  number  of  large  earthen  dishes,  so  placed  inside  of  each 
other  as  to  form  a  sort  of  terrace.  Steam  is  led  into  each  of  the  main 
chambers  from  the  roof,  and  condenses  on  entering  the  chambers,  fall¬ 
ing  to  the  bottom  as  fine  rain. 

113.  The  nitric  acid  is  produced  from  soda  saltpeter  by  treating  it 
with  sulphuric  acid.  The  nitric  acid  set  free  is  collected  iu  a  row 
of  flasks.  The  decomposition  of  the  saltpeter  is  conducted  iu  a  cast- 
iron  cylinder,  or,  better,  iu  a  kettle  of  the  same  material,  under  which 
a  low  fire  is  kept  up  on  the  grate  iu  the  fire-place.  A  charge  con¬ 
sists  of  one  hundred  aud  fifteen  kilograms  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  one 


SULPHURIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE. 


49 


hundred  and  twenty-five  kilograms  of  saltpeter.  After  two  days  the 
bisulphate  of  soda  formed  is  removed  from  the  kettle  and  the  process 
commenced  over  again.  The  sulphuric  acid  is  poured  into  the  kettle 
through  a  lead  funnel.  In  the  first  flasks,  which  are  emptied  by  means 
of  siphons,  there  is  45°  to  50°  acid.  In  the  last,  however,  nitric  acid  of 
only  15°  is  generated.  By  mixing,  an  acid  of  36°  is  obtained.  Sixty- 
two  kilograms  of  nitric  acid  are  obtained  from  fifty  kilograms  of  salt¬ 
peter,  and  forty-seven  kilograms  of  sulphate  of  soda  as  a  by-product. 

114.  A  Gay-Lussac  apparatus  is  used  for  saving  the  nitrous  and  nitric 
acids,  which  pass  out  from  the  chambers.  This  apparatus  consists  of  a 
lead  tower  filled  with  coke,  in  which  the  nitrous  acid  is  absorbed  by  sul¬ 
phuric  acid.  The  distribution  of  60°  sulphuric  acid  over  the  coke-tower 
is  effected  partly  by  a  small  turbine  and  partly  by  numerous  stop-cocks. 
The  former  seems  to  do  its  work  more  effectually  when  it  is  given  a 
little  attention.  Thirty  kilograms  of  acid  of  00°  B.  is  consumed  in  sup¬ 
plying  the  Gay-Lussac  apparatus  per  fifty  kilograms  of  acid  of  G0°  B. 
produced.  The  acid  necessary  for  feeding  this  apparatus  is  concen¬ 
trated,  without  previous  precipitation,  in  a  compartment  underneath 
the  lead-chambers.  The  sulphuric  acid,  with  its  absorbed  nitrous  acid, 
flows  out  of  the  Gay-Lussac  apparatus  into  a  boiling-apparatus.  It  is 
reduced  to  50°  with  water  and  then  heated ;  the  nitrous  acid  is  thereby 
expelled  aud  conducted  back  to  the- lead-chamber.  The  sulphuric  acid 
is  then  allowed  to  flow  through  pipes  into  the  precipitation  house,  where 
it  is  freed  from  its  impurities.  In  consequence  of  this  arrangement  the 
production  of  acid  can  be  effected  with  a  great  saving  in  nitric  acid. 

115.  The  acid  which  condenses  in  the  lead-chamber  and  collects  on 
the  bottom,  should  not  be  stronger  than  48°  to  50°  B.  (Specific  gravity 
1-5.)  It  is  tapped  off  from  time  to  time  into  tanks.  There  are  drop¬ 
ping  arrangements  on  the  sides  of  the  chambers  by  which  the  process 
of  the  formation  of  the  acid  in  the  chambers  can  be  watched  and  the 
quantity  of  nitric  acid  and  steam  entering  the  chambers  regulated.  If, 
for  example,  the  acid  is  stronger  than  50°  B.,  more  steam  is  allowed 
to  enter  the  chambers ;  if  it  is  less,  more  nitric  acid.  The  level  of  the 
acid  in  the  chambers  is  determined  by  floats. 

116.  A  chamber- system  of  9,400  cubic  feet  capacity,  can  produce  daily 
from  3,500  to  4,000  kilograms  of  sulphuric  acid  of  66°  B.,  with  a  con¬ 
sumption  of  75  kilograms  of  nitric  acid.  A  system  of  160,000  cubic  feet 
can  produce  daily  5,000  kilograms  acid  with  100  kilograms  of  nitric 
acid. 

117.  There  are  three  systems  at  the  “  Muldener  Hiitte,”  one  of  9,400 
cubic  feet  capacity,  one  of  134,000,  and  one  of  160,000.  The  first  system 
is  provided  with  sulphurous  acid  by  the  kilns,  the  others  by  Gersten- 
hofer  furnaces.  The  normal  working  of  the  process  is  known  by  the 
warmth  of  the  chamber-walls,  by  dropping  of  the  acid  in  the  drop- 
apparatus,  and  by  the  brown  color  of  the  escaping  nitric  and  nitrous 
acids.  There  are  two  windows  in  the  roof-chamber  at  its  end,  for  the 

4  M 


50 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


purpose  of  observing  the  color  of  these  gases.  If  the  gases  appear  pale 
yellow,  there  is  a  lack  of  nitric  acid  in  the  chambers. 

11 8.  Purifying  the  chamber-acid. — This  is  accomplished  by  precipitating  | 
the  arsenic  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  ' 
produced  from  a  raw  matte,  free  from  zinc,  which  is  obtained  by  smelting 
raw  lump-pyrites,  free  from  all  blende,  with  a  flux  of  slag.  This  matte, 
principally  composed  of  protosulphide  of  iron,  is  broken  up  into  small 
pieces,  and  treated  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid  in  a  box-shaped  gen¬ 
erating  apparatus.  The  apparatus  cousists  of  two  wooden  boxes,  lined 
with  sheet-lead,  which  communicate  with  each  other  by  means  of  a  lead 
pipe.  There  is  a  lead  sieve,  supported  by  bricks,  several  inches  above 
the  bottom  of  one  of  the  boxes,  which  serves  as  a  canal  for  the  iron  vitriol 
solution  formed.  The  iron-matte  is  placed  upon  the  lead  sieve  in  quan-  | 
tities  of  3,500  to  4,000  kilograms.  The  sulphuretted  liydrogeu  is  dis¬ 
engaged  by  sulphuric  acid  dripping  on  the  matte  through  a  W-shaped 
pipe,  leading  from  the  other  box.  It'  sulphuretted  liydrogeu  should  be  | 
evolved  in  too  great  quantities,  the  pressure  produced  by  the  same  1 
would  force  the  sulphuric  acid  and  iron  vitriol  solution  into  the  neigh¬ 
boring  box.  The  gas  passes  fro  in  the  generating-apparatus  into  a  wash-  | 
ing-apparatus,  which  is  provided  with  two  small  windows,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  observing  the  generation  of  the  gas.  The  residue  from  the  'i 
iron-matte  is  removed  from  the  generating-apparatus  after  four  or  six 
weeks,  and  is  delivered  over  to  the  ore-smelting  operations,  as  it  con-  I 
tains  0.10  per  cent.  =  29  oz.  2  dwt.  silver  and  3  per  cent,  copper.  The  j 
iron  vitriol  solution  is  2S°  strong.  It  is  evaporated  in  lead  pans  until 
it  reaches  40°,  and  is  then  brought  into  crystallizing-vessels,  wherein  ! 
the  iron  vitriol  crystallizes  on  lead  strips  hung  in  the  solution.  The  ! 
crystals  are  broken  from  the  lead  strips,  dried,  and  are  then  ready  for 
market. 

The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  after  passing  through  the  washing-  i 
apparatus,  enters  the  precipitation-tower.  This  is  a  chamber  having  the  I 
shape  of  a  shaft,  with  a  rectangular  horizontal  section,  the  walls  of  I 
which  are  of  sheet-lead.  The  whole  compartment  is  filled  with  hori-  ! 
zontal  bars,  having  the  shape  of  a  pointed  roof,  the  side  edges  of  which 
are  cut  out  like  a  saw.  These  beams  are  arranged  in  rows,  alongside 
and  over  each  other,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  alternating  rows 
consist  of  eight  and  nine  bars.  The  sulphuric  acid,  when  led  into  this 
precipitation-tower  from  the  top  falls  to  the  bottom  in  the  form  of  fine 
rain  ;  it  falls  from  one  bar  to  the  other,  and  drips  from  off  the  saw-like 
edges.  The  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  is  conducted  into  the  tower  from 
below.  By  means  of  this  apparatus  an  almost  complete  precipitation 
of  the  arsenic  contained  in  the  sulphuric  acid  is  effected.  The  tower 
is  fed  with  the  sulphuric  acid  by  means  of  tilting  troughs,  from  which 
it  flows  into  the  tower  through  a  lead  sieve.  The  acid,  on  leaving  the 
tower,  flows  into  settling-tanks,  wherein  the  precipitate  of  sulphide  of 
arsenic  gradually  sinks  to  the  bottom.  In  case  the  acid  should  not  be 


SULPHURIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE. 


51 


pure  enough,  it  is  forced  up  again  over  the  precipitation-tower  by  means 
of  an  air-condensing  apparatus  ;  generally,  however,  this  is  not  the  case. 
The  sulphide  of  arsenic  is  placed  in  filtering-boxes  lined  with  sheet-lead ; 
here  the  acid  drains  off.  It  is  then  placed  in  another  box,  which  has  a 
sand  filterer  in  the  bottom.  It  is  then  delivered  over  to  the  arsenical 
works  for  farther  treatment. 

119.  The  evaporation  of  the  purified  acid. — This  operation  is  conducted 
in  lead  pans,  of  which  there  are  generally  four  or  six,  so  placed  over  one 
another  as  to  form  a  kind  of  terrace.  Each  pan  is  provided  with  a  spout, 
through  which  the  acid  can  flow.  The  pans  are  very  shallow,  from  12 
to  15  inches  deep,  in  order  that  the  evaporation  may  progress  with 
rapidity.  The  acid  is  evaporated  until  it  reaches  60°  B. ;  stronger  acid 
would  affect  the  lead  pans.  The  specific  gravity  of  this  acid  is  1.7,  and 
contains  79  per  cent,  of  66°  B.  sulphuric  acid.  The  pan  nearest  the 
fire-place  is  placed  upon  an  iron  plate.  The  acid  to  be  concentrated  is 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  pan  farthest  from  the  fire-place,  which  is  least 
under  the  influence  of  the  heat,  and  gradually  flows  into  the  one  nearest 
the  fire.  The  acid  vapors  from  the  pans  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 
The  operation  is  continual. 

120.  The  further  concentration  to  66°  B.  is  conducted  in  platinum 
retorts,  of  which  there  are  two  at  the  Muldener  Hiitte.  One  of  these 
has  a  capacity  of  20,000  kilograms,  the  other,  of  12,500  kilograms.  The 
60°  B.  sulphuric  acid  is  brought  into  the  platinum-retort  directly  from 
the  last  pan,  by  means  of  a  siphon.  The  retort  stands  over  a  fire-place 
with  terrace-grate.  Bituminous  coal  is  employed  as  fuel.  The  acid- 
water  vapors  pass  off  from  the  retort  through  a  platinum-pipe  into  a 
spiral  pipe  of  lead,  which  is  situated  in  a  cooling-box,  filled  with  water. 
The  vapors  are  hereby  condensed,  and  acid  is  obtained  of  25°  B.,  which 
is  forced  into  the  first  evaporating  pan  by  means  offa  small  force-pump, 
worked  by  hand.  The  acid  remaining  in  the  platinum-retort  is  concen¬ 
trated  to  66°  B.,  and  settles  to  the  bottom  by  reason  of  its  high  specific 
gravity.  It  is  continually  withdrawn  from  the  retort  by  means  of  a 
siphon  of  platinum,  which  passes  through  a  Liebig  cooling-apparatus. 
The  concentrated  acid  flows  into  settling- vessels,  from  which  it  is  filled 
into  glass  balloons.  The  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  oily,  has  a  spe¬ 
cific  gravity  of  1.8,  contains  81  per  cent,  of  anhydrate  sulphuric  acid, 
and  is  of  the  color  of  water.  In  filling  the  balloons  organic  substances 
give  it  a  brown  color. 

121.  The  manufacture  of  arsenical  products. — These  products 

are: 

1.  Arsenious  acid. 

la.  Arsenical  glass. 

2.  Sulpho-arsenics. 

2a.  Oripiment. 

2b.  Realgar. 

I  3.  Metallic  arsenic. 

The  ores  treated  for  the  manufacture  of  these  products  are,  arsenical 


52 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


pyrites,  arsenical  leail-ores,  and  pyritous  ores  containing  arsenic.  They 
contain  between  10  and  40  per  cent,  arsenic.  Besides  these,  the  arsen¬ 
ical  fumes,  from  the  operations  of  roasting,  collected  in  the  condensa¬ 
tion-chambers,  are  treated. 

122.  Production  of  arsenious  acid. — This  is  produed  by  the  roasting  of 
arsenical  ores  which  contain  but  a  small  amount  of  iron  pyrites.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  ores  treated  are  arsenical  ores  and  arsenical  lead-ores.  The  opera¬ 
tion  is  conducted  in  an  arsenic  sublimation  furnace  which  has  a  gas-gener¬ 
ator  attached.  Each  furnace  stands  in  connection  with  a  canal,  built  of 
brick,  wherein  the  arsenious  acid  collects.  The  length  of  the  canal  is 
about  SOD  feet.  The  hearths  of  these  reverberatory  furnaces  are  14  feet 
long  and  10  feet  wide;  on  either  side  are  two  working  doors.  The  grate  is 
situated  about  G  feet  below  the  fire-bridge,  and  is  tilled  with  coke  up  to 
the  top  of  the  latter.  The  gases  are  ignited  by  means  of  atmospheric  air, 
which  enters  the  furnace  through  special  canals.  With  this  simple  furnace 
an  arsenious  acid  is  produced,  which  is  perfectly  white  and  free  from  all 
particles  of  carbon  or  coal-ash.  A  charge  consists,  of  1,200  kilograms. 
As  the  escape  of  ore,  iu  the  form  of  tine  dust,  cannot  be  avoided 
during  the  charging  of  the  furnace  and  working  the  charge,  the  arse¬ 
nious  acid  canal  is  kept  closed  by  means  of  a  damper  while  these  opera¬ 
tions  are  being  carried  out,  and  the  tine  particles  of  ore  escape  from  the 
furnace  into  the  atmosphere  through  a  special  chimney  constructed  for 
that  purpose.  A  charge  is  roasted  in  eight  hours,  and  G  scheffel* 
of  coke  are  consumed.  The  roasted  ore,  containing  not  more  than  from 

1  to  2  per  cent,  arsenic,  is  subjected  to  the  operation  of  ore-smelting,  J 
as  it  contains  silver  and  lead.  The  arsenious  acid  is  sublimed  in 
the  same  furnace.  A  charge  consists  of  GOO  kilograms,  and  it  is  sub¬ 
limed  in  six  hours;  whereby  from  So  to  87  per  cent,  of  the  arsenic  con¬ 
tained  therein  is  obtained.  It  is  sold  in  this  state  as  arsenious  acid. 

123.  Production  of  white  arsenical  glass. — The  arsenical  ores  give  but  i 
a  small  amount  of  the  material  used  for  the  manufacture  of  white  arsen.  > 
ical  glass,  and  are  neither  fitted  for  the  production  of  realgar  nor  metallic  jj 
arsenic.  They  contain  from  IS  to  20  per  cent,  lead  and  12  per  cent,  arsenic. 
The  greater  part  of  the  salable  white  arsenic  is  obtained  from  the  fumes  of 
the  dust-roasting  furnace,  (Gersteuhofer's,)  kilns,  and  long  reverberatory  |)j 
roastiug-furuaces,  part  of  which  contains  75  per  cent,  of  arsenious  acid. 
The  fumes  from  the  blast-furnaces,  on  the  other  hand,  are  too  poor  in 
arsenious  acid  to  be  used,  and  therefore  are  put  through  these  furnaces  < 
again.  This  is  also  done  with  the  fumes  which  settle  in  the  canals  near 
the  roasting-furnaces ;  they  only  coutaiu  a  small  amount  of  arsenious 
acid,  but  a  large  amount  of  arseniate  salts  and  arsenic  acid.  In  that 
part  of  the  canals  farthest  removed  from  the  furnaces,  the  fumes  are 
colored  a  light  red  by  the  easily  volatilized  selenium,  and  produce  a  yel¬ 
low  glass,  but  after  it  has  become  hard  and  porcelain-like,  by  lying  for 
some  time,  it  loses  its  color. 

124.  White  arsenical  glass  is  arsenious  acid  which  has  been  melted; 


Scheffel,  a  sack,  a  bushel. 


ARSENICAL  PRODUCTS 


53 


it  forms  a  homogeneous  mass,  has  a  vitreous  luster,  and  is  either  trans¬ 
parent  or  milk-white.  Its  method  of  manufacture  rests  upon  the  fact 
that  arsenious  acid  volatilizes  before  it  fuses.  The  arsenious  acid  is 
heated  in  cast-iron  pots,  which  are  covered  with  sheet-iron  hoods.  The 
pots  are  23  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  deep.  The  hoods  are  6  feet 
8  inches  high  ;  the  height  of  the  cylindrical  part  is  3  feet  4  inches  and  2 
feet  wide;  the  height  of  the  conical-shaped  part  is  20  inches,  and  the  upper 
width  6  inches.  Connecting  with  the  hood  is  a  G-inch  pipe,  which  passes 
into  the  condensation  chambers.  The  pots  stand  from  60  to  70  charges.* 

Iron  containing  but  little  graphite  has  been  found  to  be  the  most 
suitable,  as  that  which  contains  much  of  this  substance  is  not  so  durable, 
and  also  gives  the  arsenical  glass  a  dark  color.  This  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  the  graphite  reduces  the  arsenious  acid  to  the  suboxide. 
Five  pots  make  a  system,  and  there  are  two  systems  opposite  each  other 
There  is  one  workman  to  each  row  of  pots. 

125.  Manipulation. — At  6  o’clock  in  the  morning  the  pots  are  charged  with 
arsenious  acid,  the  hoods  placed  in  position  and  cemented  air-tight  on  to 
the  pots,  and  the  fires  are  then  started  and  kept  up  for  six  hours.  Th  e 
temperature  must  be  so  regulated  that  water  sprinkled  upon  the  lower  part 
of  the  hood  turns  into  vapor  immediately,  but  should  volatilize  slowly 
when  sprinkled  on  the  upper  part.  In  order  to  watch  the  progress  of  the 
operation  the  pipe  connecting  with  the  hood  does  not  fit  tightly,  and  the 
fumes  can  therefore  be  seen  between  it  and  the  hood.  The  fumes  ascend 
spirally  when  the  process  is  progressing  in  the  proper  manner.  After  the 
operation  is  finished  the  hoods  and  pots  are  cleaned  out.  A  charge  con¬ 
sists  of  150  kilograms  of  arsenious  acid,  seven-eighths  of  which  is  obtained 
as  glass.  The  consumption  of  fuel  amounts  to  ^  scheffel  of  bituminous 
coal  per  pot.  The  residues  consist  principally  of  the  metals  contained 
in  the  arsenical  ores,  from  which  the  arsenious  acid  was  obtained.  They 
are  sent  to  the  blast-furnaces  for  reduction. 

126.  Production  of  oripiment. — The  artificial  sulphide  of  arsenic  (oripi- 
meut)  contains  less  sulphur  than  the  natural.  It  is  produced  by  the  sub- 
limation  of  arsenious  acid  and  sulphur.  According  to  stoichiometrical 
proportions,  to  every  100  parts  of  arsenious  acid  there  should  be  73  parts 
of  sulphur,  but  the  artificial  product  receives  a  fine  yellow  color,  when 
it  contains  much  less  sulphur  than  theory  demands  ;  it  is  therefore  pro¬ 
duced  from  100  parts  of  arsenious  acid  and  1 J  parts  of  sulphur.  Each 
pot  is  charged  with  125  kilograms  of  arsenious  acid  and  2  kilograms  of 
sulphur;  seven-eighths  of  this  amount  is  obtained  as  oripiment,  one- 
eighth  escaping  into  the  condensatiou-chambers.  The  manipulation  is 
the  same  as  in  the  manufacture  of  the  white  glass.  The  sulphur  is 
placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  pot,  and  over  it  the  arsenious  acid.  Differ¬ 
ent  shades  of  yellow  are  made  as  called  for  by  the  consumers ;  2  per  cent, 
sulphur  produces  the  color  generally  desired. 

*  Kast  and  Briiuning,  in  their  paper  entitled  “  Mittlieilungen  uber  die  Freiberg  Hiittenpro- 
c esse,”  say,  ‘‘  that  a  pot  will  put  through  150  charges  before  giving  out.”  The  author- 
thinks  that  the  numbers  given  in  the  text  above  are  much  nearer  the  truth. 


54 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


127.  Production  of  realgar. — Pyritous  slimes,  consisting  of'  iron  pyrites 
and  arsenical  pyrites,  are  operated  upon  for  the  manufacture  of  realgar. 
The  different  kinds  of  slimes  are  mixed  with  each  other,  so  that  the  mix¬ 
ture  contains  about  15  per  cent,  arsenic  and  from  20  to  28  per  cent,  sul¬ 
phur.  After  the  slimes  have  been  perfectly  dried,  they  are  treated  in 
sublimation-furnaces  having  twelve  tubes.  The  color  of  the  realgar  must 
be  of  a  certain  shade.  This  can  be  produced  by  subliming  arsenical  pyrites 
and  iron  pyrites  together,  or  with  arsenic  and  sulphur, or  arsenical  pyrites 
and  sulphur.  When  iron  pyrites  is  heated  without  access  of  atmos¬ 
pheric  air,  it  evolves  from  15  to  18  per  cent,  sulphur;  arsenical  pyrites, 
40  per  cent,  arsenic.  In  order,  therefore,  to  produce  100  parts  realgar, 
170.4  parts  of  iron  pyrites  and  150.1  parts  of  arsenical  pyrites  must  be 
brought  together.  In  practice,  however,  equal  parts  of  both  are  gener¬ 
ally  taken.  It  has  been  experimented  upou  to  manufacture  this  product 
from  arsenious  acid  and  sulphur,  but  it  always  turns  out  to  be  too  rich 
in  arsenious  acid,  which  disqualifies  it  for  many  purposes.  The  method 
is  also  too  expensive,  as  much  of  the  sulphur  becomes  oxidized  by  the 
arsenious  acid. 

128.  At  the  Muldener  Iliitte  pyritous  ores  are  principally  made  use 
of;  plumbiferous  ores  only  when  necessary.  The  latter  destroy  the 
clay  tubes,  as  they  agglomerate,  and  the  lead  oxidizes  when  they  are 
opened,  and  combines  with  the  silicic  acid  present. 

The  sublimation  is  conducted  in  tubular  sublimation-furnaces,  of  which 
there  are  eleven  at  the  Muldener  Works.  Eight  are  employed  for  the 
production  of  realgar,  and  three  are  galley-furnaces,  which  are  used  for 
sublimating  the  realgar  over  again.  Each  of  the  former  furnaces  have 
twelve  tubes.  The  tubes  are  5  feet  long,  9  inches  wide,  and  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  have  an  incline  toward  the  condensers  of  1.5  inch 
iu  their  length.  They  hold  about  00  pounds  of  ore.  The  tubes  must 
be  capable  of  withstanding  the  effects  of  the  fire  and  the  weight  of  the 
charge.  They  are  made  of  equal  parts  of  clay  aud  a  mixture  of  uu- 
burnt  clay  and  dust  of  fire-brick.  The  material  must  be  pulverized 
line  to  make  the  tubes  dense.  A  piece  of  old  tube  is  placed  under  each 
tube  to  protect  them  from  the  full  effect  of  the  Are.  Each  furnace  is 
charged  with  350  kilograms  of  ore  and  kept  at  a  red  heat  for  twelve 
hours.  A  furnace  manipulates  from  GOO  to  700  kilograms  of  ore  per 
twenty-four  hours,  the  consumption  of  fuel  amounting  from  450  to  5U0 
kilograms  of  lignite.  If  the  charge  contains  from  10  to  15  per  cent, 
arsenic,  from  38  to  05  kilograms  of  realgar  are  obtained.  The  glass¬ 
like  realgar  goes  through  a  process  of  clarifying.  That  which  has  not 
formed  glass  is  sublimed  again  in  galley-furnaces.  The  galley-furnaces 
are  also  kept  at  a  red  heat,  by  which  one  scheffel  of  coal  is  consumed. 
After  cooliug  off,  the  condensers  are  removed  aud  the  glass  taken  out. 
From  a  charge  of  107  kilograms,  90  kilograms  of  realgar  is  produced, 
which  is  also  clarified.  The  residues,  which  still  contain  a  large  per¬ 
centage  of  sulphur,  are  further  treated  for  the  manufacture  of  sul- 


ARSENICAL  PRODUCTS. 


55 


phuric  acid,  after  which  they  are  delivered  over  to  the  ore-smelting 
operations.  From  the  total  amount  of  arsenic  contained  in  the  ores, 
about  86  or  S7  per  cent,  is  obtained  as  realgar.  To  every  six  furnaces 
there  are  four  workmen,  who  make  eight-hour  shifts.  j 

129.  Clarifying  of  the  realgar. — The  object  of  this  manipulation  is  to 
give  the  glass  a  homogeneous  texture,  and  to  produce  the  exact  shade  of 
color  by  the  addition  of  sulphur.  A  cast-iron  pot  is  used  for  this  purpose, 
which  is  16  inches  in  diameter  and  22  inches  deep.  About  125  kilograms 
of  realgar  compose  a  charge.  From  6  to  9  kilograms  of  sulphur  are  added 
per  50  kilograms.  From  one  to  one  and  a  half  hours  are  necessary  to 
clarify  the  above  quantity.  The  amount  produced  is  equal  to  100  per 
cent.,  as  the  loss  by  volatilization  is  about  equal  to  the  amount  of  sul . 
phur  afterward  added.  The  realgar  is  melted  in  the  pot,  and  any  slag 
formed  from  the  impurities  of  the  glass  is  immediately  removed.  The 
workman  distinguishes  the  color  by  taking  out  a  sample.  As  soon  as 
the  operation  is  finished  the  molten  mass  is  tapped  off  into  sheet-iron 
Aressels,  which  are  hermetically  closed  until  the  mass  has  cooled.  The 
resulting  realgar  contains,  on  an  average,  75  per  cent,  arsenic  and  25 
per  cent,  sulphur. 

130.  The  sulphide  of  arsenic,  produced  by  the  purifyingof  the  sulphuric 
acid,  is  also  treated  for  manufacturing  realgar,  but  its  treatment  is  accom¬ 
panied  with  considerable  expense  and  labor.  The  precipitate  must  first 
be  freed  from  acid,  otherwise  it  would  not  be  possible  to  dry  it.  To  accom¬ 
plish  this,  the  precipitate  must  be  washed  with  water  until  it  shows  no 
acid  reaction.  The  precipitate  is  then  dried,  and  melted  under  pressure 
in  closed  iron  retorts.  This  operation  is  necessary,  because,  if  the  finely 
divided  sulphide  of  arsenic  was  charged  into  the  tubes  of  the  furnace 
and  heated  it  would  not  produce  a  red  glass.  The  mass  taken  from  the 
retorts  is  partly  treated  in  the  galley-furnaces  and  partly  in  the  tubular- 
furnaces,  with  arsenical  ores  and  with  the  slag  from  the  clarifying  of  the 
realgar.  The  galley-furnaces  have  thirteen  tubes  on  each  side.  These 
are  24  inches  long  and  5  inches  in  diameter.  With  these  small  tubes  it 
is  possible  to  heat  the  charge  gradually  up  to  a  higher  temperature  than 
can  be  done  in  the  sublimation-furnaces.  The  resulting  glass  from  the 
galley-furnaces  is  clarified  in  common  with  the  raw  glass  from  the  sub¬ 
limation-furnaces.  If  the  raw  glass  obtained  from  the  precipitate  of 
sulphide  or  arsenic  were  to  be  further  manipulated  by  itself,  the  result¬ 
ing  realgar  would  have  a  poor  color.  The  sulphuric  acid  contains 
organic  substances  in  solution,  which  are  partially  precipitated  with  the 
sulphide  of  arsenic.  These  substances  give  the  glass  a  dark  color,  and 
would  destroy  the  red  color  of  the  finished  realgar  if  the  latter  were  not 
principally  obtained  from  the  pure  raw  glass  of  the  sublimated  ore. 

It  will  be  perceived  from  the  foregoing  that  the  treatment  of  the  sul¬ 
phide  of  arsenic,  obtained  in  purifying  the  sulphuric  acid,  is  accompa¬ 
nied  with  many  difficulties,  and  it  seems  to  be  doubtful  whether  this 
product  can  be  treated  to  advantage  for  the  manufacture  of  realgar. 


56 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


131.  Production  of  metallic  arsenic. — This  metal  is  produced  from 
pure  arsenical  pyrites,  or  from  ores  that  possess  a  large  percentage 
of  arsenic,  (containing  much  native  arsenic.)  The  average  percentage 
of  arsenic  contained  in  the  ores  that  are  treated  for  this  purpose 
amounts  to  about  35  per  cent.  They  are  delivered  at  the  works  in 
grape-size  pieces,  and  charged  into  the  tubes  of  the  galley-furnaces 
for  sublimation.  The  tubes  are  furnished  with  condensers  of  sheet- 
iron,  in  front  of  which  there  is  a  second  of  fire-clay,  (remainder  of 
old  tubes.)  The  furnace  is  gradually  heated,  so  that  the  easily  volatil¬ 
ized  sulphide  of  arsenic  may  sublimate  over  into  the  second  condenser 
at  a  low  temperature.  After  this  has  been  effected,  the  temperature  is 
increased  until  the  more  difficult  volatilizable  arsenic  sublimes.  This 
condenses  in  the  first  condenser,  and  is  perfectly  free  from  sulphide  of 
arsenic  and  ready  for  market.  The  pipes  are  discharged  after  cool¬ 
ing  off. 

A  charge  is  composed  of  300  kilograms  of  ore,  and  is  subjected  to 
a  white  heat  for  eight  or  twelve  hours.  The  consumption  of  bituminous 
coal  amounts  to  between  2  and  3  scheff'el,  and  about  25  kilograms  of 
metallic  arsenic  are  produced.  The  argentiferous  residues  are  delivered 
ovef  to  the  blast-furnaces  for  reduction. 

132.  Preparation  of  the  blendic  pyritous  ores  in  reverbera¬ 
tory  furnaces. — As  has  already  been  remarked,  the  zinc  contained  in 
the  Freiberg  ores  is  very  troublesome  to  the  smelting-operation  in  blast¬ 
furnaces.  For  that  reason  ores  carrying  from  15  to  30  per  cent,  zinc  are 
paid  less  for  than  when  they  are  free  from  this  metal.  Such  ores  as  carry 
at  least  30  per  cent,  zinc  are  designated  as  zinc-ores  proper,  and  it 
is  only  these  which  receive  payment  for  the  blende.  For  this  reason 
the  mines  are  obliged  to  conduct  the  dressing  of  their  ores  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  produce  blendic  ores  payable  for  their  zinc  contents.  The 
pyritous  slimes,  containing  between  15  and  30  per  cent,  zinc,  are  pre¬ 
pared,  previous  to  smelting  in  shaft-furnaces,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  so 
that  their  arsenic  and  sulphur  can  be  used  to  advantage,  and  zinc  driven 
off  as  far  as  possible.  These  ores  are  first  roasted  in  Gerstenhofer  fur¬ 
naces,  whereby  arsenious  acid  is  disengaged  and  collected  in  condeusa- 
tion-ehambers,  and  the  sulphurous  acid  is  conducted  into  the  sulphuric- 
acid  chambers.  The  ore,  after  roasting  in  these  furnaces,  still  contains 
about  13  per  cent,  sulphur,  and  for  this  reason  is  further  roasted  in  long 
reverberatory  furnaces.  As  the  further  manipulation  rests  upon  the 
fact  that  almost  all  the  sulphide  of  zinc  is  converted  into  oxide  of  zinc, 
the  operation  of  roasting  must  therefore  be  carefully  conducted,  and  as 
the  slimes  do  not  agglomerate,  they  can  be  so  roasted  that  they  will 
only  contain  1.5  per  cent,  sulphur.  The  ores  thus  prepared  are  mixed 
with  muffle-residues  from  the  zinc-works,  and  coke-dust,  charged  into 
a  reverberatory  furnace,  and  smelted  down  with  a  strong  fire.  The  ma¬ 
nipulation  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  concentration  of  the  copper- 
matte.  The  reverberatory  furnaces  are  in  connection  with  extensive 


i 


I 


REDUCTION  OF  ZINC-ORES. 


57 


condensation-chambers.  The  oxide  of  zinc  is  reduced  in  the  furnace 
by  means  of  the  coke-dust,  the  zinc  volatilizes,  and  is  again  oxidized, 
and  passes  off  with  the  other  gases  into  the  condensation-apparatus. 
In  this  manner  zinc-fumes  are  obtained,  which  are  sold  as  paint-— “zinc- 
gray.”  The  fumes  which  settle  in  the  canal,  near  the  furnace,  contain 
a  large  quantity  of  sulphate  of  zinc.  This  is  dissolved  out,  and  the  resi¬ 
dues  are  put  back  again  into  the  furnace.  The  mass  remaining  in  the 
furnace  still  contains  about  10  per  cent,  zinc,  but  as  its  bulk  has  been 
much  diminished  by  the  separation  of  the  sulphur  and  arsenic,  it  is 
probable  that  the  greater  part  of  the  zinc  formerly  contained  in  the  ore 
has  been  volatilized.  Five  charges  per  1,720  kilograms  of  ore  and  resi¬ 
dues  are  put  through  one  furnace  daily  with  2,000  kilograms  of  coke- 
dust.  In  the  manipulation  of  this  amount  4,000  kilograms  of  bitumin¬ 
ous  coal  are  consumed.  The  flue  of  the  furnace  must  be  cleaned  out  at 
short  intervals.  All  fumes  which  are  not  sold  as  zinc-gray  are  delivered 
over  to  the  zinc-works  for  distillation. 

133.  The  products  of  this  operation  are  as  follows  : 

a.  Dezinckified  residues  :  They  contain  from  0.01  to  0.015  per  ceut.= 
2oz.  lSdwt.  4.8gr.to4oz.  7  dwt.S.64gr.  silver  and  about  lOpercent.  zinc; 
are  equal  in  amount  to  about  50  per  cent  of  the  charge,  and  are  further 
treated  in  the  operation  of  slag-smelting. 

b.  Speiss  :  It  contains  0.2  per  cent. =58  oz.  6dwt.  silver,  2  per  cent,  lead, 
and  10  per  cent,  copper.  It  composes  about  4  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
charge,  and  is  further  treated  in  the  operation  of  ore-smelting. 

c.  Silver-lead:  Contains  from  1.0  to  1.3  per  cent.  =  291  oz.  to  378  oz. 
8  dwt.  14  gr.  silver,  and  .is  equal  to  about  0.16  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
charge. 

d.  Fumes :  Assaying  0.005  per  cent.  =  l  oz.  9  dwt.  3.84  gr.  silver,  10  per 
cent,  lead,  24  per  cent,  zinc,  and  containing  13  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  ; 
they  amount  to  about  10  per  ceut.  of  the  dharge,  and  are  generally  de¬ 
livered  to  the  zinc-works. 

134.  Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  cost  of  this  operation,  one 
will  very  easily  perceive  that  the  preparation  of  the  zinc-ores  in  this 
manner  is  a  very  complicated  and  expensive  process,  and  that  the  value 
of  the  products  thereby  produced  can  scarcely  cover  the  expenses.  The 
advantages  of  this  method  cannot  be  computed  in  money;  they  are  not 
unimportant,  however,  as  it  is  the  intention  of  the  officers  at  the  works 
to  treat  in  future  zinc-ores  in  this  manner  which  only  carry  12  per  cent, 
of  the  metal. 

135.  Production  of  metallic  zinc. — The  average  percentage  of  zinc  in 
the  zinc-ores  treated  amounts  to  about  31.79  percent.  The  ores  are  first 
roasted  in  kilns  for  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  further 
roasted  in  long  reverberatory  furnaces,  until  they  contain  but  from  0.3 
to  0.5  per  cent,  sulphur.  There  are  two  Siemens  regenerative  furnaces 
for  the  reduction  and  distillation  of  the  zinc  contained  in  the  roasted  ores- 
There  are  also  two  gas-generators  to  each  furnace,  which  supply  them 
with  the  necessary  combustible  gases.  The  generators  are  simple  shaft- 


58 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Each  of  these  diagrams  shows  a  very  considerable  fluctuation  of  pro¬ 
duction  from  year  to  year,  but,  on  the  average,  a  constant  increase, 
highly  encouraging  to  the  industry  of  iron. 


Fig.  49. — Production  of  bar-iton,  Prussia,  1837  to  1871. 


59 


borsig’s  exhibit. 


43.  The  German  trade  in  iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  from  them, 
is  very  considerable,  as  shown  by  the  customs  returns  for  the  year  1871, 
giving,  as  below,  the  imports  and  the  exports: 


Imported. 

Exported. 

Owt. 

11,  849,  410 

1,  418,  809 
2,017,511 
93  731 

Cwt. 

4,  137,  844 
1,212,  885 
2,  553,  908 
161  349 

W  rough t  iron . . . . . 

Railroad-iron . . 

Steel . . . . . . . . 

Iron  and  steel  wire . . . . . 

36,  360 
765,  981 

161  127 

1,  225  188 

W rough t-iron  pipe . . . . . 

138,  011 

119,  432 
496,  231 
323,  557 
58  289 

Heavy  castings  . 

437|  505 
597,  840 
70,  105 
12,  160 
76, 134 

Sheet-iron  and  steel-plate . 

Tin-plate . . . . . . . . . •  _ . . 

Fine  iron  ware . 

22,  558 

Nails,  needles,  steel  pens,  <fcc  . . . . ! . 

22|  477 

Total . . . 

5,  664,  747 

6,  357,  001 

44  The  number  of  exhibitors  in  Group  1  alone  is  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  seventy-two,  most  of  them  being  iron  and  steel  works  of 
considerable  magnitude,  but  this  number  includes  also  exhibits  of  coal, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  &c.  There  are,  besides,  in  the  section  of  Group  YII 
(Metal  Industry)  devoted  to  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  no  less  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  exhibitors,  but  these  include  many  manufactures 
not  ordinarily  classed  with  iron  and  steel  products. 

Only  a  few  of  the  more  prominent  exhibits,  in  regard  to  which  notes 
were  made,  can  here  be  noticed. 

45.  A.  Borsig,  Upper  Silesia.— This  firm,  with  large  establish¬ 
ments  in  Silesia,  and  also  near  Berlin,  makes  a  fine  display  of  cast-steel 
ingots,  sections  of  girders,  piston-heads,  boxes,  and  various  parts  of 
machinery.  There  are  some  large  and  well-forged  cranks  and  connect¬ 
ing-rods,  large  boiler  heads  and  plates,  in  cast  steel,  one  weighiug  480 
kilograms ;  another  5,300  by  1;500  by  13  millimeters,  weighing  950  kilo¬ 
grams.  Among  the  large  boiler-plates,  (presumably  of  iron,)  two  may 
be  cited  for  their  great  size  and  perfection.  The  first,  6,400  by  2,200  by 
5  millimeters,  weight  550  kilograms  ;  the  second,  8,000  by  2,100  by  13 
millimeters,  weighing  1,700  kilograms.  Two  sheets  of  locomotive-boiler 
plate,  respectively,  7,400  by  1,010  by  30  millimeters,  weight  967.5  kilo¬ 
grams,  7,500  by  1,170  by  40  millimeters,  weight  2,730  kilograms,  received 
the  Progress  Medal.  The  central  portion  of  this  fine  display  consists 
of  a  glass  case  containing  the  smaller  objects  surmounted  by  a  stack 
of  ore.  There  is  a  monumental  pyramid  of  coal,  with  a  bust  of  Borsig  (?) 
at  the  top.  Progress  Medal. 

These  works  were  established  in  1863.  There  are  now  (1S73)  4 
blast-furnaces,  40  puddling-ovens,  21  heating-ovens,  3  annealing-ovens, 
3  steel  melting-ovens,  and  2  heating-ovens.  They  produced  in  1872,  with 
1.542  workmen,  400,000  hundred-weight  of  pig-iron,  26,000  hundred¬ 
weight  castings  for  the  use  of  the  works,  300,000  hundred-weight  of 
rolled  iron,  26,600  hundred-weight  steel  for  the  German  market.  Open- 
hearth  steel  by  Martin’s  process  is  a  specialty  of  these  works. 


60 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


the  furnace  from  freezing.  Each  of  the  Stolberg  furnaces  have  four 
tuyeres,  19  inches  long,  2.5  inches  in  diameter  in  front,  and  5.5  inches  at 
the  back.  The  tuyeres  are  14.5  inches  apart,  and  converge  toward  the 
front  walls,  and  incline  downward  1  inch  to  their  length. 

The  smelting-charge  for  a  Stolberg  furnace,  with  four  tuyeres,  is  from 
10,090  to  12,500  kilograms  of  roasted  lead-ore  and  10,000  to  12,500  kilo¬ 
grams  slag  from  the  same  operation.  Besides  these  are  added  lead- 
matte  from  the  same  operation,  roasted  residues  from  the  arsenical 
works,  dezinckified  residues,  sublimation  residues,  purchased  auriferous 
and  argentiferous  sweepings,  lead  duxes,  &c.,  &c.  Formerly,  roasted 
raw-matte  was  never  left  out  of  the  smelting-charge,  but  latterly  it  has 
seldom  been  present.  Since  the  working  over  of  the  lead-slag  in  rever¬ 
beratory  furnaces  has  been  given  up,  the  production  of  raw-matte  has 
almost  entirely  ceased.  This  product  is  still  sometimes  produced  in 
working  the  lead-slags  over  again  in  blast-furnaces,  but  in  such  small 
amounts,  that  it  was  necessary  to  find  something  which  would  take  its 
place.  This  was  found  in  the  ferugiuous  residues  from  the  roasting  of 
arsenical  ores,  zinc-ores,  and  dross  carrying  a  large  percentage  of  iron. 
Besides  these,  the  roasted  residues  left  in  the  kilns,  after  the  roastiug 
of  pyritous  lump  ores,  and  also  the  American  ores,  can  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  as  they  all  contain  a  large  percentage  of  iron.  These  products 
serve  as  the  precipitating  medium  for  the  undecomposed  sulphide  of 
lead  still  remaining  in  the  roasted  ore.  Of  lead  products  ouly  the  refin¬ 
ing  dross  and  test  bottom  of  the  cupellatiou-furnace  are  mixed  with  the 
smelting-charge.  The  charge  is  made  up  in  the  following  manner:  upon 
the  charging-floor  a  small  layer  of  the  ferruginous  mixtures  is  spread, 
upon  this  comes  the  roasted-lead  charge,  then  the  necessary  amount  of 
limestone  is  strewn  over  the  roasted  lead-ore,  and  lastly,  upon  top  of  all, 
is  added  the  necessary  amount  of  slag,  and  then  such  argentiferous 
sweepings,  or  dross,  are  mixed  iu  as  is  deemed  sufficient.  The  charge, 
after  having  been  made  upas  just  described,  is  introduced  into  the  furnace 
through  the  two  cliarging-holes,  situated  a  few  feet  above  the  charging- 
floor.  Care  should  be  taken  in  removing  the  smelting-charge,  for  the 
purpose  of  introducing  it  into  the  furnace,  that  it  be  cut  down  verti¬ 
cally,  so  that  all  the  ingredients  composing  the  same  may  become  well 
mixed  together.  The  fuel  used  is  coke,  aud  is  received  partly  from  the 
Klauenschen  Grunde,  and  partly  from  Zwiekan.  That  from  the  former 
place  contains  20  per  cent,  ash,  and  that  from  the  latter  15  per  cent. 

140.  The  blast-furnaces  receive  their  blast  from  double-acting  cylintler- 
pressure  blowers,  the  motive  power  being  either  steam  or  water.  At 
the  Muldener  Works  there  are,  altogether,  four  blast-engines ;  at  the  lower 
works  there  is  a  steam-blast  eugine  of  20-horse  power  and  a  turbine- 
blast  engine  of  10  horse  power.  The  former  has  two  horizontal  cylin¬ 
ders  and  the  latter  four  vertical  cylinders.  These  two  engines  supply 
the  cupellation  aud  lead-refining  furnaces  with  blast.  At  the  upper 
works  there  is  a  turbine-cylinder  blower.  These  two  engines  supply  the 


PROCESSES  OF  SMELTING. 


61 


furnaces  with  eight  tuyeres,  the  silver-refining  furnaces,  and  the  black¬ 
smith’s  forge. 

141.  The  coke  and  smelting-mixture  are  charged  into  the  Stolberg  fur¬ 
nace  in  horizontal  layers,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
smelting-mixture  comes  on  the  front  wall  and  the  coke  on  the  back  wall, 
thus  making  wedge-shaped  layers  of  charge  and  coke  alternating  with 
each  other.  For  every  12  to  14  trays  (about  8  kilograms)  of  smelting- 
charge,  2  baskets  (about  15  kilograms)  of  coke  are  added;  therefore  to 
every  pound  of  fuel  there  are  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  charge.  This 
proportion  between  coke  and  charge  depends,  of  course,  on  the  manner . 
in  which  the  furnace  is  working.  For  example,  if  the  furnace  is  in 
‘‘good  heat,”  the  proportion  of  charge  to  fuel  is  increased;  but  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  furnace  begins  to  look  dark  through  the  tuyeres,  and  the 
formation  of  a  “nose”  can  be  perceived,  the  amount  of  fuel  must  be 
increased  or  the  amount  of  smelting-mixture  decreased.  Smelting  in  the 
Stolberg  furnaces  is  not  a  smelting  with  “  noses,”  as  may  be  inferred  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  furnace  is  charged.  The  smelting  is  always 
conducted  with  dark  charging-holes.  The  slag  is  allowed  to  flow  almost 
constantly  into  the  slag-pots.  These  pots  have  an  orifice,  from  6  to  8 
inches  above  the  bottom,  which  is  closed  with  a  wooden  plug  while  the 
slag  is  flowing  in.  When  the  slag-pot,  full -of  slag,  has  been  wheeled 
outside  of  the  smelting-house,  this  plug  is  withdrawn,  and  the  slag  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  pot  flows  out  on  the  ground.  If  any  matte 
has  flowed  out  of  the  furnace  with  the  slag,  it  will  be  found  in  the  bottom 
of  the  pot.  This  is  a  very  convenient  method  of  separating  the  two, 
though  the  separation,  of  course,  is  not  perfect.  The  matte  is  worked 
over  again,  also  the  slag,  as  it  contains  about  0.0015  per  cent,  silver 
and  from  3  to  4  per  cent.  lead.  After  the  slag  has  been  removed,  the  fur¬ 
nace  is  tapped  for  lead.  This  should  never  be  executed  until  matte 
commences  to  flow  out  with  the  slag.  Silver,  lead,  and  matte  flow  into 
the  tap-hearth,  and  there  separate,  according  to  their  specific  gravities. 
If  speiss  has  been  formed,  it  will  be  found  between  the  lead  and  matte, 
and  must  be  separated  from  the  latter  by  the  use  of  a  sledge-hammer. 
The  tap-hole  is  closed  with  a  clay  plug  as  soon  as  the  lead  has  flowed 
out.  During  the  tapping  the  blast  is  generally  turned  off ;  the  matte 
is  lifted  from  the  lead,  and  the  bullion  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  tap- 
hearth  is  ladled  out  into  molds  ;  at  the  same  time  the  assay-sample  is 
carefully  taken,  after  stirring  the  lead  well  together.  Twice  every  day 
the  blast  is  turned  off,  and  the  slag  in  the  furnace  allowed  to  run  all  out ; 
the  crust  of  slag  that  has  formed  over  the  top  of  the  fore-crucible  is 
removed,  and  the  breast-holes  are  then  opened.  The  inside  of  the  fur¬ 
nace  is  then  examined  with  an  iron  bar,  and  if  any  accretions  have 
formed  on  the  sides  or  bottom,  they  are  removed,  if  possible,  by  means 
of  the  bar.  If  the  charge  should  hang  anywhere  the  difficulty  is  remeded, 
and  the  fore-crucible  well  cleaned.  After  the  accomplishment  of  this 
operation  the  furnace  is  again  closed,  the  blast  turned  on,  and  the  smelt¬ 
ing  commences  once  more. 


62 


VIENNA  INTEEN ATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

142.  Products  :  a.  Slag-  that  stands  between  amonosilicate  aud  a  bisili¬ 
cate,  and  containing  a  large  percentage  of  iron  ;  it  flows  easily  and  is  of  a 
dark-gray  color;  contains  from  3  to  4  per  cent,  lead  and  from  0.0013  to 
0.0025  per  cent.=  8  dwt.  17. GO  gr.  to  14  dwt.  13.S2  gr.  silver.  Part  of  it 
is  used  in  fluxing  the  ore-charges,  but  the  greater  part  is  smelted  over 
for  itself  in  blast-furnaces.  This  operation  is  called  the  slag-smelting. 

b.  Lead-matte  contains  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  lead,  0.15  to  0.25  per 
cent.  =  43  oz.  13  dwt.  14.4  gr.  to  72  oz.  15  dwt.  14.4  gr.  silver,  and 
from  5  to  S  per  cent,  copper.  It  is  stamped,  roasted,  and  smelted  with 
slag,  in  order  to  extract  the  lead  and  silver  as  completely  as  possible 
and  concentrate  the  copper. 

c.  Silver-lead  contains  arsenic,  antimony,  iron,  and  copper,  and  from 
0.50  to  0.00  per  cent.  =  145  oz.  10  dwt.  to  174  oz.  19  dwt.  1G  gr.  silver; 
only  when  rich,  dry  silver-ores,  or  argentiferous  sweepings,  are  mixed  in 
with  the  smelting-charge  does  the  silver  amount  to  0.80  or  1.00  per 
cent.  =233  oz.  1G  dwt.  or  291  oz. 

d.  Lead-speiss,  containing  lead,  iron,  copper,  cobalt,  and  nickel. 

143.  The  consumption  of  coke  in  the  Stolberg  furnace  per  twenty-four 
hours  is  about  40  cwt.  Each  furnace  is  tended  by  four  workmen,  who 
make  12-hour  shifts.  The  shift  changes  morning  and  evening  at  G 
o’clock.  There  are  one  smelter,  one  assistant,  one  charger,  and  one  slag- 
runner.  The  Stolberg  furnaces  are  blown  out  four  times  during  the 
year  for  repairs,  thus  making  a  smelting-campaign  of  about  three  months’ 
duration. 

144.  The  gases  and  fumes  that  escape  from  these,  as  well  as  the  round 
and  octagonal  furnaces,  are  conducted  through  condensing-chambers 
into  a  chimney  and  from  there  escape  into  the  atmosphere.  The  fumes 
collected  in  the  condensing-chambers,  consist  of  lead-oxide,  arsenious 
acid,  arsenic,  carbon,  and  particles  of  ore.  These  chambers  are  cleared 
as  often  as  the  furnaces  are  blown  out.  The  fumes  contain  from  0.005  to 
0.01  per  cent.  =  1  oz.  9  dwt.  3.S4  gr.  to  2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.80  gr.  silver,  aud 
35  to  40  per  cent,  lead,  and  are  mixed  with  the  lead-ore  roasting-charge 
for  further  treatment. 

145.  Smelting  in  round  blast-furnaces.— There  are  three  blast¬ 
furnaces  with  eight  tuyeres  at  the  Muldener  Works,  one  of  which 
is  octagonal  iu  form  and  the  other  two  cylindrical.  There  are  also 
two  at  the  Halsbruckner  Works,  both  round.  This  makes  five  in 
all  at  both  works.  The  two  at  the  Halsbruckner  Works  belong  to 
the  class  of  crucible-furnaces.  At  the  Muldener  Works,  Xo.  1  is  a 
round  crucible-furnace.  Xo.  2  is  octagonal,  aud  is  at  present  a  hearth- 
furnace,  (Sumpfofcn ;)  not  long  since  it  had  a  large  fore-hearth,  but 
as  this  did  not  give  satisfaction,  it  was  removed.  Xo.  3  is  a  hearth- 
furnace,  the  hearth,  however,  not  being  so  large  as  that  of  Xo.  2;  the 
shaft  is  cylindrical.  The  two  Pilz  furnaces  at  the  Halsbruckner  Works 
are  principally  used  for  the  smelting  of  ore.  Xo.  1  at  the  Muldener  gen¬ 
erally  runs  on  ore  ;  Xo.  2  on  ore.  matte,  and  slag,  and  Xo.  3  is  principally 


PROCESSES  OF  SMELTING. 


63 


used  for  smelting  the  slag.  The  shafts  of  the  octagonal  furnace  are 
formed  by  eight  walls,  which  are  partly  composed  of  fire-clay  bricks, 
and  partly  of  common  bricks.  The  walls  stand  vertically  from  the 
canals  in  the  foundation,  for  conducting  off  the  moisture  up  to  the  level 
of  the  tuyeres,  but  from  here  on,  up  to  the  pipe  for  conducting  off  the 
furnace-fumes,  they  have  a  slant  outward  of  2  feet.  The  thickness  of 
the  walls  is  10  inches,  below  the  tuyeres  18  inches.  For  10  inches  below 
tuyeres  and  6  inches  above  the  same,  the  walls  are  built  of  fire-clay 
bricks;  elsewhere  common  bricks  have  been  used.  The  foundation  is 
composed  of  the  following  materials :  First  comes  a  2-foot  3-inch  layer 
of  slag  ;  upon  this  an  18-iuch  layer  of  loam ;  this  is  covered  by  a  layer  of 
fire-clay,  12  inches  thick,  and  then  fire-bricks  standing  on  edge  form  the 
bottom  of  the  furnace.  In  order  that  the  furnace  may  be  easily  cleaned 
out,  the  lower  part  only,  for  7  feet  above  the  floor,  rests  upon  the  foun¬ 
dation,  while  all  above  this  rests  upon  eight  hollow  cast-iron  pillars.  The 
upper  part  of  the  furnace  is  surrounded  by  a  sheet-iron  mantel,  on  the 
lower  end  of  which  are  elbow-irons,  resting  upon  the  iron  pillars.  The 
lower  end  of  the  mantel  turns  inward  7  inches  at  a  right  angle,  and 
upon  this  projection  the  inside  lining  of  the  shaft  is  built  up  with  brick. 
As  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  rests  exclusively  upon  the  eight  iron 
pillars,  the  lower  part  can  be  repaired  without  disturbing  the  upper  part 
of  the  shaft.  In  the  center  of  each  of  the  surrounding  walls,  and  4  feet 
above  the  floor,  cast-iron  water-tuyeres  are  brought  in,  and  are  so  pointed 
that  the  blast  from  the  different  tuyeres  will  cross  at  a  point  a  little  in 
front  of  the  center  of  the  shaft.  The  blast  is  conducted  around  the 
furnace  in  a  large  cast-iron  pipe,  and  is  supported  by  the  eight  iron  pil¬ 
lars.  From  this  main  pipe  eight  elbow-pipes  branch  off,  conducting  the 
blast  into  the  tuyeres.  At  the  top  of  the  furnace  there  is  a  charging- 
funnel,  which  can  be  closed  by  means  of  a  hollow  iron  cylinder.  The 
sides  of  the  funnel  have  an  inclination  of  25°.  Below  this  funnel  there 
is  an  iron  cylinder,  hung  in  the  mouth  of  the  shaft,  with  a  diameter  of 
5  feet  9  inches.  Through  this  hollow  cylinder,  the  smelting-charge  and 
fuel  pass  into  the  furnace-shaft,  and  there  spread  out  through  the 
whole  width  of  the  same.  In  the  space  between  this  cylinder  and  the 
sides  of  the  furnace-walls,  the  gases  and  fumes  collect  and  pass  out 
through  an  irou  pipe,  3  feet  in  diameter,  into  the  condensation-chambers. 
The  furnace  is  furnished  with  two  slag-spouts,  which  are  hollow,  and 
through  which  water  continually  circulates.  There  are  three  tap-holes, 
situated  at  equal  distances  from  each  other  about  the  furnace,  and  be¬ 
low  each  of  them  are  conical  shaped  cast-iron  tap-hearths  sunk  into  the 
floor.  The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  : 

Feet.  Inches. 


From  center  of  tuyeres  to  bottom  of  hearth .  2  0 

From  center  of  tuyeres  to  the  charging-funnel. . . s  _ _ 23  3 

From  center  of  tuyeres  to  center  of  gas-conductor .  20  6 

Diameter  of  shaft  at  the  level  of  the  tuyeres .  5  6 

Diameter  of  shaft  at  the  gas-conductor .  7  6 


64 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


146.  The  blowing  in  of  this  furnace  must  be  conducted  with  the 
utmost  care,  if  the  immediate  formation  of  salamanders  is  to  be  avoided. 
After  it  has  been  warmed  for  thirty-six  hours,  about  1,500  kilograms 
of  lead-ore  are  placed  in  the  hearth,  through  au  opening  left  above  the 
tymp-iron.  This  will  prevent  the  formation  of  accretions.  After  the 
lead  has  been  placed  in  the  furnace,  the  hole  over  the  tymp-iron  is 
bricked  up,  and  the  furnace  is  filled  with  coke  up  to  the  point  where  the 
iron  mantel  commences.  A  slight  pressure  of  blast  is  now  turned  on. 
Small  quantities  of  the  smelting-mixture  are  then  added  and  gradually 
increased  until  the  furnace  smelts  its  customary  charge.  A  charge  made 
up  for  blowing  this  furnace  in  is  generally  composed  of: 

Kilograms. 


Slag  from  the  smelting  of  lead-ore .  15,  Out) 

Lump  pyrites .  500 

Lead-in  a  tt6 .  500 

Fluor-spar .  500 

]Iros3  from  lead-refining  furnace .  500 


147.  The  average  charge  for  this  furnace  in  September,  1S73,  and  the 
amount  smelted  in  twenty-four  hours  were  : 


Kilograms. 

Slag  from  ore-smelting .  15,  000 

Slag  from  same  operation., .  15,  000 

Slag  from  concentrating  copper-matte  . 3,  000 

Eoasted  lead-matte .  4,000 

Eaw  copper-matte .  1,  250 

Eoasted  pyritous  ore,  (containing  silver) .  3,  500 

Cupel  hearth .  1,  500 

Litharge .  10,  000 

Dezincking  residue .  1,500 

Limestone .  1,  2Q0 

Coke .  5,550 


Total . . . . .  61,500 


Products:  a.  Silver-lead,  9,430  kilograms;  b.  Lead-copper  matte, 
3,250  kilograms,  with  25  per  cent,  copper ;  c.  Slag,  with  30  to  34  per 
cent,  silicic  acid  and  1  to  2.5  per  cent.  lead. 

The  pressure  of  the  blast,  when  the  furnace  is  running  on  full  charges, 
is  4  centimeters  of  mercury. 

148.  The  cylindrical  furnace  is  not  as  high  as  the  octagonal  furnace, 
and  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  is  the  same  throughout.  In  one,  the 
gases  are  conducted  away  from  the  furnace,  above  the  charging-funnel, 
through  a  3-foot  pipe,  into  condensation-chambers;  in  the  others,  they  en¬ 
ter  a  3-foot  pipe  2  feet  below  the  charging-floor.  The  distance  from  bot¬ 
tom  of  furnace  to  center  of  tuyeres  is  2  feet;  from  that  point  to  the 
charging-hole,  13  feet  2  inches.  In  making  up  the  smeltiug-cliarge,  the 
formation  of  an  easily  smelting  and  basic  slag  is  constantly  kept  in 


PROCESSES  OF  SMELTING. 


65 


view ;  for  this  reason  an  acid  flux  is  never  added,  but  under  some  cir¬ 
cumstances  basic  fluxes  are,  such  as  limestone  and  fluor-spar.  The  zinc 
contained  in  the  Freiberg  ores  is  the  most  troublesome  element  which 
they  carry.  In  order  to  effect  a  good  smelting,  the  amount  of  slag-form¬ 
ing  flux  added  must  be  increased  with  the  increase  of  zinc  in  the  ore, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  smelting-charge  must  be  so  made  up  that 
considerable  matte  may  be  formed,  as  the  matte,  as  well  as  the  slag, 
acts  as  a  solvent  on  the  zinc.  This  explains  why  roasted  and  unroasted 
matte  help  to  compose  the  charge  at  one  and  the  same  time;  and,  fur¬ 
thermore,  why  at  the  Holsbriickner  Works  50  per  cent,  of  slag  is  suf¬ 
ficient,  while  at  the  Muldener  Hiitte  100  per  cent,  is  necessary;  for  the 
ores  delivered  at  the  latter  works  always  carry  more  zinc  than  those  of 
the  former.  This  also  explains  why  the  furnaces  with  eight  tuyeres 
work  better  at  the  Holsbriickner  than  at  the  Muldener  Works. 

149.  The  dissolving  action  of  slag  and  matte  on  zinc-sulphide  has  not 
as  yet  been  theoretically  explained  ;  it  may  be  that  it  is  in  part  mechan¬ 
ical  and  in  part  chemical.  Thp  above  remarks  will  serve  to  explain  the 
composition  of  the  smelting-charges  at  the  two  works,  which  are  com¬ 
posed  about  as  follows : 


I.  Muldener 
Works. 

II.  Holsbriickner 
Works. 

Roasted  ore  (17.6  per  cent.  Pb,  0.6  per  cent.  Cn,  and 

0.109  per  cent,  of  Ag) . 

Raw-matte  ...’ . 

Lump  pyrites  from  the  kilns . . . 

Kilograms. 

100 

15 

15 

80  to  100 

Kilograms. 

100 

3.  0299 

Slag  from  the  same  operation . 

Dezincking  residue . 

50 

3.  338 

0.  3517 
1.  5827 
0. 1453 

Fluor-spar . 

Limestone . . . . 

Heavy-spar . . . 

The  charge  I  is  that  of  furnaces  working  in  their  normal  state ;  the 
II  is  the  average  for  a  long  space  of  time. 

150.  About  25,000  to  30,000  kilograms  of  ore  =  55,000  to  70,000  kilo¬ 
grams  of  charge,  are  smelted  in  twenty-four  hours  in  the  Pilz  furnace 
at  the  Muldener  Works  ;  at  the  Holsbriickner  Works,  about  35,000  kilo¬ 
grams  of  ore  =  about  50,000  kilograms  of  smelting-charge.  One  kilo¬ 
gram  of  coke  carries  from  10  to  11  kilograms  of  charge  =4.5  to  7  kilo¬ 
grams  of  ore.  The  furnaces  are  worked  with  a  blast  from  1-inch  mur- 
cury-column. 

A  furnace  produces  :  «,  from  1,000  to  8,000  kilograms  silver-lead  per 
twenty-four  hours,  which  contains  from  0.50  to  0.60  per  cent.=  145  oz. 
16  dwt.  to  174  oz.  19  dwt.  16  grs.  silver  ;  and  5,  6,250  to  7,500  kilograms 
of  matte,  assaying  from  0.15  per  cent,  to  0.20  per  cent.=  about  45  oz.  to 
49  oz.  in  silver,  0.15  per  cent,  lead,  and  8  to  12  per  cent,  copper;  c,  the 
slag  contains  from  0.0025  to  0.005  per  ceut.=  14  dwt.  13.82  gr.  to  1  oz. 
9  dwt.  3.84  gr.  silver. 

5  M 


G6  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

A  Pilz  furnace  is  attended  by  a  smelter,  two  chargers,  and  three  slag- 
runners. 

Tlie  following  analyses  will  serve  to  show  the  general  composition  of 
the  slag  resulting  from  smelting  the  ores: 

Holsliriickner  Works.  Muldener  Works. 


Si  02  . . 31.15  Si  02 _ 27.2  ) 

FeO . 41.31 

ZnO . 7.85  Zn  O  .  ..10.1 

y  q  ..  jq  The  other  substances  werenot 

q  q  1  determined;  the  average 

-j  (),j  amount  of  iron  in  the  slags 

q  g  28  is  given  at  40  per  cent. 

Mn  () .  2.10 

1'bO; .  1.47  PI)  O.  ..  5.7  , 

Cu2  O .  0.10 

S . 1.80 


100.17 

The  reasons  for  the  economy  in  fuel  are  undoubtedly  the  large  capac¬ 
ity  of  the  furnaces  and  the  presence  of  pyritous  ores  in  the  smelting- 
charge,  which  serve  to  form  a  very  fusible  basic  slag,  rich  in  iron. 

151.  Liquation  of  silver-lead.— Silver-lead,  produced  from  cuprif¬ 
erous  ores,  passes  through  dn  operation  of  liquation  for  the  purpose  of 
removing  some  of  the  copper  it  contains  previous  to  its  treatment  in 
the  reverberatory  refining-furnaces. 

The  liquation  furnace  cousists  of  a  fire-place  and  an  inclined  hearth. 
At  the  lower  end  of  the  hearth  there  is  a  deep  cavity,  into  which  the 
liquated  lead  flows  as  fast  as  it  is  melted.  The  furnace  is  charged  with 
the  silver-lead,  and  under  the  influence  of  a  low  temperature  the  lead 
melts  and  flows  down  along  the  hearth,  collecting  in  the  cavity  at  the 
lower  end,  leaving  an  unmelted  residue  on  the  hearth,  which  is  princi¬ 
pally  composed  of  an  alloy  of  lead  and  copper.  When  the  lead-recep¬ 
tacle,  in  the  forepart  of  the  furnace, becomes  full,  the/furnace  is  tapped, 
and  the  lead  flows  out  into  molds  placed  about  the  front  of  the  furnace. 

152.  Products:  a.  Liquated  silver-lead,  which  is  delivered  over  to  the 
reverberatory  lead-refining  furnaces. 

b.  Dross,  containing  copper,  which  is  reduced  iu  blast  furnaces. 

c.  Lead,  which  has  already  been  refined,  is  also  passed  through  the 
liquation-furnace,  when  the  copper  it  may  contain  has  not  been  thoroughly 
eliminated  by  the  process  of  refining. 

153.  Refining  of  the  silver-lead. — This  operation  consists  iu  the  gradual 
melting  down  of  the  silver-lead  in  reverberatory  refining-furnaces  and 
the  elimination  of  its  impurities,  such  as  arsenic,  antimony,  copper,  and 
iron,  by  a  process  of  gradual  oxidation. 

The  operation  of  lead  refining  is  conducted  in  reverberatory  furnaces 


PROCESSES  OF  SMELTING. 


67 


resembling  the  English  reverberatory  smelting-furnaces.  On  one  of  the 
longer  sides  of  the  furnace  there  is  an  opening,  which  can  be  closed  by 
means  of  a  fire-clay  slab.  This  is  used  for  charging  the  furnace  with 
lead.  The  fire-door  is  on  the  same  side,  and  on  the  opposite  side  is 
situated  the  tap-hole.  The  working-door  is  in  the  front  side  of  the  fur¬ 
nace,  opposite  to  the  fire-bridge.  The  hearth  is  concave,  and  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  pillars  of  masonry  below  the  floor  of  the  refiniug-house.  Just 
above  the  pillars,  and  resting  upon  them,  are  iron  plates;  there  is  a 
layer  of  loam  2  to  4  inches  thick  resting  on  the  plates,  and,  lastly,  the 
hearth  proper,  which  is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  unburnt  fire-clay  and 
fire-brick  dust,  14  inches  thick.  On  either  side  of  the  fire-bridge  there 
is  an  opening  for  the  reception  of  the  blast-nozzles.  The  nozzles  connect 
with  the  blast-pipe  by  means  of  leather  hose.  Immediately  in  front  of 
the  tap-spout  there  is  a  cast-iron  shallow  pan  hung  from  the  ceiling  and 
revolvable  on  a  pivot.  The  lead  flowing  out  of  the  tap-hole  when  the 
furnace  is  tapped,  runs  into  this  iron  pan,  and  from  it,  through  an  iron 
spout,  connected  with  the  same,  into  the  molds  placed  in  a  semicircle 
about  the  side  of  the  furnace.  As  soon  as  one  row  of  molds  has  become 
full,  the  pan,  with  its  spout,  is  turned  so  that  the  lead  will  flow  into  the 
next  row.  This  is  a  very  convenient  arrangement  and  does  away  with 
all  ladling. 

154.  Bituminous  coal  is  burned  in  the  furnaces  with  shallow  hearths, 
or  lignite  in  those  of  deeper  hearths.  In  refining  250  to  300  cwt.  of  lead 
in  24  hours,  12  cwt.  of  each  of  the  first  kinds  of  fuel  are  consumed,  3  to 
4  cwt.  of  the  first  and  9  cwt.  of  the  second,  while  only  6  cwt.  of  the 
latter  sort  is  necessary. 

155.  Manipulation.-— The  silver-lead  is  charged  into  the  furnace  by 
means  of  a  charging-iron  ;  this  accomplished,  the  charge  is  melted  down 
at  a  low  temperature.  Duriug  the  melting  down  of  the  charge,  combi¬ 
nations  of  lead,  copper,  and  arseuic,  with  antimony,  are  formed  and  rise 
to  the  surface.  They  are  removed  from  the  furnace  through  the  work¬ 
ing-door,  by  means  of  an  iron  rabble.  The  temperature  is  now  increased 
to  a  dark-red  heat,  and  the  blast  turned  on.  Thereby  the  greater  part 
of  the  arseuic  and  antimony  become  oxidized,  and  also  a  small  quantity 
of  lead,  and  form  a  very  fusible  slag-like  mass,  called  abstrich,  which  is 
removed  by  means  of  a  green  piece  of  wood  fastened  on  crosswise  to  a 
long  iron  rod.  As  soon  as  a  fine  film  of  yellow  litharge  has  formed  over 
the  surface  of  the  lead  the  operation  is  finished,  and  the  furnace  tapped, 
after  the  fire  has  been  allowed  to  burn  feebly  for  about  the  space  of  oue 
hour.  If  the  lead  is  well  refined  it  is  very  ductile,  tough,  aud  is  of  a 
fibrous  texture  oii  fractured  surfaces.  After  each  tapping  the  hearth  of 
the  furnace  must  be  repaired  with  a  mixture  of  one  part  clay  and  oue 
part  chamotte,  (a  mixture  of  unburnt  fire-clay  and  fire-brick  dust,)  both 
of  which  should  be  finely  crushed  and  slightly  moistened. 

156.  Products:  a.  Refined  silver-lead,  which  is  delivered  over  to  the 
Pattinsou  works  for  desilverization  ;  or  if  it  still  contains  too  much  cop- 


68  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

per  to  be  properly  treated  by  this  process,  it  is  sent  to  the  liquatiou- 
lurnace. 

b.  Abstrich  in  the  form  of  powder :  Abont  3  per  cent,  of  the  lead 
put  into  the  furnace  conies  out  in  this  shape.  It  contains  from  4  to  5 
per  cent,  tin,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  melted  over  again  in  the  refining- 
furnace,  with  1  to  li  per  cent  of  lignite,  whereby  lead  results,  which  is 
refined,  and  abstrich,  containing  from  11  to  18  per  cent.  tin.  It  is 
reduced  in  shaft-furnaces. 

c.  Abstrich  :  It  is  divided  into  three  classes.  The  first  class  is  that 
which  forms  directly  after  the  removal  of  the  first  dross  (abzug)  formed. 
It  composes  abont  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  charge.  It  is  this  abstrich 
which  contains  the  most  antimony,  (about  12  per  cent.,)  and  is  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  antimonial  lead. 

cl.  Abstrich  No. 2:  Composes  abont  54  per  cent,  of  the  total  lead-charge, 
and  contains  from  5  to  6  per  cent,  antimony.  It  is  delivered  over  to 
the  blast-furnaces  for  reduction,  and  is  yellower  than  that  of  the  first 
class. 

e.  Abstrich  No.  3:  Is  principally  composed  of  lead-oxide,  and  contains 
only  2  per  cent,  antimony;  is  equal  to  about  G  per  cent,  of  the  total 
charge,  and  is  of  a  beautiful  yellow  color.  This  is  also  reduced  in  the 
blast-furnaces. 

157.  Production  of  antimonial  lead. — The  material  employed  for  the 
production  of  antimonial  lead  is  the  abstrich  No.  1,  already  mentioned, 
and  which  contains  about  12  percent,  antimony,  G  percent,  arsenic,  and 
2  per  cent,  copper.  It  is  melted  down  in  the  lead-refining  furnaces  with 
2  to  3  percent,  of  fire-coal,  and  the  entangled  silver-lead,  as  well  as  the 
uncombined  lead-oxide  contained  in  it,  settles  down  on  the  bottom  of  the 
hearth  and  is  separated  from  the  abstrich  in  the  following  manner :  The 
melted  abstrich  is  removed  from  the  furnace  through  the  working-door 
and  the  silver-lead  is  tapped  off  into  molds. 

158.  Products:  a.  Desilverized  abstrich,  containing 0.001  per  cent.  = 
5  dwt.  19.G8  gr.  silver,  15  per  cent,  antimony,  10  per  cent,  arsenic,  and  1 1 
per  cent,  copper.  It  is  reduced  in  blast-furnaces. 

h.  Silver-lead,  which  is  delivered  over  to  the  Pattinson  works  for  de- 
silverizatiou. 

150.  In  the  reduction  of  the  abstrich,  5  per  ceut.  fluor-spar  and  25  per 
cent,  poor  lead-slag  are  added  as  fluxing  material.  The  reduction  is 
conducted  in  Stolberg  blast-furnaces.  The  resulting  antimouial  lead 
contains  about  0.001  per  cent.  =  5  dwt.  19.68  gr.  silver,  15  to  18  per  ceut. 
antimony,  3  per  cent,  arsenic,  and  0.4  per  ceut.  copper.  This  product 
passes  through  the  liquating-furnace.  The  slag  carries  10  per  cent,  of 
antimonial  lead,  and  is  therefore  resmelted  with  25  per  cent,  lead-slag 
and  5  per  cent,  fluor-spar,  whereby  an  antimonial  lead  is  obtained,  which 
is  delivered  over  to  the  ore-smelting.  The  liquation  of  the  antimonial 
abstrich  and  slag-lead  is  conducted  in  a  refining-furnace  at  a  very  low 
temperature  in  order  to  extract  the  copper  as  thoroughly  as  possible. 


PROCESSES  OF  SMELTING. 


69 


Pieces  of  wood  are  laid  upon  the  hearth  of  the  furnace,  and  upon  these 
the  antimonial  lead  to  be  treated  is  placed,  then  a  layer  of  fuel  is 
thrown  on  top  of  the  lead.  If  a  fire  be  now  built  in  the  fire-place  of  the 
furnace,  the  antimonial  lead  melts,  trickles  down  through  the  pieces  of 
wood  on  to  the  hearth  and  flows  out  at  the  tap-hole.  It  contains  15  per 
cent,  antimony,  2  per  cent,  arsenic,  and  0.25  per  cent,  copper,  and  is  then 
taken  to  the  Pattinson  works,  where  it  is  poled  in  an  iron  kettle.  The 
dross  from  the  liquated  antimonial  lead  remains  in  the  furnace,  and  con¬ 
tains  4  per  cent,  antimony,  4  per  cent,  arsenic,  and  l  per  cent,  copper. 
It  is  fluxed  with  fluor-spar  and  reduced  in  a  shaft-furnace.  The  poling 
of  the  antimonial  lead  decreases  the  amount  of  arsenic  and  copper  which 
it  contains,  the  arsenic  being  volatilized  and  the  copper  oxidized  during 
the  operation.  The  operation  is  conducted  in  a  Pattinson  kettle.  The 
charge  is  melted  down  at  a  low  temperature,  and  the  dross  forming  on 
the  surface  is  removed.  Pieces  of  green  birch  and  pine  wood  are  then 
immersed  in  the  molten  bath  and  held  there  by  a  lever  arrangement. 
The  moisture  and  gases  evolved  from  the  green  wood  cause  the  lead  to 
boil  and  bubble  energetically,  thus  continually  offering  fresh  surfaces  of 
the  lead  to  the  action  of  the  atmospheric  air;  the  copper  becomes  oxi¬ 
dized  and  the  arsenic  is  volatilized.  After  sixty  or  eighty  hours  the 
kettle  is  emptied.  A  sample  of  the  antimonial  lead  should  have  a  fine 
granular  texture  on  a  fractured  surface,  and  a  smooth,  polished  surface. 
It  contains  1.3  to  1.8  per  cent,  arsenic,  0.17  to  0.4  per  cent,  copper,  and 
12  to  18  per  cent,  antimony. 

160.  The  Pattinson  process. — The  Pattinson  kettles  are  of  cast  iron,  are 
5.5  feet  iu  diameter,  3  feet  deep,  and  have  a  capacity  of  12,500  kilograms 
lead.  They  are  from  2  to  3  inches  thick  on  the  bottom,  and  at  the  upper 
edge  only  1.5  to  2  inches.  Sixteen  kettles  compose  a  battery.  The  kettles 
at  the  ends  are  called  the  poor-lead  kettle  and  the  rich-lead  kettle.  The 
flange  of  the  kettle  is  a  separate  casting  and  sometimes  consists  of  two 
pieces.  The  kettles  are  supported  by  the  kettle-walls,  which  are  20 
inches  high  above  the  floor.  Under  each  of  the  sixteen  kettles  there  is 
a  separate  fire-place.  Bituminous  coal  is  used  as  fuel.  The  flames  play 
upon  the  bottom  and  around  the  sides  of  the  kettles  and  then  pass  off 
into  a  chimney,  which  is  generally  common  to  two  fire-places. 

161.  Manipulation. — The  manipulation  is  always  conducted  according 
to  the  two-thirds  system,  with  or  without  the  removal  of  intermediate 
crystals.  The  manipulation  without  the  removal  of  intermediate 
crystals,  is  as  follows  :  As  soon  as  the  lead  in  the  kettle  has  been 
melted  down,  and  the  dross  formed  on  the  surface  removed,  the  hot 
coals  in  the  fire-place  underneath  the  kettle  are  raked  out  and  the  fire- 
door  left  standing  open,  so  that  the  cold  air  may  enter.  The  lead  in 
the  kettle  is  then  further  cooled  off  by  carefully  sprinkling  water  over 
its  surface;  the  solidified  crusts  which  form  around  the  edge  of  the  kettle 
are  broken  off,  thrust  back  into  the  bath,  and  the  whole  well  stirred 
together,  in  order  to  produce  a  more  uniform  cooling.  Crystals  now 


70 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  187A 


begiu  to  make  their  appearance ;  they  are  ladled  out  by  means  of  a 
long  perforated  ladle  and  placed  in  the  next  kettle.  These  crystals  are 
octahedrons,  modified  by  the  cube.  Two  workmen  sink  the  large  perfo¬ 
rated  ladle  into  the  lead,  pass  it  along  the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  then  bear 
down  with  their  entire  weight  on  the  end  of  the  long  handle  and  lift 
the  crystals  out  of  the  kettle.  A  block  of  lead  placed  upon  the  edge  of 
the  kettle  serves  as  a  fulcrum  for  the  ladle.  The  ladle  is  then  shaken 
in  order  that  the  mother-liquid  may  flow  oil'  the  ladle  back  into  the  ket¬ 
tle  ;  the  ladle  is  rested  upon  the  kettle’s  edge,  the  handle  upon  an  iron, 
which  inclines  toward  the  neighboring  kettle;  the  ladle  then  is  lifted, 
and.  sliding  down  into  the  next  kettle,  the  crystals  are  deposited  in  the 
latter.  The  crystals  melt  immediately  in  this  kettle,  and  any  crust 
which  solidities  on  the  edges  is  immediately  broken  oil' and  thrust  back 
into  the  liquid.  In  this  manner  two-thirds  of  the  kettle’s  contents  are 
ladled  over  into  the  neighboring  kettle,  and  the  mother-liquid  left 
behind  is  ladled  over  into  the  next  kettle,  in  the  direction  of  the  rich- 
lead  kettle. 

162.  I  n  the  two  thirdssystem,  with  the  removal  of  intermediatecrystals, 
the  crystals  are  ladled  over  into  the  kettle  on  the  poor-lead  side.  The 
mother-liquid  is  allowed  to  crystallize  again,  and  the  crystals  (two-thirds 
of  the  whole)  are  ladled  over  into  the  kettle  on  the  rich-lead  side,  and 
the  last  remaining  third  is  removed  into  the  second  kettle  on  the  rich- 
lead  side.  In  the  second  kettle  intermediate  crystals  are  always  formed 
when  they  are  worked  from  the  first  kettle  into  the  second. 

163.  The  resulting  poor  lead  should  never  contain  over  0.001  to 
0.0018  =  5  dwt.  19.68  gr.  to  10  dwt.  1 1.66  gr.  silver;  the  rich  lead,  on  the 
other  hand,  should  contain  1.50  to  1.80  per  cent.  =  436  oz.  16  dwt.  to  524 
oz.  6  dwt.  silver.  The  latter  is  delivered  over  to  the  cupellation  furnaces 
for  further  treatment,  and  the  former  is  ready  for  the  market. 

Hi  t.  Each  kettle  contains  lead  carrying  a  certain  amount  of  silver, 
and  to  the  same  only  lead  containing  a  like  amount  of  silver  is  ever 
added,  in  the  second  kettle,  for  example,  containing  lead  assaying 
from  0.5  to  0.6  per  cent.  =  145  oz.  16  dwt.  —  174  oz.  19  dwt.  16  gr.  silver, 
only  refined  silver-lead  would  be  added.  An  average  assay  sample 
is  taken  from  each  kettle  after  the  removal  of  the  dross,  in  order  to 
keep  the  run  of  the  operation  and  to  avoid  all  irregularities. 

165.  At  every  kettle  there  are  two  workmen ;  they  make  three  crystal¬ 
lizations  within  twelve  hours’  time.  A  fireman  attends  to  the  fires  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  directions  of  the  foreman. 

165.  Products  :  a.  Pattinson  dross.  Of  three  kinds,  distinguished  by 
their  silver-contents ;  that  from  the  first  to  the  third  kettles  composes 
the  first  sort:  that  from  the  fourth  to  the  uiuth  kettles  composes  the 
secoud  sort ;  and  that  from  the  teuth  to  the  fourteenth  composes  the 
third  sort. 

1>.  Itich  lead,  containing  from  1.50  to  1.S0  per  cent.  =  436  oz.  16  dwt.  to 
524  oz.  6  dwt.  silver.  It  is  cupelled. 


WORKING  SILVER-LEAD. 


71 


c.  Poor  lead,  (soft  lead,)  containing  from  0.001  to  0.0018  =5  dwt.  19.08 
gr.  to  10  dwt.  11.66  gr.  silver,  0.05  per  cent,  copper,  0.12  to  0.15  per  cent, 
iron,  and  a  trace  of  arsenic  and  antimony. 

166.  Cupellation  of  the  silver-lead. — The  foundation  consists  of  gneiss, 
and  projects  2  feet  above  the  floor  of  the  cupellation-house ;  it  is  provided 
with  two  canals  that  cross  each  other  at  right  angles  in  the  center,  which 
serve  to  carry  off  any  moisture  that  may  collect  in  the  foundation.  The 
foundation  supports  the  main  crown  of  the  furnace,  which  is  built  of  sand¬ 
stone  or  bricks,  and  is  well  anchored.  In  this  main  crown  there  are  num¬ 
erous  small  holes  which  lead  in  toward  the  center  of  the  furnace  ;  they 
serve  as  escapes  for  moisture.  Upon  the  main  crown  there  is  a  second 
smaller  one  built  of  brick,  and  in  it  are  the  litharge  passage  and  charging- 
door.  The  litharge  flows  out  of  the  former  as  fast  as  it  forms.  It  is 
near  the  fire-place,  so  that  the  higher  temperature  at  that  place  may  as¬ 
sist  to  keep  the  litharge  in  a  fluid  state.  The  litharge-passage  is  lined  with 
iron  plates,  and  underneath  is  the  iron  breast-plate  of  the  hearth.  The 
cupellation-hearth  is  composed  of,  first,  a  layer  of  finely-crushed  slag ; 
second,  a  layer  of  fire-bricks,  or  a  composition  of  quartz  and  clay,  scooped 
out  so  as  to  form  a  concave  surface;  and,  third,  the  cupellation-hearth 
proper,  consisting  of  infusible  marl.  The  hearth  is  covered  by  a  mov¬ 
able  hood  of  iron.  The  lower  surface  of  this  hood  is  lined  with  a  com¬ 
position  consisting  of  two  parts  of  quartz  and  one  part  of  clay.  This 
iron  hood  is  hung  on  a  revolvable  crane,  and  can  be  swung  away  from 
over  the  hearth,  so  that  the  workmen  can  stamp  on  the  hearth.  In 
order  to  effect  a  good  draught,  there  are  sheet-iron  chimneys  over  the 
litharge-passage  and  charging-door,  which  also  serve  to  carry  off  the 
lead-fumes  into  the  condensation-chambers.  On  the  side  opposite  the 
litharge-passage  there  are  two  tuyeres  which  supply  the  furnace  with 
the  necessary  blast  for  oxidation.  The  tuyeres  are  placed  horizontal, 
but  converge  toward  the  center  of  the  hearth.  Opposite  the  charging* 
door  is  the  fire-box,  separated  from  the  hearth  by  a  fire-bridge,  which 
is  covered  by  an  arch  of  fire-bricks.  The  blast  escapes  from  nozzles  in 
the  tuyeres,  which  connect  with  the  main  blast-pipe  by  means  of  leather 
hose.  These  nozzles  can  be  inclined  so  that  the  blast  will  strike  the 
surface  of  the  lead,  which  is  not  always  on  the  same  level,  throughout 
the  operation. 

167.  The  hearth  of  this  furnace  is  made  of  calcareous  marl,  which  is 
principally  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  silicate  of  alumina. 
For  the  preparation  of  this  marl,  8  cwt.  of  fresh  and  1  cwt.  of  already  - 
used  marl  is  employed,  and  also  ^  cwt.  of  clay.  All  this  material  is 
well  mixed  together  until  it  possesses  consistency;  the  marl  and  clay  are 
finely  pulverized,  sieved,  and  moistened  with  water,  so  that  the  mass 
will  ball  in  the  hand  without  leaving  moisture  on  thesame.  This  mixture 
must  be  infusible,  should  not  act  as  a  reducing  agent  on  lead-oxide,  and 
must  possess  acertain  porosity.  This  mixture  is  stamped  uponthe  hearth 
in  the  following  manner:  The  necessary  amount  of  the  composition  is 


72 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


placed  in  tbe  furnace  and  stamped  upon  the  hearth  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  form  a  concave  surface.  For  the  purpose  of  collecting'  the  re¬ 
maining  amount  of  plumbiferous  silver,  which  also  contains  bismuth, 
the  deepest  point  of  the  hearth  is  made  near  the  charging-door,  so 
that  it  may  be  ladled  out  into  cast-iron  molds,  when  the  operation  is 
finished. 

168.  After  the  test  has  been  properly  stamped  on  the  hearth  of  the 
furnace,  the  silver-lead  to  be  cupelled  is  placed  within  the  furnace, 
without  any  previous  heating  of  the  hearth;  the  lead  is  placed  care¬ 
fully  upon  the  hearth  with  the  hand  ;  the  hood  is  swung  back  from  the 
furnace  during  this  operation,  also  while  the  hearth  is  being  stamped 
in;  the  hood  is  swung  back  again  over  the  hearth  when  8,750  kilograms 
of  silver-lead  have  been  charged,  and  all  crevices  between  the  same 
and  the  furnace  are  then  stuffed  with  loam. 

169.  Manipulation. — Wood  is  now  placed  upon  the  lead  and  set  on 
fire;  a  small  wood-fire  is  also  kept  up  in  the  fire-place  until  the  lead 
has  become  melted.  It  takes  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  hours  to  melt 
down  the  entire  charge.  The  moisture  in  the  test  now  escapes  through 
the  holes  in  the  main  crown  of  the  furnace.  If  the  fire  should  be  too 
strong,  there  is  danger  of  cracks  forming  in  the  hearth,  in  which  case 
it  would  have  to  be  renewed.  During  the  melting-down  of  the  lead 
charge  a  slight  pressure  of  blast  is  allowed  to  enter  the  furnace,  in  order 
to  support  the  combustion  of  the  wood.  Sheet-iron  hoods  are  placed 
over  the  litharge-passage  and  charging-doors;  these  hoods  connect  with 
sheet-iron  pipes  which  conduct  the  lead-fumes  into  the  condensation- 
chambers.  The  lire  and  blast  are  now  increased.  The  fuel  used  gen¬ 
erally  consists  of  wood,  bituminous  coal,  and  lignite;  the  two  latter  can 
only  be  employed  when  blast  is  conducted  through  pipes  into  the  ash¬ 
pit;  otherwise  there  would  not  be  sufficient  draught  to  support  com¬ 
bustion.  The  remainder  of  the  silver  lead  is  charged  as  fast  as  the 
quantity  in  the  furnace  is  decreased  by  the  withdrawal  of  litharge. 
The  pigs  of  lead  are  laid  in  the  charging-door  and  allowed  to  fuse 
slowly.  From  ninety  to  ninety-six  hours  are  necessary  in  cupelling 
25,000  kilograms  of  silver-lead,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  amounts  to 
40  scheffel  of  lignite,  5  scheffel  of  small  bituminous  coal,  and  1.25  klaf- 
ter  of  wood. 

170.  Products:  a.  A  dross  (  =  120  kilograms)  called  abzug ,  is  that 
which  first  forms  during  the  fusing,  and  is  composed  of  the  unmelted 
impurities  of  the  lead.  It  is  removed  from  the  surface  of  the  lead  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  wood  fastened  to  an  iron  rod.  Only  a  small  quan¬ 
tity  of  abstrich  is  found. 

b.  Yellow  litharge:  It  is  tolerably  pure  oxide  of  lead,  and  contains 
from  0.04  to  0.06  per  cent.  =  11  oz.  13  dwt.  4.8  gr.  to  17  oz.  9  dwt.  19.2  gr. 
silver.  It  is  delivered  over  to  the  Stolberg  shaft-furnaces  for  reduction. 

c.  Eed  litharge  :  It  contains  less  silver  than  the  yellow  variety,  and  is 
formed  ou  the  interior  of  large  masses  after  cooling  off.  It  is  separated 


WORKING  SILVER-LEAD. 


73 


from  the  yellow  litharge  by  sifting,  and  sold,  as  it  contaius  too  small  a 
quantity  of  silver  to  be  reduced  with  profit. 

d.  Litharge  containing  bismuth:  It  is  formed  toward  the  close  of  the 
operation,  as  the  bismuth  oxidizes  later  than  the  lead.  This  litharge  is 
reduced  separately.  The  resulting  silver-lead  is  also  separately  cupelled. 
Ores  and  products  containing  bismuth,  also  the  residues  from  the  oper¬ 
ation  of  bismuth  extraction,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  cupellatiou-hearth, 
which  is  situated  directly  under  the  spot  where  the  rich  argentiferous 
lead  collects  toward  the  close  of  the  process,  are  also  reduced  with  the 
bismuth  litharge.  From  250  to  500  kilograms  of  bismuth  litharge  are 
produced  in  every  cupellation. 

e.  “Scheide”  litharge  :  This  is  that  which  collects  and  congeals  on  the 
sides  of  the  litharge-canal.  It  is  removed  from  time  to  time.  From 
250  to  400  kilograms  of  this  variety  are  produced  during  a  cupellation, 
and  it  is  reduced  in  conjunction  with  the  yellow  litharge,  as  its  chemical 
composition  is  the  same. 

171.  Manner  in  which  the  products  are  removed  from  the  furnace. — The 
litharge  flows  off  from  the  surface  of  the  molten  lead  through  a  small 
canal  made  in  the  side  of  the  marl  hearth,  in  the  litharge-passage  near 
the  fire-bridge.  This  canal  is  made  with  a  saw,  and  at  first  on  the  side 
of  the  litharge-passage  nearest  the  fire-place.  Tbe  litharge,  after  flowing 
through  this  canal,  flows  into  a  receptacle  of  sheet-iron  and  there  forms 
pieces  weighing  from  750  toSOO  kilograms.  When  this  receptacle  has  be¬ 
come  full,  it  is  taken  away  from  the  furnace  and  the  litharge  dumped  out. 
The  canal  must  be  constantly  kept  open  by  means  of  a  hooked  piece  of 
iron,  otherwise  it  would  soon  become  stopped  up  with  congealed  lith¬ 
arge.  If  the  iron  receptacle  for  the  litharge  has  been  filled  three  times 
from  the  same  canal,  tbe  canal  is  closed  with  a  little  moist  marl,  and 
lead  is  charged  into  the  furnace  through  the  charging-door,  until  the 
surface  of  the  molten  charge  again  reaches  to  the  level  of  the  breast- 
wall  in  the  litharge-passage.  The  lead  which  is  to  be  added  to  that 
already  in  the  furnace,  is  placed  upon  the  edge  of  the  charging- door, 
where  it  gradually  melts  and  flows  down  on  the  hearth.  This  second 
addition  of  lead  allows  of  the  cupellation  of  large  quantities  upon  the 
same  hearth,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  large  saving  of  fuel,  and  other 
material.  In  this  manner  it  is  possible  to  cupel  20,000  kilograms  of  lead 
more,  after  the  first  8,500  kilograms  have  been  placed  in  the  furnace. 
When  the  hearth  has  become  full  again,  a  new  channel  is  made  near  the 
old  one  for  the  escape  of  the  litharge ;  the  receptacle  for  the  litharge  is 
filled  three  times  from  this  channel  and  is  then  closed  ;  more  lead  is 
added  to  the  charge  and  a  new  chaunel  made  with  the  saw. 

172.  In  this  manner  each  channel  can  be  used  at  least  three  separate 
times.  When  the  receptacle  for  the  litharge  has  been  filled  about  twen¬ 
ty-seven  times  the  process  is  finished.  As  the  surface  of  the  lead  sinks 
lower  and  lower,  the  blast-nozzles,  of  course,  must  be  so  directed  that 
the  blast  will  strike  the  surface  of  the  charge.  Formerly  the  process 


74 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


was  continued  until  the  brightening-  of  the  silver,  but  at  present  it  is 
only  driven  until  the  lead  contains  about  GO  per  cent,  silver,  and  a 
greater  portion  of  the  bismuth  contained  in  the  silver-lead.  The  cupel- 
man  must  be  able  to  distinguish  when  this  period  takes  place  by  the 
height  of  the  metallic  bath  in  the  furnace.  The  blast  is  turned  off,  the 
hood  over  the  hearth  swung  back  on  its  crane,  and  the  plumbiferous 
silver  is  ladled  out  as  completely  as  possible  into  iron  molds.  That 
remaining  on  the  hearth  is  cooled  off  with  water,  and  then  pried  out 
with  crow-bars. 

173.  The  reason  for  not  cupelling  the  silver  until  it  brightens  is,  that 
the  bismuth,  which  is  concentrated  in  the  silver-lead  alloy,  can  only  be 
prevented  from  volatilizing  when  the  oxide  formed  is  immediately  ab¬ 
sorbed  by  the  hearth.  This,  however,  is  not  possible,  as  the  hearth  is 
already  saturated  with  litharge;  consequently  the  cupellation  is  inter¬ 
rupted  at  the  point  stated,  and  the  further  cupellation  is  conducted  upon 
a  new  test  and  in  a  smaller  furnace.  Fuel  is  also  saved  in  not  bright¬ 
ening  in  the  large  cupellation-furnace,  as  toward  the  end  a  very  strong 
fire  would  have  to  be  kept  up,  and  as  the  furnace  is  large  and  the  amount 
of  alloy  on  the  hearth  would  be  very  small  in  comparison,  there  would 
be  a  great  waste  of  heat.  The  resulting  silver-lead  alloy  amounts  to 
about  GOO  to  700  kilograms,  which  is  further  manipulated  in  the  silver¬ 
refining  furnace. 

171.  The  hearth,  which  is  saturated  with  litharge  for  .3  to  4  inches 
deep,  is  easily  broken  off  and  removed  from  the  underlying  marl,  as  it 
breaks  off  in  conchoidal  pieces  and  easily  falls  to  powder.  That  part 
of  the  rest  which  is  saturated  with  litharge  is  delivered  over  to  the 
matte-smelting  operation  for  further  treatment,  and  the  remainder  is 
used  over  again  in  making  a  new  hearth.  That  part,  however,  which 
was  immediately  under  the  silver-lead  alloy  toward  the  close  of  the 
operation,  and  containing  bismuth,  is  reduced  by  itself. 

173.  Silrcr  rcfuiinp. — This  operation  is  simply  the  continuation  of  the 
foregoing,  whereby  the  silver  is  forced  from  the  oxidizable  metals  with 
which  it  is  alloyed  as  it  comes  from  the  cupellation-furnace.  The  operation 
is  continued  until  the  silver  possesses  a  fineness  of  The  furnace  em¬ 
ployed  for  this  operation  is  a  small  reverberatory  furnace,  similar  to  an 
English  reverberatory  furnace,  only  that  it  is  of  much  smaller  dimen¬ 
sions,  has  two  small  tuyeres,  one  on  each  side  of  the  fire-bridge,  and, 
instead  of  a  stationary  arch  over  the  hearth,  it  has  a  movable  hood. 
The  hearth  is  composed  of  the  same  material  as  that  of  the  cupellation- 
furnaees.  It  is  stamped  in  on  the  bottom  of  the  furnace.  The  bottom 
of  the  furnace  is  composed  of  pulverized  fire-brick,  tightly  stamped. 
In  the  center  of  the  hearth  a  small  hollow  is  made  for  collecting  the 
silver.  As  soon  as  the  hearth  has  been  stamped  in,  the  hood  is  placed 
over  the  furnace  and  all  crevices  between  it  and  the  furnace  are  stuffed 
with  loam.  The  hearth  is  now  carefully  heated  by  a  fire  built  in  the 
fire-place,  which  is  gradually  increased.  This  is  necessary  because  there 


WORKING  SILVER-LEAD. 


75 


are  no  canals  in  the  foundation  of  the  furnace  for  leading  off  the  moisture. 
After  three  or  four  hours,  when  the  hearth  appears  red-hot,  the  silver- 
lead  alloy  is  charged  into  the  furnace  and  the  fire  increased. 

176.  Manipulation.-— When  the  silver-lead  alloy  has  become  melted, 
(in  about  an  hour,)  a  slight  pressure  of  blast  is  turned  on  in  order  to 
oxidize  the  lead  and  bismuth.  A  small  channel  is  now  made  on  the 
edge  of  the  working-door  in  the  side  of  the  hearth  for  the  escape  of 
the  litharge.  A  large  amount  of  the  lead  and  bismuth  oxides  formed 

‘  are  now  absorbed  into  the  test.  After  several  hours,  the  amount  of 
litharge  formed  begins  to  decrease,  the  litharge-channel  is  closed,  and 
marl  is  strewn  over  the  surface  of  the  metal  to  absorb  the  oxides. 
This  is  removed  from  time  to  time  and  fresh  quantities  added  until  the 
close  of  the  operation.  In  order  to  judge  when  the  operation  has  been 
carried  far  enough,  a  tool  is  held  over  and  close  to  the  surface  of  the 
molten  metal;-  if  its  image  is  distinctly  reflected  therein,  the  silver  has 
reached  the  fineness  wished.  x\.  sample  taken  out  should  also  show  but 
few  yellow  spots.  Perhaps  the  best  method  of  determining  this  point 
is  to  take  a  small  sample  in  a  ladle*  and  allow  it  to  cool  off.  If,  on 
cooling,  it  should  sprout,  the  process  of  refining  is  finished.  The  molten 
silver  is  granulated  and  then  delivered  over  to  the  gold-separating 
works. 

177.  Granulation  of  the  silver. — The  melted  silver  is  ladled  out  of  the 
silver-refining  furnace  into  a  copper  vessel  filled  with  water,  the  vessel 
being  swung  around  at  the  same  time  by  a  workman.  The  silver  is 
hereby  separated  into  granules,  which  are  dissolvable  in  sulphuric  acid  of 
66°  Baume.  The  W'ater  in  the  copper  vessel  must  be  often  renewed,  as  it 
soon  becomes  warm.  The  granulated  silver  is  dried  in  a  drying-furnace. 

178.  The  length  of  the  refining  operation  depends  upon  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  silver-lead  alloy  treated,  also  the  amount  of  fuel  consumed 
in  the  operation.  In  order  to  refine  from  500  to  700  kilograms  of  silver- 
lead  alloy,  as  it  comes  from  the  cupellation-furnaces,  ten  to  twelve  hours 
are  necessary,  and  8  to  9  scheffel  of  bituminous  coal  are  consumed.  Two 
workmen  are  employed,  a  refiner  and  his  assistant. 

179.  Products  :  a.  Befined  auriferous  silver,  containing  0.3  per  cent.= 
87  oz.  8  dwt.  14  gr.  gold  per  ton,  99  per  cent,  silver,  and  traces  of  copper, 
lead,  and  bismuth. 

b.  Bich  bismuth  litharge.  It  is  delivered  over  to  the  bismuth-extrac¬ 
tion  works. 

Dross  and  test.  They  are  both  rich  in  bismuth,  and  are  also  delivered 
over  to  the  bismuth -extraction  works. 

180.  The  liquation  of  Pattinson  dross. — By  this  operation  is  to  be  under¬ 
stood  the  gradual  melting-down  of  the  dross  in  reverberatory  furnaces, 
which  is  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  silver-lead  in  Pattinson  kettles,  so 
that  the  lead  will  settle  down  on  the  hearth  of  the  furnace  and  the  dross 
remain  back  unmelted. 

Manipulation. — The  dross  is  charged  into  the  furnace  with  the  charg- 


76 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ing-spade,  and  flue  bituminous  coal  is  added  as  a  reducing  agent.  The 
lead  is  then  melted  out  at  a  very  low  temperature,  so  that  none  of  the 
dross  may  be  fused.  The  lead,  carrying  with  it  the  greater  part  of  the 
silver,  flows  down  and  collects  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  hearth. 
Another  portion  of  dross  is  now  charged  into  the  furnace  with  small 
broken  coal,  after  the  liquated  dross  has  been  removed  from  the  furnace. 
The  operation  is  conducted  in  this  manner  uutil  the  hearth  is  filled  with 
liquated  lead.  The  lead  is  tapped  ofl'  every  twenty-four  hours.  From 
six  to  seven  scheffel  of  hard  slate-coal  and  four  scheftel  of  small  coal  are 
consumed  in  twenty-four  hours  by  this  manipulation. 

181.  Product:  a.  Liquated  lead,  which  is  delivered  over  to  the  Pat- 
tinson  works  for  desilverization. 

b.  Dross:  It  is  delivered  over  to  the  operation  of  ore  smelting  for  the 
purpose  of  reduction. 

182.  Reduction  of  litharge. — This  operation  consists  of  a  reducing 
smelting  of  the  litharge  in  a  Stolberg  blast  furnace,  whereby  metallic 
lead  and  slag  are  the  resulting  products.  The  litharge  is  broken  up 
into  pieces  about  as  large  as  a  man's  fist,  and  delivered  at  the  charging- 
hole  of  the  furnace,  where  it  is  fluxed  with  fluor-spar,  lead-slag,  and 
coke;  the  latter  serves  as  a  reducing  agent  and  fuel  at  the  sarne.time. 

18.'!.  A  Stolberg  furnace  puts  through  in  twenty-four  hours  from  3,500 
to  1,000  kilograms  of  litharge,  with  350  to  400  kilograms  of  fluor-spar  and 
3,500  to  4,000  kilograms  of  lead-slag,  with  a  consumption  of  2,500  kilo¬ 
grams  of  coke.  To  every  ten  trays  of  litharge  ten  trays  of  slag  and  four 
baskets  (one  basket  equal  about  four  volumes  of  a  tray)  of  coke  are  charged 
into  the  furnace  and  equally  distributed  throughout  the  shaft.  The 
reduction  of  the  litharge  takes  place  very  rapidly,  and  the  lead  must  be 
tapped  oil  very  often.  Seven  men  are  employed  at  the  furnace,  namely, 
one  smelter,  two  chargers,  one  slag  runner,  two  lead-ladlers,  and  one 
assistant.  The  operation  is  conducted  with  a  dark  charging-hole  and  a 
strong  pressure  of  blast. 

181.  Products:  a.  Lead,  which  is  delivered  over  to  the  Pattiusou 
works  for  desilverization,  without  being  previously  refined. 

b.  Slag,  containing  up  to  15  per  cent.  lead.  It  is  principally  used 
as  a  flux  in  the  ore-smelting  and  various  matte-smelting  operations 
when  the  furnaces  are  smelting  too  rapidly. 

185.  Manipulation  of  speiss. — The  object  of  thisoperation  is  the  par¬ 
tial  desilverization  of  the  speiss  and  the  concentration  of  the  nickel  and 
cobalt.  Speiss  from  the  lead-matte  and  matte-concentration  operations, 
and  that  produced  by  the  preparatory  manipulation  of  the  blendic  ores 
for  the  lead-smelting,  are  treated  by  this  operation.  The  speiss  gener¬ 
ally  adheres  to  the  bottom  of  copper  and  lead  matte,  aud  must  be 
separated  from  it,  after  which  it  is  crushed  and  then  roasted.  After 
the  roasting  the  speiss  is  principally  composed  of  sulphates  of  the 
metallic  oxides  and  uncombiued  oxides.  The  roasted  speiss  is  smelted 
with  baryte,  copper-slags,  copper-ores,  lead-slags,  litharge,  and  lead- 


WORKING  SILVER-LEAD. 


77 


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scraps  poor  in  silver.  The  iron  is  slagged  off',  and  the  other  metallic 
oxides  and  metals  form  a  rich  matte,  while  the  cobalt  and  nickel  form  a 
speiss;  silver-lead  is  also  produced,  which  contains  most  of  the  silver 
in  the  charge.  The  amount  daily  smelted  is  composed  as  follows : 


Kilograms. 

Eoasted  speiss . . . . .  5,  000 

Baryte . 750 

Lead- slag . 100 

Quartz . 300 

Litharge . 5,000 


Total ...  . . .  . .  11, 150 


From  five  to  six  smeltings  are  necessary  to  desilverize  the  speiss. 

1S6.  Products:  a.  Speiss,  with  0.25  per  cent.  =  7  oz.  5  dwt.  18.24  gr. 
silver,  17  per  cent,  copper,  2  per  cent,  cobalt,  20  per  cent,  nickel,  and  4 
per  cent.  lead.  It  is  sold  at  Aberschlema.  Copper-matte,  which  goes  to 
the  matte-smelting  operations. 

1).  Silver-lead,  which  is  delivered  over  to  the  refining-works.  Poor 
slag,  which  goes  to  the  slag-dump. 

187.  Smelting  of  the  roasted  matte. — The  smelting  of  the  roasted  matte 
generally  takes  place  at  the  end  of  a  lead-ore- smelting  campaign,  or 
when  large  quantities  of  lead-matte  have  accumulated.  This  operation 
has  for  its  object  the  diminishment  of  the  lead  and  silver  contents  of 
the  matte  and  the  concentration  of  its  copper.  The  matte  to  be 
treated  is  crushed  and  then  thoroughly  roasted  in  long  reverberatory 
roasting-furnaces,  or  broken  up  into  pieces  of  about  the  size  of  a 
walnut  and  roasted  in  kilns  or  roas ting-stalls.  In  preparing  the  smelt¬ 
ing-charge  no  definite  proportion  is  adhered  to  between  the  ore  and  the 
products  to  be  smelted.  As  clean  slags  are  produced  in  this  operation, 
they  are  employed  in  smelting  over  slags  that  receive  a  second  treat¬ 
ment;  such  slags  are  produced  in  smelting  the  roasted  lead- ores,  and 
the  roasted  lead-matte  takes  the  place  of  the  pyritous  ores,  which  are 
charged  into  the  blast-furnaces  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  matte  in  the 
slag-smelting.  The  roasted  lead-matte  is  smelted  with  an  equal  amount 
of  raw  lead-matte  and  an  addition  of  plumbiferous  products,  sweep¬ 
ings,  and  residues  from  the  zinc  and  arsenic  works.  Such  a  smelting- 


charge  is  composed  of — 

Cwt. 

Eaw  lead- matte .  90 

Eefiuing  dross . 00 

Zinc  residues . .  8 

Iron  residues .  - .  8 

Eich  lead-slag .  40 


Such  a  charge,  of  course,  smelts  very  rapidly,  as  it  is  composed  of 
products  which  have  already  passed  through  smelting  operations. 

187.  The  following  are  the  products  of  this  manipulation  : 


78 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


a.  Slag,  which  goes  to  the  slag  dump,  as  it  only  contains  from  0.0015 
to  0.002  per  cent.— 8  dwt.  10.00  gr.  to  11  dwt.  15.84  gr.  silver,  and  1  to  2 
per  cent.  lead. 

b.  Lead-matte,  which  is  crushed  and  roasted  in  furnaces  or  broken  up 
into  pieces  and  roasted  in  kilns,  or  stalls,  and  resmelted  for  the  purpose 
of  the  further  concentration  of  the  copper,  after  which  it  is  called  cop¬ 
per-matte. 

c.  Silver-lead,  which,  after  undergoing  a  process  of  refining,  is  deliv¬ 
ered  over  to  the  Pattinson  works  for  desilverization. 

189.  The  manipulations  in  this  operation  are  the  same  as  those  de¬ 
scribed  under  the  head  of  u  lead-ore  smelting.”  This  operation  is  very 
effective  in  cleaning  the  furnaces  of  all  accretions  which  may  have  been 
formed  during  previous  operations,  and  thus  makes  the  work  of  clean¬ 
ing  out  the  furnaces  much  easier.  Especially  all  accretions  which  may 
have  formed  in  the  bottom  of  the  furnaces  are  effectually  removed.  For 
this  reason,  the  operation  is  always  carried  out  at  the  end  of  the  lead- 
ore-smelting  campaign,  or  when  a  furnace  has  become  partially  stopped 
ui>. 

190.  ItKSMELTING  OF  THE  LEAD  SLAGS  IN  BLAST-FURNACES. — The  SO 

/  • 

called  Freiberg  slag-smelting  is  in  reality  a  combined  slag  and  matte 
smelting.  The  object  of  this  operation  is  the  concentration  of  the  small 
amounts  of  silver,  lead,  and  copper  contained  in  various  metallurgical 
products  in  a  matte  resulting  from  the  smelting  of  poor  argentiferous 
pyritous  ores,  after  a  previous  roasting.  The  operation  is  conducted  in 
blast  furnaces;  formerly,  however,  only  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  In¬ 
stead  of  the  roasted  pyritous  ores,  roasted  lead-matte  is  now  principally 
made  use  of  in  fluxing.  The  operation  is  generally  conducted  in  the 
Pilz  furnaces.  .V  double  purpose  is  effected  by  the  operation  of  slag- 
smelting,  namely,  the  extraction  of  lead  and  silver  from  the  slag  and 
the  concentration  of  the  matte. 

391.  The  composition  of  the  smelting  charge  is  naturally  change¬ 
able.  It  is  customary  to  resmelt  the  lead-matte  resulting  from  the  ore- 
smelting  (containing  about  15  per  cent,  copper)  as  often  with  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  slag-smelting  as  is  necessary  to  increase  its  amount  of  copper  to 
within  23  per  cent. 

The  following  is  the  composition  of  a  slag-smelting  charge: 

Muldener  Works. 

Kilograms. 


Slag  from  ore-smelting .  100.0 

Copper-slag  .  4.  0 

Kaw  copper  matte .  2.3 

Lead-matte  roasted  in  kilns  . 4.3 

Lead-matte  roasted  in  kilns  and  a  second  time  iu  stalls .  8.4 

Lump  pyrites,  roasted  in  kilns .  9.  0 

Speiss  from  the  deziuckification  process .  1-0 

Dezinckiug  residues .  1.9 


WORKING  LEAD-SLAGS. 


79 


Limestone . 

Fluor-spar . . 

Refiniug  dross,  test,  abstrich,  &c 


Kilograms. 

2.0 
2.  0 


Ralsbriiclcner  Works. 


Slag  from  ore-smelting . . . .  100.  0 

Copper-slag . 15.0 

Raw  copper-matte . . .  1.  8 

Roasted  lead-matte .  21.0 

“  Stockeln  ” . 4.0 

Argentiferous  copper . . .  .  1.1 

Refining  dross,  &c . . „ .  5.  8 


As  will  be  seen  from  the  above,  several  products  carrying  a  large  per¬ 
centage  of  sulphur  help  to  compose  the  charge;  for  instance,  raw-matte 
and  lead-matte.  The  reason  of  this  is  the  same  as  by  the  ore-smelting — 
it  is  for  the  purpose  of  dissolving  the  zinc. 

192.  The  manipulation  of  the  furnaces  with  eight  tuyeres  is  the  same 
as  described  by  the  smelting  of  ore.  The  pressure  of  blast  is  also  the 
same.  About  50,000  kilograms  are  smelted  per  day.  One  kilogram  coke 
smelts  10  kilograms  of  charge,  less,  therefore,  than  by  the  ore-smelting. 
The  slag  produced  is  quite  basic.  The  author  is  unable  to  give  com¬ 
plete  analyses,  but  the  following  will  show  the  principal  ingredients. 
They  are  taken  from  the  work  of  Kast  &  Briiuning: 


Slag  from  Muklener  Works. 


Si  02 . 

.  29.7 

Zn  O . 

.  8. 5 

PbO  _ 

.  2. 5 

Ag . . 

.  0. 0025 

Slag  from  Halsbriickeuer  Works. 


Si  o2 . .  . 

. 34.01 

Zn  O . 

.  7.6 

Pb  O . 

.  1. 0 

Ag . . 

.  0.  0015 

193.  The  products  of  this  manipulation  are  : 

a.  Slag,  which  goes  to  the  dump,  as  it  only  contains  0.0025  to  0.002 
per  cent.  =  8  dwt.  17.06  gr.  to  11  dwt.  15.84  gr.  silver,  and  from  1  to  2 
per  cent.  lead.  Copper-lead-matte,  with  17  to  25  per  cent,  copper,  which 
is  again  smelted. 

b.  Silver-lead,  containing  from  0.6  per  cent,  to  0.7  per  cent.  =  174  oz. 
19  dwt.  to  204  oz.,  2  dwt.  silver,  which,  after  being  liquated  and  refined, 
goes  to  the  Pattinson  process. 

194.  Second  smelting  of  matte. — The  object  of  this  operation  is  the 
resmelting  of  the  lead-matte  which  has  been  roasted  in  kilns  or  stalls. 
Silver  ores  rich  in  copper  are  also  often  treated  in  this  operation,  after 
undergoing  a  previous  roasting,  when  deemed  necessary.  The  results 
aimed  at  by  this  manipulation  are  the  concentration  of  the  lead  sulphide, 
iron  protosulphide,  &c.,  contained  in  the  roasted  matte  and  ores,  with 
the  copper  sulphide,  into  a  product  called  copper-matte,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  reduce  the  lead  and  silver  and  slag  off  the  iron  to  within  a  cer- 


80 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


tain  degree.  The  roasted  lead-matte  is  smelted  with  rich  slag  from  the 
ore-smelting  and  with  slag  from  the  operations  of  litharge  and  lead-dross 
reduction.  This  produces  a  thick  flowing  slag.  Cupellation  test  and 
copper  scraps  are  also  generally  added  to  the  charge.  This  operation 
effects  the  further  concentration  of  the  copper  in  the  remaining  concen¬ 
trated  matte,  and  a  partial  extraction  of  its  lead  and  silver,  of  which 
it  contains  but  a  small  quantity.  Special  care  must  be  taken  in  roasting 
the  copper-matte,  as  it  fuses  much  more  easily  even  than  the  lead-matte, 
ft  should  be  mentioned  here  that  the  copper-matte  is  repeatedly  added 
to  the  matte-slag-smelting  until  the  matte  contains  about  23  percent, 
copper. 

193.  The  following  will  serve  to  show  the  composition  of  a  charge  for 
the  second  matte-smelting: 

Kilograms. 

Unroasted  copper  lead-matte .  100 

Boasted  pyritous  silver-ores . .  400 

Copper  slimes,  made  into  balls  with  solution  containing  copper- 

vitriol  .  400 

Slag  from  copper-matte  concentration .  400 

Sla£  from  ore-smelting .  3,  333 

196.  The  production,  besides  silver-lead,  which  is  liquated,  refined,  and 
then  desilverized  by  the  Pattinson  process,  are,  concentrated  matte,  con¬ 
taining  0.13  per  cent.  =  43  oz.  13  dwt.  14.40  grs.  silver,  13  per  cent, 
lead,  and  30  to  42  per  cent,  copper.  The  slag  is  so  poor  that  it  under¬ 
goes  no  further  treatment.  Speiss  is  very  often  produced  ;  also,  plumbif- 
erous  black  copper,  carrying  arsenic,  lead,  and  antimony.  The  black 
copper  is  either  smelted  over  with  the  slag-litharge  reduction,  raw 
copper-matte,  raw  copper-ore,  and  silver-lead,  or  is  added  to  the  matte- 
smelting  charge. 

197.  The  following  will  serve  to  show  the  changes  which  the  matte- 
undergoes  during  its  three  operations  of  concentration  : 

1st.  The  matte  contains  0.23  per  cent.  =  72  oz.  17  dwt.  14.4  grs.  silver, 
13  per  cent,  lead,  and  6  to  12  per  cent,  copper.  • 

2d.  The  matte  contains  0.23  per  cent.  =  69  oz.  0  dwt.  19.2  grs.  silver, 
21  per  cent,  lead,  and  20  to  23  per  cent,  copper. 

3d.  The  matte  contains  0.17  per  cent.  =  49  oz.  10  dwt.  4.8  gr. 
silver,  13  per  cent,  lead,  and  33  to  44  per  cent,  copper. 

An  analysis  of  the  3d,  or  concentrated,  copper-matte,  made  in 
Clausthal,  of  matte  from  the  operation  of  May,  1870,  shows  the  follow¬ 
ing  composition  : 

Per  cent. 


Copper . - .  32.  9 

Silver .  0.  25 

Lead .  15-0 

Iron .  19.  5 

Sulphur . .  23.  8 


ROASTING  COPPER-MATTE. 


81 


198.  Roasting  of  the  concentrated  copper-matte. — The  copper-matte,  con¬ 
taining  on  an  average  40  per  cent,  of  metallic  copper,  is  finely  crashed, 
and  so  roasted  in  long  reverberatory  furnaces  that  it  only  contains  about 
5  per  cent,  of  sulphur.  This  is  accurately  observed,  for  the  roasting  must 
not  be  conducted  too  far,  otherwise  there  would  be  a  lack  of  sulphur  in 
concentrating  the  matte  in  reverberatory  furnaces,  to  form  with  the 
copper  a  disulphide;  and  also,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  carried  far 
enough,  in  order  that  the  protosulphide  of  iron  be  converted  into  sesqui- 
oxide  of  iron  as  completely  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  slagged  off. 
For  the  last- mentioned  reason,  the  roasting  3is  carried  a  little  too  far, 
thus  not  leaving  sufficient  sulphur  to  form  a  disulphide  with  all  the 
copper,  but  during  the  following  concentration,  substances  containing 
sulphur  are  added  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  up  the  deficiency. 
The  material  used  for  this  purpose  is  raw-copper- matte. 

199.  As  the  concentrated  matte  fuses  very  easily,  on  account  of  its 
high  percentage  of  copper,  it  cannot  well  be  roasted  in  kilns  or  shaft- 
furnaces,  and,  consequently,  cannot  be  employed  for  the  manufacture  of 
sulphuric  acid.  Formerly  it  was  roasted  in  muffle-furnaces;  but  at  present 
a  small  reverberatory  furnace  with  double  hearth  is  employed  for  this 
purpose.  Any  small  reverberatory  furnace  could,  however,  be  made  to 
fulfill  the  same  purpose. 

The  furnace  is  continually  charged  every  three  hours  with  10  to  14 
cwt.  of  concentrated  matte,  and  about  80  to  110  cwt.  can  be  roasted  daily. 
The  temperature  is  always  kept  at  a  lower  degree  than  in  the  roasting 
of  ores  or  other  metallurgical  products.  The  consumption  of  fuel  per 
1  cwt.  of  copper-matte  amounts  to  30  or  36  cwt.  of  bituminous  coal,  of 
poor  quality,  which  contains  from  20  to  25  per  cent.  ash. 

The  cost  of  roasting  100  cwt.  of  matte  in  1869  was  as  follows : 

*  Thaler.  Sgr.  Pf. 


Wages,  including  transportation, . .  5  25  10 

Fuel . - . .  4  16  5 

Repair  of  furnace  and  tools .  4  19  1 


Total . .  15  1  4 


The  cost  of  crushing  100  cwt.  of  the  matte  amounted  to  37  thaler. 

200.  After  the  matte  has  been  roasted,  its  principal  ingredients  are 
oxide  of  copper,  basic  sulphate  of  copper,  basic  sulphate  of  the  sesqui- 
oxide  of  iron,  metallic  silver,  sulphate  of  silver,  sulphate  of  lead,  oxide 
of  zinc,  oxide  of  nickel,  oxide  of  cobalt,  and  some  arseniates  and  anti- 
moniates. 

201.  Concentration  of  the  concentrated  matte  in  reverberatory  furnaces. — 
The  construction  of  the  reverberatory  furnace  is  as  follows:  The 
foundation  of  the  furnace  is  either  composed  of  bricks  or  broken  gneiss  ; 
the  surrounding  walls,  however,  of  bricks.  It  has  two  principal  parts, 
namely,  the  fire-box  and  the  smelting  hearth.  The  former  consists  of  a 

*  A  thaler  =  30  silbergroschen  ;  one  silbergroschen  =  12 pfennige.  A  thaler  =  71  cents  gold. 

6  M 


82 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


wind-furnace  and  au  ash-pit,  separated  from  each  other  by  the  grate. 
The  smelting-hearth  is  separated  from  the  fire-place  by  the  fire-bridge; 
opposite  the  fire-bridge,  and  in  the  arch  over  the  hearth,  is  situated  the 
flue  opening,  connecting  with  a  chimney  by  means  of  au  inclined  flue. 
Iron  plates  form  the  lowest  part  of  the  hearth,  these  resting  upon  pillars 
below  the  floor  of  the  furnace-house.  These  pillars  are  generally  built 
of  well-burnt  brick.  On  top  of  the  iron  plates  there  is  a  layer  of  bricks, 
and  on  this  comes  the  smelting-hearth,  which  is  composed  of  five  parts 
of  finely-crushed  quartz  and  one  part  of  slag.  The  hearth  is  oval  and 
concave,  and  has  a  slight  incline  toward  the  tap-hole.  It  is  spanned  by 
an  arch,  which  at  the  same  time  covers  the  fire-place.  In  the  center  of 
this  arch  is  a  charging-hole.  The  fire-bridge  is  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  unburnt  fire  clay  and  dust  of  fire-bricks,  (chamotte,)  and  rests  upon 
an  iron  plate.  Passing  through  it  is  au  air-canal,  which  serves  to  keep 
it  cool.  On  either  of  the  longer  sides  of  the  furnace  are  two  openings, 
(generally  kept  bricked  up,)  through  which  a  man  can  pass  into  the  fur¬ 
nace,  in  order  to  make  repairs  when  necessary.  The  fire-place  is  fur¬ 
nished  with  a  charging-door;  opposite  the  fire-bridge  is  a  working-door 
undpr  the  flue,  which  can  be  opened  and  closed  by  means  of  a  fire-clay 
slab  attached  to  a  lover.  In  front  of  the  working-door  there  is  a  hori¬ 
zontal  bar,  upon  which  the  heavy  furnace  implements  can  rest  when 
not  in  use.  The  tap-hole  is  on  the  side  opposite  to  the  fire-place  door. 
All  parts  of  the  furnace  which  come  in  contact  with  the  flames  are  con¬ 
structed  of  fire-clay  bricks.  The  furnace  and  chimney  are  well  anchored. 
Behind  the  anchor-rods  are  cast-iron  plates.  The  flue  connects  with  a 
flue-shaft,  the  gases  passing  through  this  flue  into  condensation-cham¬ 
bers  or  directly  into  the  chimney.  This  grate  is  -1  feet  square,  and  has 
thirteen  wrought-iron  bars  1  feet  long  and  2  inches  square.  The  ash-pit 
is  feet  6  inches  high.  The  fire-door  is  Id  inches  wide  on  the  outside  and 
•1  inches  on  the  inside;  on  the  outside  18  inches  high  and  14  inches  on 
the  inside.  It  is  lined  with  thin  iron  plates.  The  fire-bridge  is  4  feet 
long,  2  feet  0  inches  wide,  and  12  inches  high  above  the  hearth ;  above 
the  grate,  3  feet  2  inches  high.  The  length  of  the  hearth,  from  the  fire¬ 
bridge  up  to  the  wall  of  the  working-door  opposite  to  it,  is  13  feet; 
the  greatest  width  is  8  feet ;  at  the  fire-bridge  it  is  4  feet  wide,  and  under 
the  tine-opening  only  1  foot  2  inches.  Its  greatest  depth  near  the  tap- 
hole  is  Id  inches.  The  flue-opening  in  the  arch  over  the  hearth  has  the 
shape  of  a  trapezium,  and  is  12  inches  wide,  2  feet  8  inches  long  at  the 
back,  and  2  feet  4  inches  in  front.  The  height  of  the  flue  at  this  point 
is  1  foot  G  inches,  measured  at  right  angles  to  its  incline.  The  section 
of  the  flue-canal  where  it  opens  iuto  the  chimney  measures  22  inches  in 
width  and  2  feet  6  inches  high.  The  chimney  is  60  feet  high,  and  con¬ 
sists  of  an  outside  wall  and  lining,  and  is  2  feet  4  inches  wide,  inside 
measurement.  The  stone  supporting  pillars,  generally  ten  in  number, 
are  in  horizontal  section  12  inches  square,  aud  are  2  feet  6  inches  high. 
The  iron  plates  composing  the  lower  part  of  the  hearth  are  2  inches 


MELTING  ON  THE  HEARTH. 


83 


thick,  2  feet  wide,  and  vary  in  length  according  to  the  shape  of  the 
hearth.  The  air-slit  in  the  tire-bridge  is  3  inches  wide  and  16  inches 
high.  The  tap-hole  has  a  diameter  of  8  inches  in  the  interior  of  the 
furnace,  and  on  the  exterior  of  3  inches.  The  arch  over  the  hearth  is 
12  inches  thick ;  the  charging-hole  in  the  arch  measures  1 2  inches  square. 
The  layer  of  bricks  resting  on  the  hearth-plates  is  6  inches  thick,  and  the 
layer  above,  of  melted  quartz  and  slag,  is  12  inches  thick. 

202.  Melting  on  the  hearth. — The  proper  conduction  of  this  operation  is 
I  as  important  as  it  is  difficult.  The  material  used  is  a  mixture  of  five 

parts  of  finely-crushed,  burnt,  and  sieved  quartz  and  one  part  of  raw 
|  slag,  which  has  been  treated  similarly  to  the  quartz.  After  these  mate¬ 
rials  have  been  carefully  mixed,  about  50  cwt.*  of  the  mixture  is 
charged  upon  the  hearth  of  the  furnace  and  evenly  spread  out.  It  is 
then  brought  to  a  red-heat  and  well  raked  until  all  moisture  has  been 
removed.  Then  begins  the  forming  of  the  hearth  with  the  u  forming- 
ladle;”  this  accomplished,  the  furnace  is  closed  on  all  sides,  and  all 
crevices  between  the  doors  and  walls  are  luted  with  fire-clay ;  the  fur¬ 
nace  is  then  fired  up  as  strongly  as  possible.  After  twelve  hours  of 
continual  firing,  during  which  time  the  hearth-material  has  become 
pasty,  and  appears  glazed  on  the  surface,  the  furnace  is  opened  and  the 
hearth  examined,  in  order  to  discover  if  any  cracks  have  formed  in  the 
layer.  If  such  is  the  case,  the  hearth-material  must  be  drawn  out  of 
the  furnace  and  the  operation  performed  over  again.  Twenty  more 
hundred-weight  of  slag  are  now  melted  on  the  hearth,  in  order  to  give 
it  greater  durability,  and  after  it  has  been  drawn  out  through  the  work¬ 
ing-doors  into  the  sand-beds,  the  actual  operation  of  matte-concentra¬ 
tion  begins.  A  hearth  prepared  in  this  manner  will  generally  last  from 
one  and  a  quarter  to  one  and  a  half  years.  The  life  of  the  arch  over 
the  hearth  is  about  one  and  a  half  to  two  years.  The  slag-beds  in  front 
of  the  working-doors  are  composed  of  a  layer  of  moistened  sand  and 
coal-ashes.  In  front  of  the  tap-hole  and  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
furnace  are  a  number  of  cast-iron  pans  having  the  shapes  of  truncated 
pyramids.  The  matte  is  tapped  off  into  these  pans,  which  connect  with 
each  other  by  troughs. 

203.  We  will  now  proceed  with  the  matte-concentration  in  reverbera¬ 
tory  furnaces.  This  operation  has  for  its  object  the  production  of  a 
bisulphide  of  copper,  containing  at  least  70  per  cent,  of  metallic  copper; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  separate  the  oxide  of  irou  and  the  other  metal¬ 
lic  oxides,  by  slagging  them  off.  The  iron,  especially,  must  be  separated 
from  the  matte  to  within  at  least  0.2  per  cent.,  if  the  following  operation 
of  the  production  of  copper-vitriol  is  to  be  conducted  to  advantage.  The 
roasted  concentrated  copper-matte  is  smelted  in  reverberatory  furnaces 
with  baryte,  quartzose,  and  dry  silver-ores,  ( diirrerze ,)  carrying  as  much 
baryte  as  gangue.  The  roasted  matte  is  principally  composed  of  metal 
lie  oxides,  and  contains  such  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  that  it  is  not 

*  1  centner,  or  cwt.  =  110  pounds  English. 


84 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


“3d.  The  hearth,  and  the  lower  portions  of  the  boslies,  being  apt  to 
suffer  after  a  certain  time,  from  the  destructive  action  of  the  materials 
in  a  melting  state,  may  be  replaced  without  any  difficulty  whatever 
while  the  work  is  going  on,  so  that  there  is  no  occasion  to  apprehend 
any  extinction  of  the  fires  so  long  as  the  in-wall  is  not  destroyed.  If 
putting  out  the  fires  should  at  any  time  become  necessary,  the  hearth 
and  the  boshes  could  be  renewed  without  affecting  the  in-wall  in¬ 
juriously. 

“  4th.  Each  particular  brick  being  accessible  during  the  working  of 
the  furnace,  and  the  progress  of  the  fire  easily  ascertained,  corrosions 
can  be  obviated  by  cooling  down  with  water  thrown  on  the  several 
parts,  or  by  means  of  water- vessels  or  tuyeres  wherein  the  water  circu¬ 
lates  placed  within  these  parts  as  far  as  the  inside  of  the  furnace, 
whereby  the  wear  and  tear  can  be  checked. 

“5th.  The  utilization  of  the  gas  at  the  furnace-mouth  can  be  so  man¬ 
aged  as  to  make  it  yield  the  best  results.  The  pillars  supporting  the 
platform  of  the  furnace-top  are  gas-pipes,  and  drop  into  sheet-iron 
vessels  fixed  to  the  summit  of  the  base  of  the  stack,  where  it  slopes 
away.  These  vessels  are  open  on  one  side,  so  that  when  filled  with 
water  up  to  a  certain  height,  they  can  be  shut  down  by  means  of  a  valve, 
measuring-a  few  centimeters  square.  The  gas  issuing  forth  out  of  the 
furnace-mouth  finds  its  way  into  these  receptacles,  and  in  its  passage 
through  them  travels  over  a  large  surface  of  water.  Here  it  deposits 
the  dust,  while  a  great  part  of  the  water  suspended  in  the  gas,  in  a  state 
of  vapor,  is  condensed.  Consequently,  the  gas  reaches  its  destination  iu 
a  highly-purified  condition,  and  may  yield  the  very  best  results  in  those 
parts  where  it  is  desired  to  make  use  of  it. 

“  The  arrangement  of  the  said  water-receptacles  allows  of  the  with¬ 
drawal  of  the  dust  or  grit  deposited  while  iu  full  working,  and  in  the 
event  of  an  explosion,  the  area  of  from  five  to  six  millimeters  of  the 
water  column  paralyzes,  as  though  it  were  a  gigantic  valve,  any  inju¬ 
rious  effects.  In  poiut  of  fact,  instead  of  dreading  we  rather  wish  for 
explosions  from  time  to  timm  since  they  serve  the  purpose  of  clearing 
off  the  dust  and  grit  that  may  still  be  clinging  to  the  inner  walls  of  the 
pipes.  Moreover,  there  is  the  advantage  of  confining  these  subsidiary 
appliances  to  a  spot  on  the  works  which  does  not  iu  any  way  interfere 
with  the  general  progress  of  the  manufacture. 

“  Oth.  The  gas-pipes  being  supporters  also  of  the  platform  surround¬ 
ing  the  furnace-mouth  or  top,  render  the  said  platform  independent  of 
the  blast-furnace  proper,  and  that  without  involving  any  special  outlay. 

“  In  the  first  days  of  this  erection,  critics  expressed  a  fear  that  the 
chilling  of  the  parts  thus  exposed  in  this  blast-furnace  would  be  achieved 
only  at  the  cost  of  a  greater  consumptiou  of  fuel.  But,  contrary  to  such 
apprehensions,  experience  has  amply  shown  that  blast-furnaces,  the 
brick-work  of  which  at  the  core  is  iu  direct  contact  with  the  outer  air, 
use  less  fuel  than  do  those  that  are  protected  by  strong  mason  work,  or 


BUTTGENBACHS  BLAST-FURNACES. 


85 


shut  in  by  means  of  a  second  inner  casing  with  a  lining  of  sheet-iron  ; 
and  the  opinion  expressed  by  me  from  the  very  beginning  explains  this 
result.  For,  in  point  of  fact,  a  blast-fnrnace  should  form  at  its  lower 
part  a  smelting-crucible,  and  it  is  generally  known  that  every  expedient 
available  is  brought  into  use  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  the  walls  of  this 
portion  of  the  structure.  The  boshes  are  a  kind  of  retort,  wherein  the 
ore  is  reduced  by  means  of  its  contact  with  the  fuel,  and  the  in-wall  is 
like  unto  the  neck  of  a  retort,  and  in  which  the  ore  is  prepared  by  the 
action  of  a  moderate  heat  and  contact  with  the  reducing  gases. 

“If  the  ore  sinking  into  the  in-wall  section  requires  a  spongy  condi¬ 
tion,  and  continues  in  this  condition  without  undergoing  semifusion,  it 
is  quite  obvious  that  the  effect  produced  by  the  gas  must  be  infinitely 
greater,  and  that  the  ore  must  descend  into  the  zones  of  the  boshes  and 
of  the  hearth  in  a  much  better  state  of  preparation  than  if  the  heat  of 
the  in  wall  had  partially  converted  it  into  cinder,  so  that  the  reducing 
gas  must  pass  on,  incapable  of  action  upon  such  ore,  except  superfi¬ 
cially.  The  ore,  thus  brought  into  a  better  state  of  preparation,  must  of 
necessity  require  less  fuel  in  order  to  its  perfect  fusion. 

“Moreover,  in  the  event  of  cinder  being  formed  at  the  in-wTall  zone, 
it  will  adhere  to  the  walls  and  produce  concretions,  which  always  impede 
the  proper  working  of  a  blast-furnace.  When  the  ore  sinks  with  regu¬ 
larity  the  smelting-process  is  facilitated,  whereby  a  further  saving  of 
fuel  is  effected. 

“The  truth  of  the  foregoing  assertions  has  been  fully  established  by 
the  experience  of  eight  years’  working  at  our  works.  Concretions  have 
never  been  noticed,  and  the  proportion  of  fuel  required  for  the  furnace, 
constructed  upon  the  new  principle,  has  always  been  from  10  to  15  per 
cent,  smaller,  cceteris  paribus. 

“  When  good  coke  has  been  used,  excellent  Ho.  1  foundery-pigs  have 
been  produced  from  ores  yielding  35  per  cent.,  the  consumption  of  coke 
being  in  the  ratio  of  11  parts  to  10  part  of  pig,  at  a  temperature  of  350° 
centigrade,  under  blast,  while  in  the  case  of  white  pig  it  is  one  part  less 
of  good  coke  to  every  part  of  pig.  Touching  the  fears  entertained  of 
undue  chilliug  in  severe  seasons,  the  following  facts  have  served  to 
dispel  them  in  toto  : 

“  The  blast-furnace  attheHeuss  Works  has  more  than  once  been  sud¬ 
denly  blown  out  for  several  weeks,  owing  to  causes  quite  foreign  to  its 
working  capabilities.  Three  of  these  suspensions  occurred  during  the 
war  in  the  year  1S70-’71,  owing  to  the  want  of  fuel,  and  no  prepara¬ 
tory  arrangements  were  madebeforeany  of  the  said  suspensions  of  work. 
They  lasted  during  a  space  ranging  between  three  and  ten  weeks  re¬ 
spectively. 

“  I  did  not  touch  the  blast-furuace  during  any  of  the  periods  of  stop¬ 
page  referred  to,  the  most  prolonged  of  them  occurring  at  a  time  when 
the  thermometer  registered  10°  to  17°  0.,  and  yet  when  work  was  re¬ 
sumed  the  furnace  did  its  work  again  with  surprising  regularity.  On 


86  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

206.  Three  men  work  at  each  furnace,  viz,  one  smelter  and  two  assist¬ 
ants  ;  they  make  twelve-hour  shifts.  The  smelter  is  paid  IS  to  25  silber- 
groschen,  and  the  two  assistants  receive  15  toll  silbergroschen  per  shift. 
The  consumption  of  fuel  per  twenty-four  hours  amounts  to  7,600  pouuds= 
3,800  kilograms  of  common  coal,  and  a  like  amount  of  coal  of  a  poorer 
quality. 

207.  The  products  of  this  operation  are  : 

a.  Plumbiferous  black  copper,  assaying  from  0.50  to  0.60  per  cent.  == 
145  oz.  16  dwt.  to  174  oz.  19  dwt.  16  gr.  silver,  20  to  25  per  cent,  lead, 
and  from  50  to  60  per  cent,  copper.  Part  of  it  goes  to  the  ore-smelting, 
and  another  part  goes  through  the  same  concentration  operation  again. 

b.  Concentrated  copper-matte,  assaying  from  0.29  to  0.40  per  cent.  = 
84  oz.  10  dwt.  19.2  gr.  to  116  oz.  12  dwt.  silver,  3  to  7  per  cent,  lead, 
and  70  to  73  per  cent,  copper.  It  also  contains  at  the  highest  0.3  per 
cent,  iron,  otherwise  the  matte  would  not  be  lit  for  treatment  with  sul¬ 
phuric  acid,  as  the  copper-vitriol  produced  must  be  free  from  this  im¬ 
purity. 

c.  Slag,  carrying  0.005  per  cent.  =  1  oz.  9  dwt.  3.S4  gr.  silver,  9  per 
cent,  lead,  and  6  per  cent,  copper.  When  it  is  richer  in  metals  than 
here  given  it  passes  through  the  same  operation  again,  but  it  generally 
goes  to  the  ore-smelting,  where  it  gives  a  flux  of  the  desired  quality.  It 
is  quite  fusible,  blackish-brown  in  color,  and  has  a  high  specific  gravity, 
in  consequence  of  its  high  percentage  of  baryte;  but  notwithstanding 
this  fact  it  separates  well  from  the  matte. 

208.  Manufacture  of  copper-vitriol. — The  copper-vitriol  is  manufac¬ 
tured  at  the  Halsbriicken  Works,  and  for  this  purpose  the  concentrated 
roasted  copper-matte  is  sent  there  from  the  Muldener  Works.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  product  of  the  copper-matte  concentration  in  reverberatory  fur¬ 
naces  is  the  concentrated  copper-matte,  and  it  is  from  this  product  that 
the  copper-vitriol  is  manufactured.  Its  principal  ingredient  is  disul¬ 
phide  of  copper,  but  it  is  also  generally  impregnated  with  metallic 
copper,  which,  by  stamping,  is  flattened  and  separated  from  the  matte 
by  the  following  operation  of  sieving. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  concentrated  matte  is  at  the  present 


time  about  as  follows  : 

Per  cent. 

Copper .  69.00  to  74.00 

Lead .  3.00  to  7.00 

Silver .  0.30  to  0.40 

Ircu . 0.20  to  - 

Cobalt  and  nickel .  0.30  to  - 

Arsenic  and  antimony . , .  0.50  to  1.00 

Sulphur . 14.00  to  19.0° 


209.  Before  the  concentrated  matte  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  it 
undergoes  an  operation  of  crushing  and  roastiug,  in  order  to  convert  the 
disulphide  of  copper  and  sulphide  of  silver  into  oxide  of  copper  and 


MANUFACTURE  OF  COPPER-VITRIOL. 


87 


metallic  silver.  It  is  crushed  under  stamps  and  then  thrown  on  to  a 
sieve,  which  has  five  meshes  per  square  centimeter.  The  roasting  is 
conducted  in  Freiberg  muffle  roastiug-furnaces  with  double  hearth.  The 
muffle,  however,  is  not  made  use  of,  the  matte  being  charged  only  on  the 
hearth. 

An  arrangement  has  lately  been  adopted  by  which  the  entrance  of 
the  hot  gases  from  the  lower  hearth  iuto  the  upper  may  be  regulated 
by  means  of  a  damper,  but  are,  under  the  present  circumstances,  con¬ 
ducted  directly  away.  The  concentrated  matte  agglomerates  very 
easily,  and  must  at  first  be  roasted  with  the  greatest  care,  at  a  very  low 
temperature,  and  accompanied  by  continual  workings  of  the  charge. 
The  temperature  must  not  be  raised  until  a  greater  part  of  the  sulphur 
has  escaped. 

In  consequence  of  the  above  reasons,  only  one  charge  can  be  roasted 
at  a  time.  An  average  charge  is  about  500  kilograms,  and  it  should 
not  lie  on  the  hearth  more  than  5  centimeters  thick. 

The  roasting  lasts  sixteen  hours.  During  the  first  six  hours  the  fur¬ 
nace  is  kept  quite  dark;  during  the  next  four  hours  a  moderate  temper¬ 
ature  is  employed  ;  and  in  the  following  three  hours  it  is  gradually 
increased  to  a  white  heat,  the  charge  remaining  under  its  influence  for 
three  hours  longer,  and  constantly  stirred. 

If  the  stirring  of  the  charge  should  be  discontinued,  protoxide  of  cop¬ 
per  would  be  formed  in  large  quantities,  which,  on  being  treated  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  would  be  decomposed  and  converted  iuto  peroxide 
and  metallic  copper,  and  this  would  cause  the  extraction-residues  to 
contain  large  amounts  of  copper. 

The  roasted  matte  should  therefore  appear  bluish-black  from  perox¬ 
ide,  and  not  red,  as  this  latter  color  shows  the  presence  of  the  protoxide 
of  copper.  It  always  contains  from  0.5  to  1.5  per  cent,  sulphur,  and  on 
an  average  1  per  cent.,  iu  consequence  of  the  formation  of  small  agglom¬ 
erated  lumps  during  the  first  part  of  the  roasting  operation.  This  can¬ 
not  be  well  avoided.  The  lead  contained  in  the  matte  also  helps  to  re¬ 
tain  a  portion  of  the  sulphur,  as  the  sulphate  of  lead  formed  is  not 
decomposed  in  the  highest  of  temperatures. 

210.  Two  workmen  are  necessary  to  each  furnace;  they  make  ten- 
hour  shifts,  and  are  paid  from  15  to  18  silbergroschen.  Only  from  13  to 
11  hundredweight  of  matte  can  be  roasted  iu  twenty-four  hours  in  one 
furnace.  The  consumption  of  fuel  per  5,000  kilograms  of  charge 
amounts  to  from  5,500  to  6,000  kilograms  of  bituminous  coal  of  the  best 
quality  possible. 

211.  After  having  passed  through  the  operation  of  roasting,  the 
charge  is  sifted ;  the  remaining  lumps,  consisting  of  agglomerated  sul¬ 
phide  of  copper  and  lead,  are  again  crushed  and  roasted ;  that  which 
passes  through  the  sieve,  however,  is  ground  still  finer,  until  it  is  almost 
of  the  consistency  of  powder.  It  principally  consists  of  the  following 
substances:  peroxide  of  copper,  small  amounts  of  sulphate  of  peroxide 


88 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 

of  copper,  protoxide  of  copper,  metallic  silver,  also  gold  aud  sulphate  of 
lead ;  besides  these,  it  coutaius  small  amounts  of  oxide  of  irou,  oxide  of 
cobalt,  oxide  of  nickel,  basic  arseniate,  aud  autimoniate  salts,  among 
which  there  is  perhaps  a  small  amount  of  arseniate  of  silver. 

212.  Treatment  of  the  roasted  copper-matte  with  sulphuric  acid. — If  the 
roasted  matte  be  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  some  time, 
and  boiled,  the  peroxide  of  copper  and  the  other  metallic  oxides  will 
dissolve,  while  metallic  silver  gold,  and  sulphate  of  lead  remain 
undissolved.  The  presence  of  protoxide  of  copper  causes  the  precipi¬ 
tation  of  the  metallic  copper,  and  although  it  precipitates  any  metallic 
silver  which  may  have  been  dissolved,  still  it  is  not  desirable  that 
it  should  be  present  in  large  quantities,  as  it  remains  undissolved.  Pe¬ 
roxide  of  irou,  oxide  of  nickel,  and  oxide  of  cobalt  are  only  dissolved 
in  small  quantities,  and  very  slowly,  while  the  solution  is  cold,  but  when 
the  solution  is  boiled,  they  are  completely  dissolved,  and  enter  into  the 
vitriol  solution.  In  the  presence  of  metallic  copper  and  the  protoxide, 
the  oxides  are  converted  into  protoxide  salts.  The  arseniate  and  anti- 
moniate  salts,  especially  the  basic  arseniate  and  autimoniate  of  silver, 
are  only  slowly  decomposed  in  cold  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  but  on  heating 
they  are  rapidly  decomposed,  whereby  sulphate  salts  and  uncombiueil 
arsenic  acid  and  hydrated  antiinonic  acid  are  formed,  the  latter  of  which 
partially  remains  umlissolved,  while  all  the  other  substances  remain  in 
solution.  The  silver  dissolved  in  this  manner  is,  however,  immediately 
precipitated  when  metallic  copper  or  its  peroxide  is  present. 

213.  It  will  be  perceived  from  the  foregoing,  that  there  remains  an 
umlissolved  residue,  when  the  roasted  concentrated  copper-matte  is 
treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  consists  of  metallic  silver,  gold, 
copper,  sulphate  of  lead,  aud  hydrated  antimonic  acid ;  the  solution,  on 
the  other  hand,  contains  the  sulphate  salts  of  peroxide  of  copper,  nickel, 
cobalt,  and  iron  peroxide;  also  a  small  amount  of  arsenic  acid  and  anti¬ 
monic  acid.  Copper-vitriol  is  produced  from  the  solution  by  crystalliza¬ 
tion,  whereby  the  other  sulphate  salts  remain  in  the  mother-liquid. 

214.  The  fine  powdered  state  which  the  matte  is  in,  and  necessary 
to  the  "operation  of  dissolving,  offers  difficulty  to  the  practical  working 
of  the  process,  as  thick  crusts  are  easily  formed,  which  are  impregnated 
with  sulphate  of  copper.  At  present  this  disadvantage  is  overcome  by 
passing  steam  through  the  solution  during  the  process  of  dissolving. 
High  cylindrical  vessels  of  solid  anti monial  lead  have  been  employed 
for  several  years  in  dissolving  the  matte.  They  have  a  capacity  of  1.24 
cubic  meters;  just  above  the  bottom  there  is  a  short  pipe,  used  for  letting 
off  the  silver  slimes.  There  are  eight  of  these  dissolving-vessels  :  four 
of  them  are  employed  for  dissolving  the  roasted  matte  and  the  other 
four  for  the  redissolving  of  the  raw  vitriol.  They  weigh  from  1,250  to 
1,500  kilograms,  and  cost  from  200  to  240  thaler;  they  last,  however, 
for  a  very  long  time.  Above  the  dissolving- vessels  there  are  reservoirs 
for  sulphuric  acid,  water,  and  raw  solution ;  the  liquids  are  forced  up 


TREATMENT  OF  ROASTED  MATTE. 


89 


into  these  reservoirs  by  means  of  compressed  air.  The  dissolving-ves¬ 
sels  are  filled  0.36  meter  high  with  raw  chamber-acid  of  49°  to  50°  B.;  it 
is  then  brought  to  the  boiling-point  by  passing  superheated  steam 
through  it  for  one  and  one  half  hours,  it  being  at  the  same  time  thereby 
diluted.  The  steam  is  heated  by  means  of  a  system  of  bent  pipes,  which 
pass  over  a  fire-place.  Three  hundred  weight  of  roasted  matte  are  then 
gradually  charged  into  the  vessels,  and  the  liquid  contiuually  stirred. 
Steam  is  still  passed  through,  in  order  to  raise  the  acid  up  to  its  boiling- 
point.  The  steam-pipe  passes  in  at  the  top  and  down  to  within  0.07  meter 
of  the  bottom,  so  that  the  residues  may  be  continually  kept  in  motion  by 
means  of  the  steam.  The  length  of  this  period  is  about  one  and  one- 
half  hours;  mother-liquid  is  then  added  uutil  the  vessel  is  about  full, 
and  the  whole  solution  is  again  raised  to  its  boiling-point  by  steam. 

215.  The  solution,  now  diluted  to  32°  B.,  is  allowed  to  staud  for 
two  hours,  and  is  theu  drawn  off  into  a  settling-tank  by  means  of  a 
siphon.  After  remaining  in  the  settling-tank  for  an  hour,  it  is  drawn  off 
into  a  crystallizing-tauk.  The  whole  operation  of  dissolving  lasts  five 
hours;  1,650  kilograms  of  matte  are  dissolved  in  four  vessels  within 
twenty-four  hours.  It  takes  nine  days  to  crystallize  the  vitriol.  The 
first  fourth  of  the  copper-vitriol  crystals  are  ready  for  market  as  raw 
vitriol,  the  other  three-fourths  are  dissolved  again  in  hot  water  and  re¬ 
crystallized.  The  crystals  are  dissolved  in  a  half-cylindrical-shaped 
vessel  of  lead,  perforated  on  all  sides;  this  is  hung  within  another  ves¬ 
sel,  of  antimonial  lead,  by  means  of  three  hooks.  The  larger  vessel  is 
filled  with  water.  The  lead-sieve  is  made  half  cylindrical,  in  order  that 
the  steam-pipe  can  pass  into  the  water.  The  good  vitriol  solution  is 
filtered  through  copper  granules  before  being  discharged  into  the  crys- 
tallizing-tank,  in  order  to  separate  any  silver  or  slimes  that  may  have 
been  contained  therein.  The  copper  used  for  this  purpose  is  argentifer¬ 
ous,  finely  granulated.  The  copper-granules  are  placed  in  a  half-cylin- 
drical-shaped  vessel  of  antimouial-lead,  which  has  a  double  bottom,  the 
upper  one  being  perforated,  and  covered  with  lineu,  to  avoid  the  falling 
through  of  the  granules.  This  manipulation  of  filtering  also  serves  to 
make  the  solution  almost  neutral,  whereby  beautiful  large  crystals  can 
be  obtained  from  it. 

Sheet-copper  is  also  hung  in  the  crystallizing  tank  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  solution  neutral  during  the  operation  of  crystallization. 
When  a  deposit  of  metallic  copper  forms  on  the  sheet-lead  lining  of  the 
tank,  or  even  on  the  crystals,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  solution  is 
about  neutral.  A  deposit  of  slimes  on  the  bottom  of  the  tank  is  not 
considered  of  disadvantage,  though  small  crystals  of  vitriol  form  there,  but 
they  are  again  dissolved  with  the  raw  solution.  It  takes  nine  days  to  crys-' 
tallize  the  purified  solution.  When  the  operation  is  finished,  the  crys_ 
tals  are  broken  from  the  lead-strips  and  washed  with  cold  water  in  order 
to  give  them  a  better  appearance  and  to  remove  the  pulverized  vitriol, 
made  by  knocking  the  crystals  from  off  the  lead-strips.  The  crystals 


90 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


are  dried  upon  wooden  tables  in  a  special  drying-chauiber  and  are 
then  ready  for  market. 

210.  The  annual  production  of  copper- vitriol  a  mounts  to  about  1,050,000 
kilograms.  (1,050  tons  of  1,000  kilograms.)  It  is  manufactured  from 
400,000  kilograms  of  concentrated  copper-matte  with  the  employment 
of  eight  dissolving- vessels  and  one  hundred  and  four  crystallizing-tanks. 
To  this  amount  should  be  added  about  50,000  kilograms  more  of  cop¬ 
per-vitriol  produced  in  the  gold-separating  establishment. 

217.  The  mother-liquid  is  used  again  for  dissolving  the  raw  crystals; 
it  is  then  concentrated  and  crystallized.  The  crystals  hereby  produced 
contain  0.035  per  cent,  iron,  and  are  again  dissolved,  and  then  go 
through  a  second  operation  of  crystallization  with  the  main  solution ; 
the  mother-liquid,  which  is  rich  in  iron  and  contains  1  kilogram  of  cop¬ 
per  to  the  0.024  cubic  meter,  is  removed  and  is  used  in  making  roasting- 
balls  out  of  ore-slimes.  The  argentiferous  residues  remaining  on  the 
bottom  of  the  dissolving- vessels  after  the  treatment  of  the  matte  with 
sulphuric  acid,  are  removed  into  large  pointed  boxes  lined  with  sheet- 
lead ;  there  they  are  boiled  with  steam;  sulphuric  acid  is  added  when 
deemed  necessary,  and  they  are  then  allowed  to  settle.  There  are  two 
of  these  pointed  boxes,  each  connecting  with  a  trough  on  the  side  by 
means  of  rubber-hose,  which  are  furnished  with  Mohr’s  spring-clamps. 
The  trough  has  twelve  openings  in  the  bottom,  under  each  of  which 
there  is  a  small  pointed  box.  These  latter  are  perforated  on  all  sides, 
and  on  the  inside  have  a  Alter  of  ticking,  which  is  fastened  above  to  a 
lead  frame.  After  the  wash-water  in  the  large  pointed  boxes  has 
become  clear,  it  is  gradually  allowed  to  flow  out  through  the  three 
pipes  in  the  side,  and  is  used  in  the  next  following  operation  of  dissolv¬ 
ing.  The  argentiferous  slime  is  allowed  to  flow  otf  into  the  trough 
and  frtmi  here  it  flows  on  to  the  filters  in  the  small  pointed  boxes.  It 
is  scraped  from  the  filters  and  dried  upon  an  iron  hearth.  It  amounts 
to  about  17  per  cent,  of  the  original  amount  of  matte.  In  I860  it  con¬ 
tained  on  an  average,  besides  other  ingredients,  the  following:  1.94  per 
cent.  =  5(55  oz.  1  dwt.  4.8  gr.  silver,  41  per  cent,  lead,  and  11  per  cent, 
copper.  Lately,  however,  the  copper  contents  have  decreased  to  5  per 
cent. 

Since  the  solution  from  crystallization  has  been  filtered  through  cop¬ 
per  granules,  stronger  acid  can  be  used  for  dissolving,  without  fear  of 
making  the  vitriol  rich  in  silver;  and  the  amount  of  copper  contained  in 
the  argentiferous  slimes  is  also  decreased. 

The  argentiferous  slimes,  after  having  been  dried,  are  delivered  over 
to  the  operation  of  cre-smelting  for  further  treatment,  where  it  is  added 
in  small  quantities  to  the  ore-charge. 

The  workmen  are  paid  according  to  the  amount  produced,  and  receive 
5.7  silbergroschen  per  50  kilograms  of  raw  vitriol,  and  1£  silbergroscken 
per  50  kilograms  of  purified  vitrol  produced. 

218.  The  results  of  the  manufacture  of  copper- vitriol  at  the  Halsbriick- 
ner  Works,  in  1SG0.  may  be  seeu  from  the  following  figures: 


MANUFACTURE  OF  COPPER-VITRIOL. 


91 


Total.  Per  cwt.  of  matte. 


Concentrated  copper-matte  dissolved. .  7,943 cwt.  30  lbs.  > 

Other  material  dissolved .  21  cwt.  38  lbs.  S  CWt' 

Sheet-copper  for  neutralizing  dissolved.  17  cwt.  84  lbs.  0.22 


Results. 


Total.  Per  cwt.  of  matte. 


Copper-vitriol,  impure,  (exclusive  of  970 
cwt.  from  the  operation  of  gold  separa¬ 
tion) . . . 

Copper  vitriol,  purified . 

Extraction  residues,  (argent,  slimes) - 

Solution,  (as  increase  to  the  intermediate  * 
products  with  3  lbs.  copper  per  cub.  ft.)  ) 
Mother-liquid  with  2  lbs.  copper  per  cub.  ) 
ft.,  (used  for  making  roasting-balls)  » 


] 

19,881  cwt.  11  lbs.  j*2yl-38cwt- 
140  cwt.  15  lbs.  j 
1,300  cwt.  96  lbs.  16.41  cwt. 

68  cub.  ft. 
180  cub.  ft. 


3,009  cwt.  50  lbs.,  ) 
(or  5,420  cub.  ft.)  J 
7,862  cwt.  25  lbs.,  ) 
(or  14,295 cub. ft.)  J 


Material  consumed. 

Saw  chamber  acid .  15,668  cwt.  97  lbs. 

Or,  reduced  to  66°  sulphuric  acid .  10,028  cwt.  12  lbs.  190.7  cwt. 


Cwt.  Cwt. 

Bituminous  coal  for  roasting  matte . . . . .  9,  286  125.  9 

Bituminous  coal  for  heating  the  steam-boiler  . . .  9, 912  116.  6 

Bituminous  coal  for  evaporating  the  solution .  8, 058 

Bituminous  coal  for  drying  the  copper-vitriol .  1,  566 

Bituminous  coal  for  drying  the  argentiferous  residues  ..  505 


Total .  .  2,  041  251. 15 

Production. 

Number  of  working-days  at  the  roasting-furnace . 632 

Number  of  working-days  at  the  operation  of  dissolving,  &c  .  300 

In  twenty-four  hours  were — 

Cwt. 

Concentrated  matte,  roasted .  12.  6 

Concentrated  matte,  dissolved,  &c .  26.  6 

Copper-' vitriol  produced . . .  70.  0 


219.  Estimate  of  the  amount  of  metal  extracted  from  matte  in  1869. 

A. — Treated. 


In  3,321  cwt.  70  lbs.  copper-matte 


Cwt. 

lbs. 

P. 

c.  Ag. 

P.  c.  Pb. 

P.  c.  ( 

,  110 

a 

0.  32 

3 

74 

880 

90 

a 

0.  34 

2 

74 

676 

90 

0.  41 

6 

69 

295 

50 

a 

0.  43 

4 

73 

360 

40 

a 

0.  40 

5 

70 

from  the  Muldener  Works,  as — 

Gold.  Silver.  Lead.  Copper. 
Lbs.  Lbs.  Cwt.  lbs.  Cwt.  lbs. 

1, 203.  45  121  36  2,  408  32 


92 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 

In  4,619  cwt.  GO  lbs.  matte  from  the  Halsbriickner  Works,  as — 


Cwt.  lbs.  P.  c.  Ag.  P.  c.  Pb.  P.  c.  Cu. 
2, 583  40  a  0. 29  7  69  \ 

2, 036  20  a  0. 29  7  73  S 

In  21  cwt.  38  lbs.  other  material 
In  17  cwt.  84  lbs.  copper  for  neu¬ 
tralizing.  ......  . 

In  5,373  cwt.  solution  from  gold- 
separation  . 


Gold. 

Lbs. 

Silver. 

Lbs. 

Lead.  Copper. 

Cwt.  lbs.  Cwt.  Its. 

1,339.  68 

323  37  3, 268  97 

0.  25S 

S.  25 

18  S 

0.  73 

17  S4 

248  91 

0.  258 

2,  552. 1 1 

444  73  5,962  12 

Total 


B. — Production. 


A,  as  salable  material,  produced — 


Gold.  Silver.  Lend.  Copper. 
Lbs.  Lbs.  Cwt.  lbs.  Cwt.  lbs. 

20,  991  cwt.  2G  lbs.  copper- vitriol 

a  25.4  per  cent.  Cu .  5,331  77 


B,  as  intermediate  products — 

1,306  cwt.  96  lbs.  extraction  resi¬ 
due,  it  1.94  per  cent.  Ag.,  41 

per  cent.  l*b.,  11  per  cent.  Cu . .  0.  250  2, 535. 50  535  83  143  76 

7,S62  cwt.  25  lbs.  mother-liquid 
for  making  roasting-balls  = 

14,295  cu.  ft.  i\  2  lbs.  Cu .  2S5  90 

C,  as  half-finished  products, 

(after  deduction  of  that  taken 
from  former  year :) 


3,009  cwt.  5  lbs.  solution  =5,420 


cu.  ft.  a  3  lbs.  Cu . 

Total  production . 

Amount  extracted  in  per  cent. 

of  metal  contained  in  material 
Contained  in  the  waste  mother- 

liquid  . 

Percentage  of  loss . 

Sulphur  extracts . 


162  60 


0. 250  2. 

535.  50 

535  83  5,924  3 

Gold. 

Ter  cent. 

Silver. 
Per  cent. 

Lead.  Copper. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

96.  90 

99.  35 

120.  48  99.  36 

4.  79 

3. 10 

0.  65 

0.  64 

20.  48* 


*  The  surplus  of  lead  extracted  cau  be  accouuted  for  by  the  imperfect  determination 
of  the  lead  in  the  matte.  The  lead  lining  of  the  tanks  is  also  affected  by  the  acid  ; 
sulphate  of  lead  is  formed,  which  settles  to  the  bottom. 


SEPARATION  OF  GOLD  FROM  SILVER.  93 

The  following  are  the  costs  of  treating  100  cwt.  of  concentrated  matte 
for  the  year  1809 : 

A. — Crushing  and  roasting . 


* 

Wages  for  stamping  and  grinding  the  concentrated 

matte . .  - . .  3  10 

Expenses  in  keeping  stamps  and  mill  in  repair. ......  1  17  5 

Wages  for  roasting . . . .  21  9 

Bituminous  coal . .  21  5  8 

Repair  of  roasting-furnace  and  tools .  11  16  10 


Total . . .  61  20  8 

B. — Dissolving ,  the. 

Thlr.  Sgr.  Pf. 

W  ages . . . . .  46  16  3 

Bituminous  coal  for  heating  steam-boiler,  evaporating 
the  solutions,  drying  the  vitriol  and  residues,  &c. . .  32  13  10 

Sulphuric  acid . . . .  116  24  2 

Repair  of  furnaces,  apparatus,  and  tools .  52  2  2 


247  26  5 


Grand  total,  (exclusive  of  general  costs). .  309  17  1 


220.  Separation  of  gold  from  silver.— This  operation  consists  in  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  refined  and  granulated  silver  from  the  silver-refining  furnace 
with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  (66°  B.,)  whereby  the  silver  is  dissolved 
as  sulphate  of  silver,  accompanied  by  the  disengagement  of  sulphurous 
acid,  and  the  gold  remains  undissolved  in  the  form  of  a  fine  powder.  The 
manipulation  is  conducted  in  a  cast-iron  kettle,  which  stands  over  a  fire¬ 
place.  The  kettle  is  about  40  inches  in  diameter  and  50  inches  deep,  and  is 
covered  with  a  hood  during  the  operation  of  dissolving ;  a  pipe  connects 
with  the  hood  through  which  the  sulphurous-acid  vapors  pass  off  into  a 
small  condensing-chamber  of  sheet-lead  for  the  purpose  of  arresting  any 
of  the  silver  solution  which  may  be  carried  over  by  the  gas.  There  is  also 
an  opening  in  this  hood,  through  which  the  silver  adhering  to  the  hot. 
tom  and  sides  of  the  kettle  during  the  operation,  can  be  removed  by 
stirring  the  solution.  About  400  kilograms  of  granulate  silver  are 
treated  at  a  time,  whereby  800  kilograms  of  sulphuric  acid  are  neces¬ 
sary.  At  first  only  350  kilograms  of  sulphuric  acid  are  added,  and  the 
remainder  during  the  continuation  of  the  manipulation.  There  is  an 
energetic  evolution  of  sulphurous  acid  during  the  first  period  of  the 
operation ;  the  fire,  therefore,  must  be  carefully  regulated. 

221.  After  the  silver  is  completely  dissolved,  the  solution  is  allowed 
to  stand  for  ten  hours  in  order  to  cool  it  off  and  clarify  the  liquid,  the 
metallic  gold  settling  to  the  bottom.  The  solution  is  then  dipped  out 
with  copper  ladles  into  copper  vessels  and  carried  to  a  tank,  lined  with 


94 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1»73. 


sheet-lead,  iuto  which  it  is  emptied.  There  is  sufficient  water  in  this 
tank  to  reduce  the  solution  to  20°  B.  The  whole  is  now  stirred  with 
wooden  paddles  and  heated  by  passing  steam  through  it;  the  silver  is 
then  precipitated,  as  metallic  silver,  by  placing  sheet-copper  in  the  solu¬ 
tion.  If,  after  testing  the  solution  with  salt,  it  has  been  proved  to  con¬ 
tain  no  silver,  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for  ten  hours,  so  that  the  solution 
may  become  clear.  The  copper-vitriol  solution  is  then  removed  iuto  a 
second  settling-tank  by  means  of  a  lead  siphon;  from  here  it  goes  to 
another  tank,  from  which  it  is  forced  up  iuto  the  evaporating-pans  of 
the  copper-vitriol  establishment.  The  cement  silver  is  sieved  in  a  cop¬ 
per  sieve,  to  free  it  from  small  pieces  of  uudissolved  metallic  copper, 
and  is  then  well  washed  with  hot  water  in  a  wooden  vessel  that  has  a 
perforated  bottom,  until  the  wash-water  gives  no  precipitate  with 
chloride  of  barium.  The  wash-water  contains  copper  and  is  again  used 
n  precipitating  the  silver.  The  cement  silver,  after  having  been  well 
washed,  is  pressed  into  cakes  under  a  hydraulic  press  ;  it  is  then  heated 
in  iron  retorts  and  melted  in  graphite  crucibles  in  quantities  of  200 
kilograms.  The  melted  silver  is  poured  into  cast-iron  molds,  painted  on 
the  yi side  with  talc;  after  which  it  is  sent  to  the  mint  in  the  city  of 
Dresden.  It  is  fine,  and  contains  no  trace  of  gold. 

222.  The  gold  residue  is  strongly  impregnated  with  sulphate  of  silver, 
metallic  silver,  and  copper.  It  is,  therefore,  boiled  again  with  hot  water, 
w hereby  the  sulphate  of  silver  and  copper  are  dissolved.  The  wash- 
water  is  put  into  the  silver-precipitation  tank.  The  gold  powder  from 
every  three  operations  is  then  boiled  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
in  two  cast-iron  pots,  which  dissolves  the  remaining  silver  and  leaves 
the  gold  as  free  from  this  metal  as  possible.  The  first  operation  of  boil¬ 
ing  lasts  eight  hours,  the  second  only  one.  The  resulting  solution  is 
used  for  granulating.  The  gold  is  then  washed  in  a  porcelain  vessel, 
with  hot  water,  in  order  to  remove  any  silver  solution  adhering  to  the 
gold  particles,  until  the  wash-water  gives  no  precipitate  with  salt.  The 
gold  is  now  of  a  brownish-yellow  color,  and  is  dried  in  graphite  vessels 
and  then  heated  twice  in  small  iron  crucibles  with  bisulphate  of  soda, 
and  afterward  boiled  in  sulphuric  acid.  After  each  heating  and  boil¬ 
ing  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  gold  is  thoroughly  washed,  the  gold-dust  is 
then  dried  and  finally  melted  in  Hessian  crucibles  with  saltpeter,  in 
order  to  separate  it  from  platinum.  The  platinum  slag  produced  is 
sent  to  the  laboratory,  where  the  platinum  is  extracted.  After  the  cruci¬ 
ble  has  cooled,  it  is  broken  open  and  the  gold-button  extracted  ;  this  is 
melted  again  iu  a  graphite  crucible  with  borax,  and  then  poured  into 
small  molds.  It  possesses  a  fineness  of 

223.  Extraction  of  bismuth. — The  extraction  of  the  bismuth  is  conducted 
according  to  the  hurried  method,  whereby  all  ores,  dross,  litharge,  and 
furnace-hearth,  containing  bismuth  are  treated.  The  litharge  and  fur¬ 
nace-hearth  from  the  operation  of  silver-refining  contain  from  8  to  20  per 
cent,  bismuth.  They  are  all  crushed  and  treated  with  hydrochlonc  acid 


EXTRACTION  OF  BISMUTH. 


95 


and  water,  in  clay  jars  of  10  cubic  feet  capacity.  Each  50  kilograms  of 
hearth  is  treated  with  its  equal  weight  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  10  kilo¬ 
grams  of  water.  The  whole  is  well  stirred,  and  after  several  hours,  water 
is  added  until  the  jar  is  full  to  the  top.  After  the  solution  has  been 
allowed  to  stand  for  twelve  hours,  the  fluid  is  drawn  over  into  a  large 
wooden  vessel,  having  a  capacity  of  50  cubic  feet,  by  means  of  a  siphon, 
This  vessel  is  filled  with  water  at  the  same  time,  and  the  bismuth  in  the 
solution  is  thereby  precipitated  as  basic  chloride  of  bismuth  in  the  form 
of  a  white  powder,  (2  Bi  03,  Bi  Cl3.)  In  sixteen  to  twenty-four  hours 
the  precipitate  has  completely  settled  down  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel, 
and  the  clarified  liquid  is  allowed  to  flow  out  of  the  vessel  into  a  large 
j  settling-basin,  wherein  any  of  the  bismuth  precipitate,  which  has  been 
carried  off  by  the  liquid,  may  settle  to  the  bottom.  A  fresh  solution  is  now 
put  into  the  emptied  vessel,  water  added,  and  this  operation  repeated 
until  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  precipitate  on  the  bottom  by  means  of 
opening  the  lower  cocks  on  the  vessel.  The  bismuth  precipitate  is  then 
brought  upon  a  linen  filter  and  is  thus  partially  freed  from  the  acid  solu¬ 
tion.  As  the  bismuth  solution  cannot  be  entirely  drawn  out  of  the 
dissolviqg-vessels  without  stirring  up  its  contents,  a  single  treatment 
with  diluted  hvdrochloric  acid  is  not  sufficient  to  extract  the  whole 
amount  of  bismuth  contained  in  the  products  treated.  The  operation 
must  therefore  be  repeated  as  long  as  any  precipitate  is  formed  by  the 
1  addition  of  water.  After  the  first  solution  has  been  removed  from  the 
dissolving-vessel,  10  kilograms  more  of  hydrochloric  acid  are  added 

I  and  the  vessel  filled  to  the  top  with  water,  and,  after  the  precipitate  has 
settled  to  the  bottom,  the  clarified  liquid  is  again  drawn  off,  &c.  Gen¬ 
erally  this  must  be  repeated  from  four  to  six  times  before  the  vessel  can 
be  cleaned  out  for  a  new  portion.  The  bismuth  salt  is  again  dissolved 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  as  it  still  contains  too  much  lead,  and  is  again 
precipitated  with  water.  The  richer  the  furnace-hearth  is  in  lead,  and 
the  poorer  in  bismuth,  the  greater  is  the  amount  of  lead  contained  in 
the  first  precipitate,  and  the  oftener  must  the  process  of  dissolving  and 
precipitation  be  repeated,  as  bismuth  containing  more  than  2  per  cent, 
lead  is  difficult  to  sell.  The  bismuth  salt  is  dried  in  a  drying-oven 
heated  with  steam,  and  is  then  smelted  in  a  cast-iron  crucible  with  50 
per  cent,  calcinated  soda,  7.5  per  cent,  charcoal-powder,  3  per  cent,  glass, 
and  reduced  hereby  to  metallic  bismuth. 

224.  There  are  sixteen  dissolving  and  sixteen  precipitation  vessels  at 
the  Muldener  Works,  also  several  filtering  apparatuses.  From  150  to 
200  kilograms  of  raw  products  are  daily  treated. 

Products:  a.  Bismuth  containing  0.06  to  0.10  per  cent.  =  17  oz.  0  dwt. 
19.2  gr.  to  29  oz.  2  dwt.  silver,  and  1.5  per  cent.  lead. 
b.  Residues  containing  about  1  per  cent,  bismuth;  they  are  reduced. 
The  treatment  of  products  that  do  not  contain  at  mast  4  per  cent, 
bismuth  is  not  profitable.  The  annual  production  of  metallic  bismuth 
at  the  Freiberg  smelting- works  amounts  to  about  2,500  kilograms. 


96 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


2  25.  MACHINES,  FURNACES,  AND  APPARATUS  AT  THE  FREIBERG  SMELT- 

ING-WORJCS. 

(1.)  Muldener  and  IIalsbruckner  works. — Machines:  G  vertical 
water-wheels,  4  turbines,  and  G  steam-engines,  of  140  horse  power,  for 
driving  G  cylinder  blowers,  2  ventilators,  4  stamp-mills  with  4G  stamps, 
2  ore-grinding  machines,  2  sieve  machines,  1  rolling-mill,  3  force-pumps, 
and  15  forges  with  various  tool- machines. 

Iioasti n g-appa ra tus  :  18  roasting-stalls  connecting  with  large  subter¬ 
ranean  canals,  8  tluibble  and  5  double  agglomerating  roasting-furnaces, 

1  single  hearth  and  G  double  hearth  reverberatory  roasting-furnaces,  and 

2  muffle  furnaces. 

Smelting-apparatus  :  5  blast-furnaces  with  8  tuyeres,  G  blast-furnaces 
with  4  tuyeres,  7  smelting  reverberatory  furnaces,  4  cupellation-fur- 
naees,  2  silver  and  5  lead  refining  furnaces,  3  lead-liquating  turnaces,  2 
silver-smelting  furnaces,  and  43  kettles  in  the  Pattiusou  establishments. 

Sublimation-apparatus :  1  arsenic-sublimation  furnace  at  the  Hals- 
briickner  lliitte. 

Condensing  apparatus  :  above  and  underground  condensiug-chambers, 
with  canal  connections  of:  203,404.7  cubic  feet  =  4,G20.SG  cubic  meters’ 
capacity  for  the  roasting-furnaces;  143,772.8 cubic  feet  =  3,205.21  cubic 
meters’ capacity  for  the  blast-furnaces;  34G, 425.0  cubic  feet  =  7,807.01 
cubic  meters’  capacity  for  the  reverberatory  furnaces  ;  30,487.0  cubic 
feet  =  828.05  cubic  meters’  capacity  for  the  cupcllation-furnaces  and 
lead  and  silver  refining  and  liquation  furnaces.  The  total  capacity  of 
all  the  condensiug-chambers,  therefore,  amounts  to  730,149.5  cubic  feet, 
or  16,582.33  cubic  meters. 

Extraction-apparatus  :  a  copper  extraction  apparatus,  with  8  dissolv¬ 
ing  vessels  for  copper-matte  and  vitriol,  vitriol-crystallizing  tanks  hav¬ 
ing  a  capacity  of  10,248  cubic  feet,  or  309  cubic  meters,  at  the  Hals- 
briickner  lliitte,  and  a  bismuth-apparatus  of  12  dissolving-vessels,  and 
several  precipitating-vessels  of  70S  cubic  feet,  or  17.44  cubic  meters’ 
capacity  at  the  Muldener  lliitte. 

Other  arrangements :  1  self-acting  inclined  plane,  and  8  hoisting-appa¬ 
ratuses,  with  7,000  meters  of  tram-way  connections  at  both  works. 

(2.)  G  OLD- SEPARATION  ESTABLISHMENTS  AT  H  ALSBRpCKNER  WORKS  : 
1  gold  -separating-apparatus,  with  one  cast-iron  dissolving-kettle,  having 
a  capacity  of  27  cubic  feet,  or  613  cubic  decimeters,  and  three  precipi¬ 
tating-vessels  of  185  feet,  or  4.2  cubic  meters’  capacity. 

(3.)  Muldener  zinc-works:  3  long  reverberatory  roastiug-furnaces<3 
distillation-furnaces,  constructed  according  to  Siemens’s  regenerative 
system,  and  one  zinc-refining  furnace. 

(4.)  At  the  Muldener  arsenical  works  :  8  distillation  tubular 
furnaces  for  realgar,  and  3  galley  furnaces,  2  clarifying-furuaces,  2 
sublimation  roasting-furnaces,  and  20  white  arsenical-glass  furnaces. 

(5.)  Sulphuric-acid  manufactories  of  both  works. — Machines: 
1  turbine  and  4  steam-engines,  having  a  total  of  26  horse-power;  they 


FREIBERG  SMELTING-WORKS.  97 

charge  the  Gerstenhofer  roasting-furnaces,  and  force  the  acid  up  over 
the  precipitating-tower,  &c. 

Boasting-apparatus  :  21  kilns  and  12  Gerstenhofer  roasting-furnaces. 

Condensing-apparatus  :  8  condensing-chambers,  having  a  capacity  of 
118,087  cubic  feet,  or  2.681.86  cubic  meters,  and  6  lead-chamber  systems, 
composed  of  19  lead-chambers  having  a  capacity  of  710,013  cubic  feet, 
or  16,125.69  cubic  meters. 

(6.)  Other  apparatus  :  3  precipitating-towers,  with  four  sulphureted- 
liydrogen  generators  for  purifying  the  acid,  8  lead-evaporating  pans,  3 
platinum-stills,  4  nitric-acid  apparatuses,  and  3  iron-vitriol-evaporating 
apparatuses  with  crystallizing-tanks,  having  a  total  capacity  of  4,302 
cubic  feet,  or  97.70  cubic  meters. 

(7.)  Metal-ware  manufactory:  1  shot  establishment,  with  a  shaft 
61.4  meters  deep,  2  lead-pipe  presses,  1  lead-rolling  machine,  and  1  lead- 
wire  machine,  driven  by  2  vertical  water-wheels  of  11-horse  power. 

(8.)  Clay  manufactory  :  one  10-horse  power  steam-engine  for  run¬ 
ning  a  6-stamp  crushing-mill,  1  grinding-mill,  1  kneading-machine,  2 
hand  brick-presses,  and  1  clay-baking  furnace. 

(9.)  Brick  manufactory  :  2  brick-burning  furnaces,  with  drying 
arrangements. 

226.  Production  of  the  Saxon  Mines  and  the  Freiberg  Me¬ 
tallurgical  Works  in  1871. — Ore  mined  iu  Saxony  and  treated  at 
Freiberg : 

Value. 


Mined  in  the  Freiberg  district . 

Mined  in  other  Saxon  districts . 

Kilograms. 

27, 357, 025 
58,  250 

Thaler.  Sgr. 

1,  706,  392  26 
4,393  29 

Total . 

27,  415,  275 

1,  710,  786  25 

Which  contained : 

Gold . 

Silver  . . . . 

Lead . 

Copper . 

Zinc . 

Cobalt  and  nickel . . 

Arsenic . . 

Sulphur . .  . . . 

And  a  small  amount  of  bismuth . 

Kilograms. 
0. 116 
26,  286.  907 
.  4,320,046.250 
44,  865.  300 
267,  650.  500 
129.  500 
285, 520.  000 
.  2,915,876.000 

Total  . . 

.  7,860,374.573 

The  above  value  of  the  ores  is  calculated  as  follows : 

Thaler.  Sgr. 

1,  402,  436  24  paid  according  to  the  ore-tariff. 

Tfi  9QT  19  f  supplementary  payment  for  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  ar- 
’  t  senic,  (vide  ore-tariff  in  appendix.) 

272,  056  19  supplementary  payment  of  the  half  of  clear  gain. 


1,  710,  786  25 
7  M 


98 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Tlie  men  employed  iu  the  miuesof  the  Freiberg  district  are:  mine 
officials,  279;  clerks,  .70 ;  laborers  in  mines  and  dressing-works,  7,343 ; 
total,  7,072.  This  includes  203  boys,  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  mines,  and  401  boys  employed  iu  the  dressing- works,  and 
also  575  irregular  laborers. 


227.  products  or  THE  FREIBERG 


Gold . 

Silver . 

Lead  products,  viz  : 

Soft  and  hard  lead,  litharge,  and 

fumes  . 

Shot .  ... 

Sheet-lead . 

Lead  pipes,  wire,  &c . 

Copper-vitriol . 

Bismuth . 

Nickle- matte . 

Zinc  and  zinc  oxide . 

Different  grades  of  sulphuric  acid. . 

Chemical  products,  viz: 
Iron-vitriol,  soda-sulphate,  nitric 

acid,  &o . 

Arsenical  products,  viz : 
Metallic  arsenic,  arseuious  acid, 
oripiment,  &c . 


METALLURGICAL  WORKS,  1S71. 

Value. 

Kilograms.  Thaler.  Sgr. 


54.  83150 

50, 710 

27 

31,  071.  70400 

1, S50, 002 

28 

3,  711,  845 

431,587 

28 

94,  011.5 

13,  »j3o 

09 

291,  G38.  5 

38,  28S 

08 

315,  010.  5 

44,  980 

00 

1.  537,  200 

227,  004 

24 

3,213 

25,  2S1 

03 

9,  540 

3,  135 

01 

237,214 

20, 771 

07 

10,  218,  013.5 

224,  774 

15 

397,  709.  5 

9,  028  00 

1,  125,  S34.5 

92,829  21 

17,  974,  J5G.  53330 


Total,  359,483.05  centner,  valued  at  3,037,935  thaler  22  silbergroscheu. 
The  employed  were: 


Muldener  smelting-works  with  bismuth  extraction . 

Muldener  zinc-works . . 

Muldener  arsenic- works . 

Muldener  sulphuric-acid  manufactory . . 

Muldener  fire-clay  material  manufactory . 

Ilalsbriickner  smelting  works,  with  the  copper-vitriol  manufactory  and 

gold-separation  establishment . . 

Ilalsbriickner  sulphuric-acid  manufactory... . 

Halsbriickner  lead-pipe.  Sec.,  manufactory' . . 

Shot  manufactory  in  .Freiberg . .’ . 


K 

Irregular 

z 

laborers. 

*2 

1  X 

u 

s 

£ 

— 

u. 

s 

© 

S 

© 

8 

400 

ne 

02 

628 

19 

5 

1 

25 

2 

36 

5 

1 

44 

3 

77 

6 

86 

9 

4 

13 

9 

319 

81 

2 

411 

2 

36 

7 

3 

50 

8 

15 

1 

2 

i 

4 

25 

927 

287 

37 

1,276 

Total 


HARZ  SMELTING-WORKS. 


99 


. 

228.  The  Harz. — The  smelting-works  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Harz 
were  represented  by  statistical  charts,  plans  of  furnaces,  and  a  complete 
and  systematically  arranged  collection  of  ores,  metallurgical,  interme¬ 
diate,  and  final  products.  The  latter  were  displayed  in  the  following 
groups: 

I.— LEAD-SMELTING. 

a.  Ore-smelting. — Products  from  Olausthal :  slag,  matte,  and  silver-lead 

b.  Matte-smelting. — Products  from  Clausthal:  raw  matte  from  ore  and 
matte  smelting,  matte  roasted  in  shaft-furnaces  and  in  heaps. 

II. — DESILYERIZATION  OF  SILTER-LEAD. 

a.  Zinc-desilverization. —  Products  from  Lautenthal :  skimmiugs, 
(abzug,)  zinc-scum,  (silver-zinc  alloy  ;)  the  same  from  which  the  lead  has 
been  liquated,  (zinc-dust ;)  poor  and  rich  oxides;  fumes  from  condensa¬ 
tion-chambers  ;  poor,  autimouial,  and  enriched  lead. 

b.  Cupellation. — Products  from  Lautenthal:  abzug,  abstrich,  red  lith¬ 
arge,  and  silver. 

c.  Silver -refining. — Products  from  Lautenthal :  piece  of  cupellation  - 
hearth  impregnated  with  rich  litharge  and  fine  silver. 

III. — COPPER-SMELTING. 

Products  fromAltenau:  concentrated  copper-matte  and  black  copper. 

IV. — BLACK-COPPER  DESILVERIZATION. 

Products  from  Altenau  :  copper-vitriol  and  cement-silver. 

V. — MANUFACTURE  OF  ARSENICAL  PRODUCTS. 

Products  from  Andreasberg:  White  arsenical  glass,  realgar;  also 
beautiful  and  perfect  crystals  of  arsenious  acid  and  arsen-sulphide. 
These  were  formed  in  roasting  arsenical  ores  iu  free  heaps.  This  collec¬ 
tion  was  intended  to  illustrate  the  processes  as  conducted  at  the  above 
works,  and  to  show  how  the  various  operations  are  divided  between  the 
four  works  in  the  Upper  Harz.  As  the  lead-smelting  is  conducted  at  all 
the  works  in  the  Harz  according  to  the  same  process,  with  only  unim¬ 
portant  variations,  one  description  may  serve  the  present  purpose.  The 
intermediate  and  secondary  process  will  be  considered  as  they  are  per¬ 
formed  at  each  work. 

229.  The  Harz  processes. — The  first  smelting-process  in  the  Harz 
was  performed  by  roasting  the  ore  in  free  heaps  and  then  smelting  in  low 
furnaces.  The  large  metallic  loss  through  volatilization  in  roasting, 
smelting,  and  through  the  formation  of  slag  containing  15  to  20  per 
cent,  of  lead,  caused  the  introduction  of  the  iron-precipitation  process 
at  about  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  This  process  has 


100 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


been  practiced  ever  since,  but  has,  in  the  last  few  years,  been  greatly 
improved.  As  this  process  was  conducted  about  fifteen  years  ago,  the 
loss  in  lead  was  8  to  9  per  cent.,  and  when  the  percentage  of  blende  in 
the  ore  was  large  the  loss  increased  to  12  per  cent.,  in  addition  to  10  per 
cent,  loss  in  cupellation.  In  order  to  avoid  this  and  the  large  consump¬ 
tion  of  metallic  iron,  a  series  of  experiments  were  made  with  reverbera¬ 
tory  furnaces,  but  the  large  quautity  of  silica  contained  in  the  ore  ren¬ 
dered  the  English,  and  even  the  French,  processes  inadvisable,  if  not 
impossible.  The  following  experiments  were  then  made,  with  intention 
to  find  a  suitable  substitute  for  metallic  iron,  which  was  found  to  greatly 
increase  the  melting  expenses. 

230.  The  ore  (slimo)  was  roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces  and  smelted 
with  iron-tap  cinders,  but  gave  poor  results.  High  shaft-furnaces  were 
next  experimented  with.  Lime,  iron,  tap-cinder,  iron-ore,  and  slag  from 
the  smelting  of  matte  were  each  in  turn  used,  but  not  found  to  be  a 
desirable  substitute.  Lime,  iron,  tap-cinder,  and  iron-ore  also  gave  poor 
results  in  low  furnaces.  It  was  next  attempted  to  use  the  slags  from 
the  smelting  of  pyritous  ores  in  the  Lower  Harz.  These  were  rich  in  iron, 
and  had  been  accumulating  for  many  years.  These  experiments  were 
conducted  in  a  Ilachette  furnace,  which  had  already  been  erected  at 
Altenau.  The  iron  was  therein  reduced,  and  was  found  to  act  even  more 
energetically  than  when  charged  in  the  form  of  a  metal.  It  is  now 
known  that  iron,  when  reduced  from  its  seqnioxide,  or  protoxide,  decom¬ 
poses  lead-sulphide  most  energetically,  as  it  then  acts  in  a  statu  nascenti. 
The  resulting  matte  is,  in  a  well-conducted  temperature,  consequently 
poorer  in  sulphur  than  when  metallic  iron  is  used;  and  iron-protoxide,  by 
taking  the  place  of  lead  in  the  slag,  prevents  a  greater  loss  of  the  latter. 
The  iron  protoxide  contained  in  the  copper-slag  also  serves  to  slag  the 
silicic  acid  of  the  ore.  The  Lower  Harz  copper-slags  have,  according  to 
Strong,  the  following  composition  : 

Per  ceDt. 


Silica . 

Alumina . 

Iron  protoxide  . 

Copper  protoxide . 

Lime . 

Magnesia . 

Manganese  protoxide  . . 
Zinc  and  cobalt  oxides 
Sulphur . 


17.00 

3.21 

70. 05  =  54. 5  per  cent,  ot  iron- 
1.84 
3.32 
1.00 
0. 30 
1 . 20 
1.05 


97.  75 

231.  This  highly  important  change  was  again  improved  in  1309,  by 
substituting  roasted  lead-matte  for  a  part  of  the  copper-sla'g. 
Although  the  original  intention  was  ouly  to  do  away  with  the  first 


HARZ  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


101 


matte-smelting,  it  has  given  such  satisfactory  results,  that  it  has  been 
continued  for  other  reasons.  By  too  large  an  addition  of  lead-matte,  a 
continual  process  is  maintained,  and  the  copper  contents  of  the  silver- 
lead,  as  well  as  the  matte,  is  increased.  In  order  to  diminish  the  per¬ 
centage  of  copper  in  the  silver-lead,  it  was  found  necessary  to  decrease 
the  amount  of  roasted  lead-matte  added  to  the  charge  to  28  per  cent., 
and  again  raise  the  quantity  of  copper-slag  in  proportion.  The  smelting- 
expenses  have  been  reduced,  by  the  substitution  of  roasted  lead-matte 
for  a  portion  of  the  copper-slag,  from  18  to  15  thaler  per  1,000  kilo¬ 
grams  ore.  This  saving  is  partially  owing  to  the  avoidance  of  the  first 
matte-smelting. 

232.  The  recent  experiments  made  at  Clausthal  in  the  construction  of 
shaft-furnaces,  and  the  working  of  the  same,  are  not  only  very  interest¬ 
ing,  but,  as  the  results  were  obtained  after  carefully  conducted  trials, 
reliable  both  in  a  scientific  and  a  practical  economical  point  of  view. 
The  nature  of  the  ores  and  character  of  the  process  must,  however,  be 
borne  in  mind.  One  Bachette  furnace  was  first  built  in  Altenau,  and 
soon  after  three  were  built  in  Clausthal  and  two  in  Lautenthal.  Al¬ 
most  immediately  after  the  Pilz  furnace  had  been  built  in  Freiberg,  Herr 
Kast,  of  Clausthal,  erected  furnaces  similar  in  principle,  but  smaller, 
with  a  fore-hearth  (sumpf)  and  fewer  tuyeres.  The  campaign  in  these 
furnaces  has  lasted  over  three  years.  The  economical  results  have  been 
so  good,  that  they  have,  after  comparative  trials,  entirely  superseded 
the  Bachette  furnace  at  Clausthal.  The  old  Bachette  furnaces  at 
Clausthal  were  all,  except  one,  converted  into  rouud  furnaces.  This 
was  accomplished  by  placing  a  dividing  wall  through  the  center  of  the 
furnace,  connecting  the  two  long  sides,  and  then  making  circles  of  the 
squares  formed  by  the  walls.  One  Bachette  furnace  is  retained  unal¬ 
tered  at  Clausthal,  for  the  purpose,  as  the  author  was  informed  by  the 
director,  of  convincing  unbelievers  that  it  is  far  inferior  to  the  round 
furnace.  The  first  four  round  furnaces  built  at  Clausthal*  were  6.3 
meters  high  and  0.94  meters  diameter  at  the  tuyeres,  but  were,  respect¬ 
ively,  1.25, 1.41,  1.49,  and  1.57  meters  diameter  at  the  top. 

233.  A  series  of  trials  proved  that  in  proportion  as  the  furnace  is 
widened  toward  the  top,  the  metallic  volatilization  and  consumption  of 
fuel  decrease,  the  charge  also  is  better  prepared  upon  entering  the 
smelting-zone,  and  the  campaigns  are  longer.  The  trials  in  the  above- 
mentioned  furnaces  gave  the  following  results  : 

Width  of  top,  meters . . .  1.  25  1.  41  1.  49  1.  57 

Metallic  volatilization,  meters . - .  2.  8  2.  7  1.  7  1.1 

Consumption  of  coke  for  100  kilograms  ore, 

kilograms .  42.39  41.85  41.74  41.62 

Average  length  of  time  for  smelting  100  kilo¬ 
grams  ore,  hours .  73.2  71.8  71.2  69.2 

*  The  date  of  the  experiments  in  the  construction  of  shaft-furnaces  is  taken  from  Dr. 
Wedding’s  communication  in  the  Preussische  Zeit-Schrift. 


102 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

The  consumption  of  coke  under  the  same  circumstances  in  tbe  Ra- 
cbette  furnace  was  44.3  kilograms;  tbe  length  of  time  for  smelting  100 
kilograms  ore  was  ninety-three  hours.  Tbe  shaft  of  a  furnace  was 
widened  still  more  than  0.94:1.57  meters  at  tbe  top,  but  tbe  maximum 
proportion  was  here  exceeded,  as  was  shown  by  tbe  charge  sliding  only 
with  difficulty  down  tbe  plane,  which  approached  the  horizontal ;  and  the 
layers  of  fuel  and  charge  became  from  tbe  same  cause  indiscriminately 
mixed  before  entering  the  smelting-zone. 

234.  A  free  standing  furnace,  with  eight  tuyeres,  similar  to  tbe  Pilz 
furnace,  was  built  in  1309.  It  was  7.2  meters  high,  1.41  meters  diameter 
at  tbe  tuyeres,  and  2.04  meters  at  tbe  top.  It  was  a  crucible-furnace, 
aud  bad  three  tapping-hearths  and  two  cast-iron  slag-spouts.  Tbe 
tuyeres  were  37  centimeters  above  tbe  slag-spout,  and  55  centimeters 
apart.  The  furnace-fumes  were  caught  in  an  iron  funnel  suspended  in 
the  furnace,  and  after  passing  through  a  canal  48.3  meters  long,  escaped 
through  a  chimney  12.5  meters  high.  This  furnace  cost  5,900  thaler. 

When  it  was  first  put  in  operation,  the  charge  was  similar  to  that  in 
the  other  round  furnaces,  with  an  addition  of  slag  from  matte-smelting, 
but  the  slag  produced  was  so  pasty, that  it  could  not  be  tapped;  nor 
was  slag  of  the  right  character  obtained  by  increasing  tbe  quantity  of 
matte-slag  and  decreasing  tbe  ore  in  tbe  charge.  In  tbe  next  trial,  tbe 
slag  from  the  copper-ore  smelting  was  entirely  omitted.  The  resulting 
silver  lead  and  matte  were  of  tbe  same  nature  as  that  from  the  other 
furnaces,  but  tbe  slag,  owing  to  an  imperfect  fusing,  was  very  rich  in 
lead,  containing  it  both  chemically  combined  and  mechanically  mixed 
as  undecomposed  lead-sulphide.  The  next  idea  was  to  produce  a  small 
amount  of  slag;  and  with  this  object  in  view,  only  30  kilograms  of  cop¬ 
per-slag  was  charged  to  100  kilograms  ore  and  30  kilograms  lead-matte. 
Tbe  blast  was  made  as  strong  as  possible,  24  millimeters,  quicksilver 
column,  but  even  then  the  charge  was  not  sufficiently  fusible,  and  sala¬ 
manders  were  soon  formed,  obstructing  tbe  sin  el  ting-process.  Tbe  con¬ 
clusion  was  now  reached  that  tbe  diameter  of  tbe  hearths,  or  smelting- 
zone,  was  too  large  for  a  process  of  this  character,  as  tbe  temperature 
herein  produced  was  not  high  enough  to  cause  a  perfect  reaction  and 
separation  of  tbe  different  products.  Tbe  furnace-hearth  was  therefore 
decreased  to  1.25  meters  diameter,  but  a  round  ball  solidified  in  tbe 
center  of  tbe  hearth,  which  was  not  removed,  by  increasing  the  propor¬ 
tion  of  slag  in  the  charge,  narrowed  tbe  pressure  of  blast.  Four  of  the 
eight  tuyeres  were  then  projected  16  centimeters  in  tbe  hearth,  leaving 
a  circle  about  1  meter  iu  diameter.  Tbe  furnace  thereupon  worked  well, 
and  gave  equally  good  results  with  rhe  other  rouud  furnace. 

According  to  tbe  information  derived  from  Herrn  Kast,  tbe  director 
of  tbe  Claustbal  (Frankenscbarn)  Smelting-Works,  aud  after  whom 
tbe  round  furnace  with  four  tuyeres  was  named,  two  furnaces  with  four 
tuyeres  perform  oue-thinl  more  work  with  an  equal  number  of  work- 


TIARZ  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


103 


men  and  a  like  quantity  of  fuel  than  one  round  furnace  with  eight 
tuyeres. 

235.  In  order  to  determine  the  effects  of  an  equal  quantity  of  wind 
under  different  pressure  of  blast,  the  diameter  of  the  blast-nozzles  was 
increased  in  one  of  the  furnaces  with  four  tuyeres  from  43  millimeters  to 
61  millimeters,  with  the  following  results : 


Charge : 

Nozzle  61  millimeters 

43  millimeters 

iu  diameter. 

iu  diameter. 

Ore,  kilograms . 

.  1, 000 

1,000 

Roasted  matte,  do  . . 

.  510 

510 

Copper-slag,  do . 

.  1, 260 

1,260 

Ore- slag,  do . 

.  330 

330 

Fuel : 

Cokes,  do  .  . . 

490 

490 

Products : 

Silver -lead,  do  . . 

.  580 

580 

Lead-matte,  do -  - 

.  750 

800 

Contents  of  silver-lead. ...  0. 15  per  cent.  =  43  oz.  13  dwt.  14  gr.  silver. 

Contents  of  lead-matte _ 0.27  per  cent.  =  78  oz.  14  dwt.  4  gr.  silver. 

Contents  of  lead-matte _ 8.  5 . . . 8.  4  per  cent.  lead. 

Contents  of  slag. .  0.  4  . 0.  4  per  cent.  lead. 

Length  of  time  in  smelting  1,000  kilograms  ore,  6.S  to  7.6  hours. 
Pressure  of  blast,  16.24  millimeters  mercury  column.  The  consump¬ 
tion  of  fuel  was  the  same  in  both  cases.  The  quantity  of  slag  in  the 
furnace  with  wide  was  smaller  than  in  the  furnace  with  narrow  nozzles, 
but  the  furnace  worked  much  better  ;  the  formation  of  furnace  accre¬ 
tions  was  diminished,  and  the  smelting-time  was  shorter,  giving  the 
furnace  an  increased  capacity.  Blast-nozzles  with  61  millimeters  diam¬ 
eter  have  since  been  adopted. 

236.  The  known  fact  that  heated  blast  serves  in  iron  blast-furnaces  to 
concentrate  the  heat,  increase  the  capacity  of  the  furnace,  and  saves 
fuel,  induced  the  officials  at  the  Clausthal  works  to  try  the  effect  of 
heated  blast  on  lead-smelting.  Two  round  furnaces  with  four  tuyeres 
were  employed  in  making  the  experiment.  One  was  worked  with  cold 
blast,  the  other  with  blast  heated  to  140°  to  180°  O.  These  trials 
proved  that  heated  blast  is  not  advantageous  for  lead-smelting,  for  the 
products  from  two  operations  were  similar,  both  in  quantity  and  quality, 
while  the  value  of  the  small  quantity  of  cokes  saved  in  the  charge  was 
surpassed  by  the  value  of  the  coal  consumed  in  heating  the  blast. 

237.  In  order  that  each  process  might  be  more  perfectly  and  econom¬ 
ically  carried  out,  the  government  authorities  have  been  making,  as  far 
as  practicable,  a  separation  of  the  different  metallurgical  operations  per¬ 
formed  in  the  utilization  of  the  ores  extracted  in  the  Harz  Mountains. 


104 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1872. 


This  plan  is  now  nearly  completed.  Claustkal  was  selected  as  the  cen¬ 
tral  works  for  smelting  lead-ores,  Lautentlial  for  desilverizing  the  silver- 
lead,  and  Altenau  for  the  treatment  of  copper-ores  and  products.  Ar¬ 
gentiferous  lead-ores  and  foreign  silver-ores  are  smelted  at  Andreas- 
berg;  the  rich  silver-lead  is  cupelled  ;  the  poor  is  sent  to  Lautentlial. 

238.  Lead-smelting  at  Clausthal.— The  ores  are  composed  of 
galena,  copper  (and  iron)  pyrites,  blende,  and  small  quantitiesof  silver, 
ores.  The  gangue  is  calcit,  quartz,  siderit,  argillaceous  slate,  and  baryte. 
An  average  analysis  presents  the  following  composition  : 

71.  68  per  cent,  sulphide  of  lead. 

0.91  per  cent,  sulphide  of  copper. 

1. 98  per  cent,  sulphide  of  zinc. 

4. 14  per  cent,  carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron. 

o.  ."34  per  cent,  tersulpliide  of  antimony. 

1.41  per  cent,  protosulphide  of  iron. 

0. 113  per  cent,  sulphide  of  silver. 

15.  24  per  cent,  silicic  acid. 

0. 13  per  cent,  alumina. 

2.38  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime. 

1.46  per  cent,  sulphate  of  baryte. 

0.08  percent,  magnesia. 

100.  083 

239.  It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  present  iron-precipita¬ 
tion  process  is  an  important  improvement  on  that  method  as  formerly 
practiced, inasmuch  as  the  first  matte-smelting  has  been  done  away  with, 
and  while  the  quantity  of  basic  copper-slag  added  to  the  charge  is  dimin¬ 
ished,  a  correspondingly  large  quantity  of  roasted  lead-matte  is  charged 
in  its  place.  The  process  is  now  called  the  “  combined  ore  (schlieg)  and 
matte  smelting.”  The  furnaces  for  ore-smelting  are  all  round ;  one 
ltachette  furnace  making  an  exception.  They  all  have  a  fore-hearth, 
(sumpf,)  and  the  slag  runs  continually  from  the  fore-hearth  down  an 
inclined  bank  made  of  brasque  and  sand.  That  portion  of  the  slag 
which  congeals  on  or  near  the  fore-hearth,  is  rich  in  mechanically-mixed 
metals,  and  is  resmelted ;  the  rest  is  thrown  away,  as  it  contains  only 
about  1.5  per  cent.  lead. 

240.  The  charge  and  fuel  (coke)  are  charged  in  alternate  horizontal 
layers.  This  change  has  given  excellent  results,  compared  to  the  old 
method  of  charging  iu  vertical  sections.  Formerly  the  slag  contained 
2  to  3  per  cent,  and  the  matte  15  to  20  per  cent,  lead,  but  at  present  the 
slag  produced  coutaius  only  1  to  2.5  per  cent,  and  the  matte  8  per  cent, 
lead,  and  this  matte  coutaius  so  little  lead  that  it  can  be  roasted  iu 
shaft-furnaces  without  sintering,  as  the  pressure  of  blast  is  not  allowed 
to  exceed  22  millimeters  mercury  column.  The  metallic  volatilization 
aud  the  formation  of  salamanders  is  favorably  reduced. 


LEAD-SMELTING  WORKS  AT  CLAUSTHAL. 


105 


Dr.  Wedding  gives  the  average  charge  for  1871  as — 

1,  000  kilograms  ore. 

650  kilograms  copper-slag  from  Lower  Harz. 

510  kilograms  roasted  matte. 

12. 1  kilograms  sweepings. 

10.  5  kilograms  fumes. 

5.  5  kilograms  lead-flux. 

20  kilograms  copper-slag  from  black  copper  smelting. 

430  kilograms  rich  slag  from  matte-smelting. 

470  kilograms  slag  from  same  operation. 

3, 108. 1  kilograms. 

241.  The  consumption  of  fuel  per  1,000  kilograms  ore,  including  the 
powdered  charcoal  for  brasque  and  charcoal  used  in  blowiug  in  the  fur¬ 
nace,  was  451.7  kilograms  coke  and  25.5  kilograms  charcoal.  The  re¬ 
sult  per  1,000  kilograms  ore  is,  a,  587.7  kilograms  silver-lead,  and  b,  760.9 
kilograms  matte,  510  kilograms  of  which  are  roasted  and  added  to  the 
next  charge.  The  charge  in  the  autumn  of  1S73  was  composed  of  100 
kilograms  ore  ;  94  kilograms  copper-slag  ;  30  kilograms  roasted  matte  ; 
44  kilograms  slag  from  same  operation  ;  25  kilograms  slag  from  matte¬ 
smelting;  2  kilograms  lead-flux;  89  kilograms  coke. 

The  following  are  the  average  analyses  of  the  products  from  the  above 
charge : 


Silver-lead. 

Matte. 

Slag. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Lead . 

.  98.970 

Sulphur . 

29.  55 

Silicic  acid  . . 

.  43.60 

Antimony  . . . 

.  0. 618 

Iron . 

55.  72 

Alumina  .... 

•.  15.50 

Copper  . 

.  0. 275 

Lead . .  . 

7.98 

Iron  protoxide  31.  68 

Silver . 

.  0. 127 

Copper . 

4.  39 

Lime . 

.  6. 50 

Zinc . 

.  0. 008 

Zinc . 

1.12 

Magnesia . . . . 

.  1.56 

Iron . 

.  0. 002 

Silver . 

0.  03 

Lead  oxide  . . 

.  0. 70 

Antimony  .... 

0.  35 

Silver . 

.  0. 008 

100 

99. 14 

99. 548 

The  slag  is  added  to  the  charge  of  ore  and  matte  smeltings.  The  sil¬ 
ver-lead  is  sent  to  Lautenthal  for  desilverization.  The  matte  is  broken 
and  repeatedly  roasted  in  free  heaps  until  it  contains  about  5  to  7  per 
cent,  sulphur.  That  small  portion  of  the  roasted  matte  which  is  not 
added  to  the  charge  of  smelting  is  smelted  in  low  shaft-furnaces,  with 
slag  from  the  ore-smelting  and  a  small  quantity  of  iron.  The  products 
are :  a.  Silver-lead.  This  is  on  account  of  a  large  percentage  of  copper, 
which  disqualifies  it  for  the  zinc-desilverization  process,  cupelled  at 
Clausthal.  b.  Copper-matte,  containing  12  per  cent,  of  copper  and  0.02 


106 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


to  0.03  per  cent.  =  5  oz.  1G  dwt.  14.4  gr.  to  IS  oz.  14  dwt.  19  gr.  silver ;  this 
is  equal  in  quantity  to  about  one  third  of  the  lead-matte  which  was 
charged,  c.  Slag,  having  the  following  composition  : 


Per  cent. 

Silicic  acid .  29.25 

Alumina .  13.  95 

Iron  protoxide .  . . .  48.  GO 

Lime .  5.85 

Magnesia .  0.  71 

Lead  oxide . .  0. 57 

Copper  oxide .  0. 10 

Silver .  0.  OOOGG 


Total .  99.030GG 


The  copper-matte  is  broken,  roasted  in  free  heaps,  and  smelted  for 
black  copper  in  a  spectacle-furnace,  with  slag  from  the  smelting  of 
pyritous  ores,  whereby  the  greater  part  of  the  iron  sesquioxide  and 
oxides  of  other  base  metals  are  slagged,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  cop¬ 
per  oxide  reduced  to  black  copper.  The  larger  part  combines  with  sul¬ 
phur,  which  is  reduced  from  sulphate  salts  and  forms  the  matte.  Lead 
actsdn  a  similar  manner,  a  part  taking  up  silver  and  forms  silver-lead. 
The  silver  also  enters  the  black  copper  and  copper-matte.  The  black 
copper,  containing  small  quantities  of  lead  and  silver,  is  sent  to  Altenau 
for  desilverization.  The  copper-matte,  containing  from  24  to  40  per  cent, 
copper,  is  repeatedly  roasted,  and  smelted  as  above.  The  slag,  contain¬ 
ing  0.5  to  1.0  copper,  is  added  to  the  charge  in  the  ore  smelting. 

242.  There  are  at  present  employed  in  Clausthal : 

Tuyeres.  Capacity  in  24  hours. 

1  round  free-standing  furnace .  8  13, 500  kilograms' charge. 


1  round  free-standing  furnace . 

.  4 

9,  000 

U 

a 

8  round  lvast  furnaces  . 

4 

7,  500 

u 

U, 

4  round  lvast,  being  altered  to  lta- 

chette  furnaces . 

5 

7, 500 

u 

It 

1  Kaehette  furnace . 

.  12 

11,000 

a 

U 

2  low  shaft-furnaces . 

.  3 

3,  750 

u 

iL 

1  spectacle-furnace . 

9 

2, 500 

a 

it 

Total . 

54, 750 

u 

it 

243.  Altenau. — The  treatment  of  copper-ores  and  products  form  the 
basis  of  the  process  at  Altenau.  But  a  small  quantity  of  lead-ore  is 
smelted.*  The  former  principally  consists  of  copper  pyrites,  and  are  of 
secondary  importance;  they  are  ouly  produced  in  small  quantities,  and 
eontaiu  such  a  small  amount  of  silver  that  they  could  not  be  treated  with 
profit  alone,  according  to  the  German  metallurgical  copper  process.  The 
resulting  copper  from  this  process  contains  from  0.005  to  0.017  percent, 
silver  (1  oz.  9  dwt.  3.84  gr.  to  4  oz.  19  dwt.  0.48  gr.  per  ton)  when  sent  to 

’  Herrn  Kiihleman's  communication  in  the  Pr  issisch'  Zeitscrift  is  freely  used  in  treat¬ 
ing  of  the  Altenau  process. 


LEAD-SMELTING  AT  ALTENAU. 


107 


market.  The  lead-ores  principally  consist  of  argentiferous  galena,  which 
is  associated  with  small  quantities  of  siderite,  zinc-blende,  copper  pyrites, 
iron  pyrites,  and  tetrahedrite. 

An  average  lead-ore  mixture  in  1809  contained — 

Per  cent. 

Lead . . .  63. 320 

Silver .  0. 096 

Copper .  0.  750 

241.  The  lead-ore  is  smelted  according  to  the  iron-reduction  process. 
It  is  conducted  entirely  in  Eachette  furnaces  since  1804,  and  in  the 
same  manner  as  at  Clausthal;  the  charge  is  varied  only  on  account  of 
bases  or  acids  in  the  ore,  &c. 

245.  The  products  of  the  operation  of  ore-smelting  are :  u,  silver -lead  ; 
b,  slag ;  and  c,  lead-matte.  The  silver-lead  contains,  on  an  average,  0.13 
per  cent.  =  37  oz.  16  dwt.  19.2  gr.  silver,  and  is  sent  to  Lauteuthal  for 
desilverization  by  means  of  zinc.  The  slag  contains  from  f  to  1  per 
cent. lead  and  0.000S7  per  cent,  silver,  (5  dwt.;)  part  of  it  is  thrown  away, 
and  a  part  is  used  over  again  in  the  same  operation  as  flux.  The  lead- 
matte  contains,  from  the  period  1S66  to  1869,  when  slag  from  ocher  was 
used  entirely  as  a  precipitating  medium,  the  following  amount  of — 

Per  cent. 

Lead . . - .  11.5 

Copper . .  4.0 

Silver .  0.034 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  combined  ore  and  matte  smelting,  the  per¬ 
centage  of  copper  has  increased  and  that  of  the  lead  decreased. 

a.  Lead-matte  from  smelting  with  copper-slag  from  ocher  toward  the 
close  of  1866,  Dr.  Streng  analyst. 

b.  Lead-matte  from  combined  ore  and  matte  smelting,  Herr  Hill- 
grist  analyst. 


a. 

b. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Lead . 

.  10. 88 

11.5 

Copper . 

.  3. 83 

5.2 

Silver . 

.  0. 03 

0.  033 

Iron  . . 

.  55. 90 

57.2 

Zinc . 

.  1. 13 

Not  determined. 

Antimony . 

.  0. 27 

Not  determined. 

Sulphur . 

.  26. 67 

22.3 

246.  The  lead-matte  is  roasted  twice  in  shaft-roasting  furnaces,  3  to 
3.5  meters  high  and  1.17  by  1.46  meters  wide,  during  which  operation  it. 
loses  all  its  sulphur  to  within  7  per  cent.  The  sulphurous  acid  is  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid. 

The  roasted  lead-matte  is  further  treated  in  the  older  matte-smelt¬ 
ing  blast-furnaces,  which  are  2 £  meters  high,  also  in  the  old  ore-smelting* 
blast-furnace  having  one  tuyere  and  which  are  6  meters  high.  The 


108 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873.. 


smelting  is  conducted  with  a  nose,  and  ore-slag  is  used  for  dux.  Coke 
is  the  fuel  used. 

247.  The  products  of  this  operation  are  «,  silver-lead;  b ,  slag;  and  c, 
lead-matte.  The  silver-lead  contains  0.19  per  cent. =55  oz.  G  dwt.  19.2  gr. 
silver,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  copper  is  directly  cupelled.  The 
matte-slag,  containing  2  per  cent,  lead  and  0.002  per  cent.  =  11  dwt. 
15.84  gr.  silver,  is  used  in  other  operations  as  a  dux,  especially  in  the 
operation  of  ore-smelting.  The  lead-matte,  which,  has  become  much 
poorer  in  lead  and  richer  in  copper  is  resmelted  in  the  same  furnace. 

248.  In  this  second  treatment  of  the  lead-matte  the  same  products 
again  result;  the  matte,  however,  is  much  richer  in  copper.  As  soon 
as  it  contains  20  per  cent,  of  copper  by  further  smelting,  it  is  delivered 
over  to  the  operation  of  the  smelting  of  copper-products,  ( Kriitz  lup- 
/era  r  belt.) 

249.  Formerly  from  three  to  four  smeltings  were  necessary  to  concen¬ 
trate  the  matte  up  to  20  per  cent,  copper,  but  since  the  ore-smelting 
has  been  conducted  in  ltachette  furnaces,  with  slags  rich  in  iron  as 
fluxing  material,  only  two  smeltings  of  the  matte  were  necessary;  and 
since  the  adoption  of  the  combined  ore  and  matte  smelting,  only  one 
sinhlting  has  been  necessary. 

The  average  contents  of  lead-matte  in  1SG9  from  the  first  smelting 
was  in — 

Per  cent. 

Silver .  0.043 

Lead .  10.000 

Copper .  11.000 


From  second  smelting: 


Silver . 
Lead.. 
Copper 


Per  ceut. 

0.  05G 
10.  000 
21.000 


That  produced  in  1870  from  first  concentration  contained — 

Per  cent. 

Silver .  0.  057 

Lead .  15.  000 

Copper .  14.000 

In  smeltiug  the  matte  a  large  amount  of  products  resulting  from 
other  manipulations  are  always  added  to  the  charge,  such  as  furnace- 
fumes,  furnace  dross,  slimes,  argentiferous  and  cupriferous  dross,  refining- 
dross,  lead-scraps,  aud  slag  containing  lead  oxide  from  the  operation  of 
litharge-reduction. 

250.  Treatment  of  copper-products. — The  matte  now  containing  about 
20  per  ceut.  copper  is  subjected  to  this  operation,  which  has  for  its  sole 


TREATMENT  OF  COPPER-PRODUCTS. 


109 


object  the  extraction  of  the  silver  and  copper  from  the  matte.  Formerly 
the  matte  contained  on  an  average — 

Per  cent. 


Copper . 

Silver . 

Lead . 

Iron,  about. . . . 
Sulphur,  about 


20  to  22 
0.  035  to  0.  055 
9  to  10 
40 
20 


The  matte  produced  at  present  from  one  smelting  contains — 


Per  cent. 

Sulphur . 21.6 

Iron .  39.  2 

Copper . . . .  13.  7 

Lead . 15.0 

Silver .  0.  057 


251.  The  copper-matte  is  roasted  several  times  and  then  fused  for 
black  copper.  Although  it  has  been  proved  by  experiment  that  this 
matte  can  be  well  roasted  in  furnaces,  it  is  not  desirable  to  do  so,  as 
the  roasting-furnaces  are  all  in  use  for  roasting  the  lead-matte,  and  these 
supply  the  sulphuric-acid  chambers  with  a  sufficiency  of  sulphurous 
acid ;  so  all  copper-matte  is  at  present  roasted  in  heaps  under  cover. 
The  heaps  must  be  turned  seven  or  eight  times  in  order  to  effect  a 
proper  roasting  of  the  matte.  This  requires  from  five  to  six  weeks.  The 
sulphur  is  reduced  from  20  per  cent,  to  6  or  8  per  cent. 

252.  The  roasted  copper-matte  is  fluxed  with  slag  from  the  smelting 
of  copper  pyrites  and  smelted  in  blast-furnaces.  The  blast-furnaces  are 
3.22  meters  high,  have  a  width  of  0.88  by  1.02  meters,  and  have  one 
tuyere  only.  About  4,500  kilograms  of  copper-matte  ore  are  smelted 
in  twenty-four  hours.  The  campaign  lasts  about  one  month. 

a,  Silver-lead ;  b,  black  copper ;  c,  copper-matte ;  and  d,  slag,  are  the 
resulting  products  of  the  first  copper-matte  smelting. 

The  black  copper  resulting  from  the  first  smelting  is  a  very  impure 
product ;  it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  lead  and  also  silver.  It  is 
mixed  with  the  black  copper  produced  from  the  next  smelting  and 
smelted  with  it,  in  the  following  manipulation.  The  copper-matte  con¬ 
tains  : 

Per  cent. 


Copper . . . . . . .  40.  00 

Iron . . . . . , .  30.  00 

Sulphur . . . . .  20.00 

Silver . . .  0. 08 


253.  The  matte  is  again  roasted  several  times  and  re-smelted  in  shaft- 
furnaces,  whereby  the  same  products  are  produced  as  before. 

The  following  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  mattes  are  heated  in  the  same 


110 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  Ifc73. 


maimer — black  copper  always  being  produced,  while  the  copper-matte 
becomes  richer  in  copper  and  poorer  in  iron. 

The  copper-matte  smelting  from  the  fifth  smelting  is  not  further 
treated  until  the  following  year,  as  only  a  small  quantity  is  produced. 
Five  separate  smeltings,  accompanied  with  repeated  roasting,  are  neces¬ 
sary  to  extract  the  copper  from  the  copper-matte  containing  20  per 
cent,  of  copper  in  the  form  of  black  copper.  The  average  amount  of 
flux  employed  in  the  five  smeltings  per  100  cwt.  of  copper-matte  is  73 
cwt.  of  slag  from  the  operation  of  pyrites-smelting,  and  20  cwt.  of  slag 
from  the  same  operation. 

23-4.  Analyses  of  slags  from  the  smelting  of  copper-products  :  a,  slag 
from  first  smelting  of  the  concentrated  matte,  or  second  smeltiug  of 
copper-matte,  by  Hahn;  b,  slag  from  third  smelting  of  copper-matte, 
Werlisch ;  c,  slag  from  fourth  smeltiug  of  copper-matte,  by  Hahn ;  d, 
slag  from  fifth  smelting  of  copper-matte,  by  Werlisch. 


abed 

- - J 


Per  cent,  Per  cent.  Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Silicic  acid  .  87. 365  33. 201  29. 099  30.  994 

Antimony  oxide .  U.  977  o.  23.7  0.254  u.  196 

Iron  protoxide  .  .  54.277  55.915  CO.  513  56.605 

Copper  protoxide .  1.4O0  0.692  2.067  0.933 

Lead  oxide . . .  4.771  2.180  0.431  0.021 

I.lme .  4.105  3.763  1.475  4.314 

Majjneela .  0.  565  0. 594  0. 568  0. 253 

Alumina .  6.496  4.366  4.275  5.732 


Such  slag  as  contains  entangled  matte  is  only  employed  again  as  a 
(lux  in  the  operation  of  copper-matte  smelting;  the  remainder  is  used 
in  the  ore-smelting,  where  it  performs  the  same  service  as  the  slags  from 
Oker. 

235.  The  following  are  analyses  of  the  copper-matte  resulting  from  the 
various  smeltings:  a,  matte  from  first  smelting,  by  TTillegeist;  b.  matte 
from  second  smeltiug,  by  Hahn  :  c,  matte  from  third  smelting,  by 
Werlisch  ;  <1 ,  matte  from  fourth  smelting,  by  Hahn  :  c,  matte  from  fifth 
smelting,  by  Werlisch. 


a 

6 

c 

d 

e 

Per  cent. 

Sulphur .  21. 000 

Antimony .  0.200 

Copper .  37. 000 

Lead . *. .  13.000 

Per  cent 
19. 96? 
0.  444 

6.  122 
63.916 
7.266 

Per  cent. 
17.  668 
L  012 
8.  63? 
72.  743 
0.641 

. 

Per  cent. 
18. 156 
0:  464 
0. 993 
60.774 

Per  cent 
19.  667 
0.211 
1.  062 
80.  .322 

230.  Refining  of  the  black  copper. — Before  the  black  copper  obtained 
from  the  foregoing  operation  is  desilverized,  it  undergoes  a  process  of 
oxidiziug-smelting.  in  order  to  free  it  from  its  foreign  elements.  The 
black  copper  obtained  from  all  five  smeltings  is  so  mixed,  that  the 


REFINING  BLACK  COPPER. 


Ill 


charge  will  contain  about  0.16  to  0.20  per  cent.  =  46  oz.  12  dwt.  to  58 
oz.  6  dwt.  silver,  and  80  to  83  per  cent,  copper.  The  operation  is  con¬ 
ducted  in  a  large  retiningfur-nace.  The  hearth  is  round,  and  has  a 
diameter  of  2.92  meters;  it  is  composed  of  brasque  and  pulverized 
argillaceous  slate. 

257.  A  charge  consists  of  45  to  48  cwt. ;  wood  was  formerly  used  as 
fuel,  but  at  present,  bituminous  coal  is  also  made  use  of,  with  the  em¬ 
ployment  of  blast  under  the  tire-grate.  About  five  hours  are  necessary 
to  melt  the  black  copper,  and  after  the  slag  has  been  removed,  the  blast 
is  turned  on.  At  first  only  a  small  pressure  is  used,  but  after  about 
two  hours  it  is  increased,  so  that  7£  cubic  meters  pass  into  the  furnace 

I  per  minute.  The  impurities  contained  in  the  black  copper  are  elimi¬ 
nated  by  the  oxidizing  influence  of  the  blast.  The  entire  process  lasts 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  hours.  The  copper  is  immediately  granulated 
when  tapped  from  the  furnace.  It  contains  from  91  to  97  per  cent, 
copper  and  0.20  to  0.40  per  cent.  =  58  oz.  6  dwt.  to  116  oz.  12  dwt. 
silver. 

258.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  refined  copper: 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Iron . 

.  0.070 

Silver . 

.  0. 300 

Lead . 

.  2.710 

Copper . 

.  95. 000 

Nickel  ^ 

Antimony . 

.  1. 530 

Col  alt  > . 

jZinc  J 

.  0.048 

Arsenic . . . . 

The  resulting  slags  are  of  two  kinds;  that  which  is  formed  during 
;  the  first  part  of  the  process  is  only  a  partially-melted  mass;  it  is  rich 
in  iron,  cobalt,  and  nickel-oxide;  the  other  which  forms  during  the  lat¬ 
ter  part  of  the  process,  is  thin  fluid,  and  rich  in  lead.  As  their  further 
manipulation  is  different,  they  are  kept  separate.  The  small  amount 
of  slag  obtained  of  the  first  sort,  is  smelted  with  arsenical  pyrites  and 
baryte  for  nickel  speiss.  It  is  sold  in  this  state.  The  other  slag  is 
smelted  with  slag  from  the  matte-smelting  in  blast-furnaces;  black  cop¬ 
per,  rich  in  lead  and  silver,  and  slag  rich  in  copper  and  lead,  are  the 
resulting  products.  Some  silver-lead  is  obtained  from  the  black  copper 

ii  by  its  liquation.  This  silver-lead  contains  on  an  average  0.0775  per 
I  cent.  =22  oz.  11  dwt.  22.46  gr.  silver  and  many  impurities.  The  liqua¬ 
ted  copper  still  contains  much  lead,  and  is  refined  in  the  same  manner 
{  as  the  original  copper.  The  resulting  granulated  copper  is  much 

I  poorer  and  impurer  than  that  obtained  from  the  original  copper, 
j  and  contains  43  oz.  14  dwt.  silver  and  90  to  93  per  cent,  copper.  The 
resulting  slags  are  much  richer  in  nickel  and  cobalt  than  the  other 
slag  from  the  main  operation  ;  they  are  smelted  for  nickel  speiss. 

259.  The  slags  from  the  operation  of  slag-smelting  in  the  litharge- 
reduction  furnaces,  containing  about  5  per  cent,  copper,  from  6  to  10  per 

[cent,  lead,  and  0.00125  per  cent.  =  7  dwt.  silver,  are  charged  in  with 
the  lead-ore  smelting  charge  for  the  extraction  of  their  metallic  con- 


112 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


tents.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  last  slags  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  analyses  :  a,  slag  from  slag-smelting,  by  Hahn ;  Z/,  slag 
formed  during  the  first  period  of  the  operation  of  refining  the  copper 
resulting  from  slag-smelting,  by  Werliscb ;  c,  slag  from  second  period 
of  same  operation. 


a 

b 

e 

Silicic  aciil . 

Per  cent. 
30. 5^4 

Per  cent. 
11.  767 

Per  cent 
20.811 

Autiiuonious  acid . 

Irou  protoxide . . . 

0.092 
33.  918 
1.756 
10.  971 

1 

1.671 

1.  087 
1.370 
9.302 

...do  .... 
...do  ... 
11.811 
37.693 

f  28.872 
i  1.556 

0.123 
0. 130 

1.  019 

0. 177 
2.677 
6.  222 
60.930 

J  1.216 

0.  560 
0.  356 
6. 068 
0.  431 

Lead  oxide . . 

Xickel  protoxide . 

Cobalt  protoxide . 

Zinc  oxide . . . 

Alauj'aneise  protoxide . 

. . . 

Alumina . 

99.  751 

99.  501  99. 118 

261).  Extraction  of  a  liter  from  copper,  and  manufacture  of  vitriol. — 
Aftt/r  the  black  copper  has  been  refined  and  granulated,  it  is  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid  for  the  purpose  of  its  desilverization,  whereby  cop¬ 
per-vitriol  is  also  produced.  There  are  two  establishments  at  Altenau 
for  the  manufacture  of  vitriol ;  one  was  built  in  1864,  the  other  in  1868. 

The  older  has  three  dissolving-vessels  and  one  evaporating-pan;  the 
new  has  six  dissolving-vessels  and  two  evaporating-pans.  The  dissolv¬ 
ing-vessels  are  of  wood  lined  with  sheet-lead.  They  are  1.02  meters 
square  and  1.17  meters  high.  They  have  a  double  bottom.  The  upper 
or  false  bottom  is  perforated  with  holes  0.025  meter  in  diameter. 

261.  When  the  dissolving-boxes  are  charged  with  copper,  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  charge,  in  large  pieces,  is  laid  on  the  false  bottom,  and  on 
the  top  of  this  the  small  copper  granules  ;  the  charge  is  1,000  kilograms, 
and  is  about  1  meter  high :  care  being  taken  that  the  granules  shall 
not  be  so  densely  packed  that  the  air  will  not  be  able  to  circulate. 
As  soon  as  the  pile,  through  dissolving,  has  sunk  0.24  meter,  fresh 
quantities  of  copper  are  added;  which  is  done  two  or  three  times 
a  week.  The  consumption  of  sulphuric  acid  is  150  to  175  kilograms  in 
twenty -four  hours.  The  boxes  are  cleaned  every  eight  to  thirteen 
weeks.  The  granules  are  heated  by  the  dissolving  solution,  which  mate¬ 
rially  aids  the  oxidization.  The  temperature  of  the  acid  is  important. 
If  it  is  too  high,  silver  is  dissolved ;  if  too  low,  the  process  is  retarded. 
The  solution  from  the  dissolving- vessels  should  not  be  clear,  which  would 
show  that  the  silver  also  is  dissolved.  Above  the  dissolving-vessels 
there  is  a  sulphuric-acid  reservoir.  The  raw  sulphuric  acid  from  the 
lead-chambers  is  conducted  in  the  large  reservoir,  and  superheated 
steam  is  led  iuto  the  acid,  whereby  it  is  heated  to  65°  lb,  and  at  the 
same  time  diluted  to  26°  B.  It  is  afterward  changed  to  32°  B.,  by  add- 


VITRIOL  MANUFACTURE. 


113 


ing  the  acid  solution  from  the  crystallization  vessels.  The  sulphuric 
acid  employed  is  48°  to  50°  JB.  strong’,  and  is  manufactured  at  Altenau. 
Each  dissolving-vessel  communicates  with  the  sulphuric-acid  reservoir 
by  means  of  a  movable  siphon.  Every  half  hour  the  copper  granules 
in  the  dissolving- vessel  are  washed  with  sulphuric  acid  from  the  reser¬ 
voir  by  means  of  the  siphon.  The  acid  flows  off  rapidly  ;  the  oxide 
thereby  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  granules  are  washed  off  by  the 
next  addition  of  acid  with  the  argentiferous  slime. 

The  copper-vitriol  solutiou  escaping  from  the  dissolving-vessels  flows 
through  troughs  into  a  large  basin  and  from  this  into  a  system  of  open 
troughs,  which  again  lead  to  another  large  basin.  The  solutiou,  which 
at  first  is  warm,  partially  evaporates  while  circulating  in  the  troughs, 
and  most  of  the  copper-vitriol  crystallizes  upon  the  sides  and  bottom. 
The  crystals  with  the  argentiferous  slimes  adhering  to  them  are  removed 
and  placed  upon  boards  as  soon  as  the  troughs  become  filled. 

The  mother-solution  running  off  is  collected  in  a  basin  at  the  end  of 
the  system,  and  is  again  used  for  dissolving  the  copper-granules,  as  it 
is  very  acid.  For  this  purpose  it  is  forced  up  into  the  sulphuric-acid 
reservoir  by  means  of  a  Giffard  injector. 

The  raw  crystals  are  dissolved  in  pans.  The  pans  are  of  lead,  3.12  by 
3.51  meters  wide  and  0.61  meter  deep.  They  are  heated  by  means  of 
a  Fairbairn  smoke-consuming  fire-place.  Bituminous  coal  serves  as 
fuel.  Pure  water  is  only  partially  used  for  dissolving  the  raw  vitriol, 
the  mother-liquid  from  the  latter  crystallization  being  principally  em¬ 
ployed.  The  pans  are  filled  0.25  meter  high  with  mother-liquid,  0.10 
meter  high  with  water,  and  heated  for  13  hours,  whereby  the  fluid  must 
reach  a  temperature  of  75°  or  80°  B.  Eaw  crystals  are  then  placed 
within  the  pans  until  the  solution  reaches  28°  B.  It  takes  about  10  per 
cent,  vitriol  to  produce  this  effect.  A  small  amount  of  copper-granules 
are  placed  upon  the  bottom  of  the  pan ;  about  1|  pounds  of  finely-pul¬ 
verized  copper  and  ^  pound  salt  is  strewn  over  the  surface  of  the  solu¬ 
tion  in  order  to  precipitate  any  silver  which  may  have  been  dissolved 
by  the  sulphuric  acid  or  nitric  acid  which  may  have  been  contained  in 
the  unrefined  sulphuric  acid. 

262.  The  solution  is  then  allowed  to  stand  for  eleven  hours  without 
further  heating,  after  which  it  is  drawn  off  into  crystallizing-tanks  by 
means  of  a  siphon.  Since  1869  it  has  been  filtered  through  granulated 
lead,  and  since  1870  also  through  granulated  copper,  in  order  to  free  it 
from  any  floating  argentiferous  slime,  and  also  to  precipitate  the  last 
traces  of  silver.  As  soon  as  the  granulated  lead  and  copper  contain 
about  1  per  cent,  silver,  the  filters  are  renewed.  It  takes  about  one  and 
a  half  months  before  the  granules  become  this  rich  in  silver.  From  3 
to  4  per  cent,  more  silver  is  obtained  by  the  employment  of  these  filters 
than  before  they  came  into  use.  The  loss  ot  silver  in  this  process  has 
been  by  this  improvement  reduced  to  2  per  cent. 

The  crystallizing-tanks  are  made  of  wood,  lined  on  the  inside  .with 
8  M 


114 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673.. 


sheet-lead.  They  are  3  meters  long,  1.37  meters  wide,  and  1.10  meters 
deep,  and  have  a  capacity  of  4  cubic  meters,  which  corresponds  to  that 
of  an  evaporptiug-pan.  From  120  to  150  lead  strips  are  hang  in  each 
crystallizing-tank,  upon  which  the  crystals  form.  The  first  crystals  gen¬ 
erally  form  after  about  two  days.  In  order  to  produce  large  crystals, 
the  strips,  which  are  already  covered  with  crystals,  are  hung  in  the 
solution  several  times.  Small  crystals  are  always  formed  on  the  bottom 
of  the  tanks,  but  as  they  are  always  impure  they  are  put  back  into  the 
raw  solution. 

203.  After  the  close  of  the  crystallization  process,  the  crystals  are 
removed  from  oft’  the  lead  strips  and  then  placed  upon  an  inclined  table, 
where  they  drain  off;  they  are  then  packed  and  ready  for  market.  The 
remaining  mother-liquid  is  then  tapped  off  into  a  basin,  from  which  it  is 
forced  up  into  the  evaporating-pans  by  a  Giflard  injection,  and  used 
again  for  dissolving  the  raw  vitriol.  The  copper-vitriol  of  Altenau  is 
distinguished  for  its  purity,  as  may  be  perceived  by  the  following  analy¬ 


sis  : 

Per  cent. 

Iron . 0.0107 

Antjmony .  0.0123 

Arsenic . - .  0. 0004 

Zinc .  Trace. 

Nickel .  Trace. 

Silver . 0.0000 


0. 0300 

The  remaining  argentiferous  slime  from  the  vitriol  solution,  after  it 
has  been  drawn  off  into  the  evaporating-pans,  is  conducted  to  special 
boxes  and  well  washed.  The  wash-water  goes  with  the  mother-liquids 
into  the  evaporating-pans.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  argen¬ 


tiferous  slime : 

Fer  cent. 

Silver .  .  3. 100 

Gold .  0. 004 

Copper,  (partly  as  Cu  O  SO.i  +  5  Fbo.) .  7. 150 

Lead,  (50. 44  per  cent.  Fbo  S03) .  34.  4G0 

Antimony,  (17.  00  per  cent.  Sb  03) .  14.330 

Arsenic .  3. 150 

Sulphuric  acid .  10.  G70 


2G4.  The  argentiferous  slime  while  still  moist  is  mixed  with  equal 
weight  of  litharge,  formed  into  balls,  dried  and  then  subjected  to  a  re- 
ducing-smelting  in  a  litharge-reduction  blast-furnace,  with  a  flux  of  slag 
from  ore  and  matte  smelting.  The  resulting  products  are  silver-lead, 
slag,  rich  in  lead,  aud  a  matter  rich  in  silver. 

2G5.  The  silver-lead  contaiuiug  1.50  per  cent,  to  1.90  per  cent.  = 
437  oz.  to  554  oz.  silver,  is  cupelled.  The  resulting  silver,  however, 


ANDREASBERG  PROCESSES. 


115 


contains  more  copper  than  that  from  the  lead-smelting.  It  is  sent  to 
Lautenthal  for  refining.  The  litharge  is  again  used  for  mixing  with  the 
argentiferous  slimes.  The  slag,  containing  17  to  20  per  cent,  lead  and 
0.004  to  0.010  per  cent.  =  6  oz.  3  dwt.  7.GS  gr.  to  2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.8  gr.  sil¬ 
ver,  is  added  to  the  lead-matte  smelting-charge. 

The  matte  rich  in  silver  is  formed,  as  the  argentiferous  slimes  contain 
much  copper  ;  a  part  of  the  sulphuric  acid,  which  it  also  contains,  is  re¬ 
duced  to  sulphur  and  this  combines  with  the  copper,  the  result  being  a 
matte.  It  contains  about  0.37  to  0.70  per  cent.  =  107  oz.  17  dwt.  to  204 
oz.  2  dwt.  silver,  12  per  cent,  lead,  30  per  cent,  copper,  and  much  anti¬ 
mony  and  arsenic.  The  formation  of  the  product  is  not  wished.  Tor 
its  further  manipulation  it  is  smelted  with  metallic  iron,  and  tbe  result 
ing  products  are  silver  lead,  containing  about  1.13  per  cent.  =  328  oz. 
17  dwt.  silver,  slag  carrying  5  to  6  per  cent,  lead,  and  0.003  per  cent.  = 
17  dwt.  11.52  gr.  per  ton,  aud  copper-matte  with  38  per  cent,  copper,  0.3 
per  cent,  silver,  (87  oz.  8  dwt.  14  gr.  per  ton,)  aud  12  per  cent.  lead.  The 
silver-lead  is  cupelled,  the  slag  is  used  as  a  flux  by  the  reduction  of  the 
argentiferous  slimes,  and  the  copper-matte  collected  until  there  is  a  suf¬ 
ficient  quantity  for  its  further  treatment. 

260.  The  annual  production  of  copper-vitriol  at  Alteuau  is  450,000 
kilograms. 

267.  Andreasberg. — Foreign  silver-ores  (Mexican)  are  the  principal 
subjects  of  the  Andreasberg  metallurgical  processes,  as  the  silver  aud 
lead  ores  from  the  neighboring  mines,  and  the  old  slags,  containing 
small  quantities  of  lead  and  silver,  form  but  a  small  proportion  of  the 
material  treated.  The  ores  have  a  very  varied  composition  aud  are 
mostly  of  a  rebellious  nature.  The  local  ores  are  galena,  with  small 
quantities  of  silver  mineral,  copper  aud  iron  pyrites,  blende  tetrahedrite 
aud  bournonite,  calcite,  quartz,  and  argillaceous  slate.  The  ores  were 
formerly  roasted  in  free  heaps,  but  are  now  roasted  in  reverberatory 
furnaces  which  are  connected  with  a  system  of  condensation-chambers. 

268.  The  smelting  processes  are  divided  into  two  classes  :  the  first  is 
for  the  ores  which  contain  gold,  the  second  is  for  ores  which  are  free 
from  gold.  The  composition  of  the  charge  is  almost  constantly  changed, 
which  is  owing  to  the  varying  nature  of  the  ores.  The  gangue,  as  a 
rule,  is  very  difficult  to  fuse,  and  demands  a  large  amount  of  flux.  For 
this  purpose  slag  from  the  ore-smelting  is  added.  That  portion  is  taken 
which  is  the  richest  in  lead,  silver,  and  gold.  This  slag  has  the  follow¬ 
ing  composition  :* 


Iron  protoxide 
Silicic  acid . . . 

Alumina . 

Lime . 

Magnesia  .... 


.  13.7 

24.  7 

.  42.5 

40.9 

.  19.5 

15.3 

.  12.6 

8.8 

.  7.  1 

6.  6 

*  The  data  for  Andreasberg  are  mostly  from  Dr.  Wedding’s  communication  in  the 
Preusaiache  Zcitsthrift. 


116 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


0.27 

1.2  1.25 

0.  0025  0.  003 

00.  0025  97.  S23 

It  lias  been  observed  that  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  gold  in  com¬ 
parison  to  the  silver  enters  the  slag  and  matte.  The  charge  for  the  first 
and  second  classes  of  ores,  respectively,  averages — 

1.  2. 
Kilograms.  Kilograms. 


Ore .  100  100 

Lead -tlux . 75  50 

Slag  from  ore  smelting . 287  211 

Slag  from  the  Lower  Ilarz .  20  48 

Roasted  lead-matte .  29  31 

1  kilogram  coke  carries .  7. 4  7. 

The  round  furnace  smelts  in  twenty-four  hours.. ..  0,  GOO  G,  G50 


The  Raclietto  furnace  is  sometimes  used  for  ore-smelting.  Thequan. 
tity  of  lead-flux  is  dependent  upon  the  percentage  of  silver  in  the  ore. 
In  this  connection  the  following  rule  is  observed: 

Lead  flux  is  added  to  the  charge,  in  which  the  ore  contains  from  0.2 
per  cent. =58.3  oz.  to  0.5  per  ceut.=145.S  oz.  silver;  silver-lead  produced 
contains  0.5  per  cent.  =  145.8  oz.  silver;  from  0.5  per  cent.  =  145.8  oz.  to 
1  per  cent. =291  oz.  silver,  silver-lead  produced  contains  1  per  cent.= 
291  oz.  silver;  from  0.5  per  cent. =145.8 oz.  to  1  per  cent.=291oz.  silver, 
silver-lead  produced  contains  from  1  per  cent. =291  oz.  to  2  per  cent.= 
583  oz.  silver. 

It  is  here  apparent  that  the  principle  always  kept  in  view  is,  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  lead  in  proportion  to  the  silver  put  in  the  charge 
the  less  silver  is  slagged  or  absorbed  by  the  intermediate  products  ;  but 
the  lead  loses  through  volatilization,  &c.,  and  the  consumption  of  fuel 
in  smelting  and  desilverizing  the  silver-lead  is  increased. 

269.  The  amount  of  gold  contained  in  the  silver  extracted  directly 
from  the  Mexican  ore,  and  the  by-products  in  treating  the  same,  is  as 
follows :  Silver  extracted  directly  from  the  ore  contains  0.887  per  cent.  = 
259  oz.  15  dwt.  8  gr.,  gold;  silver  extracted  from  lead-matte  contains 
0.140  per  cent.  =  40  oz.  15  dwt.  4.S  gr.  gold;  silver  produced  from 
assaying  slag  from  ore-smelting  contains  0.277  per  cent.  =  80  oz.  14  dwt. 
14.4  gr.  gold ;  silver  extracted  from  fumes  contains  0.3  per  cent.  =  87 
oz.  8  dwt.  14  gr.  gold.  The  silver  extracted  from  Andreasberg  ores, 
and  the  by-products  produced  in  treating  the  same,  contain  the  gold  in 
exactly  an  inverse  ratio.  This  has  been  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  the 
gold  is  very  finely  divided  in  the  Andreasberg  works  when  compared  to 
the  Mexican  ores.  The  following  are  average  assays  :  Silver  extracted 
directly  from  ore  contains  0.018  per  cent.  =  5  oz.  4  dwt.  20.G  gr.  to  0.01  per 
cent.  =  2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.8  gr.  gold ;  silver  extracted  from  lead-matte  con- 


Copper  protoxides 

Lead  oxide . 

Silver. . . . 


ANDREASBERG  PROCESSES. 


117 


tains  0.07  per  cent.  =  20  oz.  8  dwt.  4.8  gr.  to  0.024  per  cent.  =  C  oz.  19 
dwt.  22  gr.  gold ;  silver  produced  from  assaying  slag  from  ore-smelting 
contains  0.1  per  cent.  =  29  oz.  2  dwt.  gold.  The  slag  produced  by  this 
operation  is  added  to  the  charge  for  the  ore  smelting.  The  silver-lead 
containing  less  than  0.5  per  cent.  =  145  oz.  10  dwt.  silver,  is  sent  to 
Lautenthal  for  desilverization.  The  silver-lead  assaying  over  0.5  per 
cent,  silver  is  cupelled. 

270.  Silver-ores  containing  10  per  cent.  =  2,910  oz.  silver,  or  more, 
are  added  in  quantities  of  50  to  100  kilograms  to  about  5,000  kilograms 
silver-lead.  The  silver-lead  is  melted  on  the  cupellation-heartb,  the 
abstrich  drawn  off,  and  the  rich  silver-ore  is  thrown  in  the  metallic  bath 
by  means  of  an  iron  spoon ;  whereupon  the  temperature  is  raised  and 
kept  at  a  high  point  for  about  one  hour.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the 
lead  and  lead-oxide  will  have  absorbed  the  greater  part  of  the  silver. 
The  slag  formed  by  the  gangueof  the  silver-ore  and  lead-oxide  is  drawn 
off  by  means  of  a  piece  of  wood  fastened  at  a  right  angle  on  au  iron 
rod.  The  cupellation  process  is  then  conducted  as  usual. 

271.  The  matte  is  roasted  in  shaft-furnaces,  (kilns,)  whereby  the  con¬ 
tents  of  sulphur  are  reduced  from  23.4  per  cent,  to  5  per  cent.  These 
furnaces,  and  also  the  reverberatory  roasting-furnaces,  are  connected 
with  a  condensation  canal.  The  sides  are  built  of  slag-bricks,  and  are 
covered  with  iron  plates ;  these  are  made  air-tight  by  a  coating  of  tar. 
The  condensed  fumes  consist  chiefly  of  arsenious  and  sulphurous  acid, 
and  contain  0.006  per  cent.  =  1  oz.  14  dwt.  1G.22  gr.  silver,  and  from 
4.2  to  6.6  per  cent.  lead. 

The  charge  for  matte-smelting  is  as  follows  : 


Kilograms. 

Boasted  matte . . .  100 

Lead-flux . * . .  38 

Slag .  170 


One  kilogram  coke  carries  7.7  kilograms  charge;  6,050  kilograms 
charge  are  smelted  in  a  Bacliette  furnace  in  twenty-four  hours. 

The  slag  produced  has  the  following  composition  : 

Per  cent. 


Iron  protoxide . . .  38.  50 

Silicic  acid . . . .  30. 15 

Alumina . .  15.  90 

Lime . - .  10.03 

Magnesia.. .  1-05 

Copper  protoxide . . .  0.  05 

Lead  oxide  . . .  . .  3.  55 

Silver . . .  0.  003 


99. 233 

The  slag  from  the  old  slag-dumps  is  smelted  with  the  slag  produced 
from  day  to  day.  The  slag  produced  by  this  operation  is,  on  account  of 


118 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


a  lack  of  bases  in  tbe  charge,  comparatively  rich  iu  lead  and  silver,  as 
the  annexed  analysis  will  show  : 

Per  cent. 

Silicic  acid . . .  47.  75 


Iron  protoxide .  IS.  90 

Alumina .  21.20 

Lime .  6.00 


Magnesia . 

Lead  oxide . 

Silver . 

Arsenic  and  antimony 


2.  90 
2.  25 
0.  001 
Trace. 


Total .  99.001 

There  are  produced  from  the  old  slag  144,338  kilograms  silver-lead, 
assaying  0.056  per  cent.  =  16  oz.  6  dwt.  13.9  gr.  silver,  and  134,600  kilo¬ 
grams  matte. 

272.  For  1871  the  works  at  Amlreasberg  treated  518,000  kilograms 
ore;  137,000  kilograms  of  which  was  from  the  mines  near  that  place. 

273.  L.yi'TEN'Tiial. — The  ores  treated  at  Lauteuthal  have  the  same 
general  composition  as  the  Clansthal  ores.  The  smelting  processes  are 
conducted  on  the  same  principle  as  that  which  has  been  described  when 
treating  of  Clansthal;  a  modification,  however,  is  caused  in  the  ore- 
smelting  by  a  larger  percentage  of  silica  and  zinc  contained  in  the  ore  ; 
an  increased  amount  of  basic  copper-slag  and  matte  is  therefore  added 
to  the  ore-charge.  As  the  other  operations  have  already  been  spoken 
of,  it  w  ill  suflice  to  remark  that  the  ore-smelting  is  conducted  entirely 
m  Kachette  furnaces  with  twelve  tuyeres.  The  lead-matte  has  been 
roasted,  since  the  lull  of  1873,  in  shaft-furnaces.  The  fumes  are  utilized 
in  the  sulphuric-acid  manufactory  which  was  completed  in  the  same 
year.  The  black  copper  is  sent  to  Alteuau  for  further  treatment. 

27 1.  The  silver-lead  produced  at  all  the  smelting-works  is  desilverized 
at  Lauteuthal,  with  the  exception  of  the  rich  silver-lead  and  that  pro¬ 
duced  by  smelting  the  old  slags,  which  contain  a  large  amount  of  copper, 
(Amlreasberg,)  and  the  silver-lead  produced  by  the  matte-smelting  at 
Alteuau  and  Clansthal,  which  are  either  too  rich,  (Amlreasberg,)  or  con¬ 
tain  so  much  copper  that  they  are  rendered  unsuitable  for  the  zinc- 
desilverization  process,  and  are  therefore  cupelled  without  undergoing 
any  concentration. 

275.  Pattiuson's  process,  which  was  introduced  at  Lauteuthal  iu  1864, 
was  superseded  in  1868  by  desilverization  by  means  of  zinc.  This  was 
materially  improved  in  1869  by  the  introduction  of  steam  (Cordurie?s 
system)  as  an  oxidizing  and  poling  agent. 

276.  The  silver-lead  produced  at  the  different  works  iu  the  Upper  Harz 
was  formerly  so  pure  that  it  could  be  desilverized  by  the  crystallization 
process  after  having  been  melted  in  an  iron  kettle  and  poled.  Its  com¬ 
position  has  not  materially  changed  since  that  process  was  practiced. 


LAUTENTHAL  ORES  AND  PROCESSES. 


119 


Although  it  contains  a  large  number  of  foreign  substances,  the  quantity 
is  so  small  as  not  to  make  it  an  impure  article,  as  the  analysis  by  Herrn 
Hampe,  of  Claustkal,  will  show  : 

Silver-lead  from — 


Lautenthal. 

Clansthal. 

Altenau. 

98.  964 

98.  929 

98.  837 

0.  283 

0. 186 

0.  239 

0.  574 

0.  720 

0.  768 

0.  007 

0.  006 

0.  0009 

0.  008 

0.  004 

0.  003 

Silver . 

0.143 

0.  008 

0.141 

0.  006 

0. 140 

0.  003 

0.  002 

0.  002 

0.  002 

0.  006 

0.  002 

0.  002 

0.  0003 

0.  0U0I 

0.  0001 

Traces . 

99.  9953 

99.  9961 

99.  9950 

Although  the  silver-lead  from  each  work  is  desilverized  separately, 
they  are  all  treated  in  the  same  manner.  The  process,  as  now  con¬ 
ducted,  may  be  regarded  as  giving  general  satisfaction,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  present  method  of  extracting  the  silver  from  the  rich  oxide. 
Should  the  advantages  of  the  method  lately  introduced  at  Tarnowitz  be 
confirmed  by  a  sufficiently  long  trial,  it  will  be  adopted  at  Lautenthal. 

277.  The  desilver ization  of  silver-lead  by  means  of  zinc. — Silver-lead  is 
treated  in  fourteen  Patfiuson  kettles  1.GG5  meters  in  diameter,  and  0.75 
meter  deep.  Each  kettle  is  provided  with  a  fire-place  and  separate 
chimney  8  meters  high.  Every  three  kettles  form  a  battery.  The  two 
outside  kettles  are  used  for  smelting  and  desilverizing  the  silver-lead, 
and  the  middle  kettle  is  used  for  liquating  the  zinc-scum  and  desilver¬ 
izing  the  lead  therefrom.  One  kettle  is  employed  to  oxidize  the  zinc 
in  the  rich  zinc-dust  (zinclcstaub)  and  in  the  fourteenth  the  abstrich  is 
fused  and  poled.  This  kettle  lasts  but  a  short  time,  as  the  iron  is  at¬ 
tacked  by  the  antimony,  &c.  The  steam  is  generated  in  an  iron  boiler, 
(a  second  boiler  being  held  in  reserve),  and,  before  entering  the  desilveri- 
zation-kettles,  passes  through  a  steam-heating  oven.  A  sheet-iron  pipe, 
about  0.25  meter  in  diameter,  runs  from  the  condensation  chambers 
through  the  building  about  2.2  meters  above  the  floor;  from  this  seven 
iron  joints  (one  to  every  two  kettles)  are  projected  at  a  right  angle  to 
the  main  pipe;  each  joint  serves  to  connect  the  main  pipe  with  the  iron 
hood  which  is  placed  on  the  kettles  while  the  steam  is  being  conducted 
in  the  molten  metal. 

278.  Melting  the  charge  and  removing  the  abzug. — The  silver-lead  con¬ 
tains  0.13  to  0.14  per  cent.  =37  oz.  16  dwt.  19  gr.  to  40  oz.  15  dwt.  4.8 
gr.  silver.  The  charge  is  12,500  kilograms,  which  is  melted  in  seven 
hours.  If  the  fire  is  carefully  regulated  the  skimmings  ( abzug- schlicker ) 
composed  partly  of  the  copper,  iron,  &c.,  contained  in  the  silver-lead, 
lie  on  the  top  of  the  metallic  bath,  forming  a  dark-colored  crust  from  2 
to  4  centimeters  thick.  This  is  removed,  and  after  having  been  liquated, 
is  smelted  with  unroasted  matte,  ( vide  abzug-smelting.) 


120 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


with  vertical  cylinders  on  frames;  high  and  low  pressure,  with  con- 
densation  ;  20  nominal  horse-power  ;  patent  governor. 

In  the  center  space,  marked  14,  a  highly-finished  freight-engine  for 
steep  gradients,  for  the  Midi  Railway  Company;  eight  wheels  coupled  ; 
outside  cylinders.  Weight  of  engine  empty,  47  tons  S  hundred-weight. 
This  locomotive  is  one  of  twenty  made  to  order  by  the  works  in  1872. 

(15.)  Upon  this  space  railway-wheels  and  axles  are  shown  in  a  highly- 
finished  state.  Both  axles  and  tires  are  of  Creuzot  steel.  Axles  and 
tires  of  the  same  pattern  and  finish  are  shown  folded  up  aud  bent  in 
opposite  directions  without  exhibiting  a  flaw. 

(1G.)  Upon  space  10,  opposite  the  steam-engine,  they  exhibit  a  steam- 
engine  cylinder,  rough  from  the  fouudery,  as  cast  for  the  paddle-engines, 
with  high  and  low  pressure,  of  350  horse-power,  of  the  steamer  Petrel,  of 
the  French  navy.  This  piece  weighs  seven  tons.  The  diameter  of  the 
high-pressure  cylinder  is  3  feet  l[-f  inches,  and  of  the  low-pressure,  5 
feet  lg  inches  ;  stroke  of  pistons,  3  feet  34  inches. 

(1/.)  In  the  spaces  marked  17  there  are  several  models,  plans,  and 
drawings  of  public  works,  bridges,  viaducts,  aqueducts,  &c.,  among 
them  a  drawing  of  the  bridge  of  Friburg,  on  the  railway  from  Lausanne 
to  Friburg,  1S59,  of  which  the  iron-work  weighs  3,000  tons;  the  swing- 
bridge  of  Brest,  1SG0,  weight  of  iron-work  1,170  tons;  the  bridge  on 
El  Ciuca,  Spain,  1SGG,  weight  of  iron-work  247  tons. 

Drawing  of  the  bridge  on  the  Cliiffa,  Algiers,  1SGS  ;  weight  of  iron¬ 
work  419  tons. 

Drawing  of  the  bridge  on  the  Danube,  at  Stadlau,  near  Vienna,  con¬ 
structed  at  Creuzot  in  1SG9  for  the  I.  It.  P.  Company  of  State  Railways, 
scale  7(J-y.  Distance  between  abutments,  1,2G4  feet  S  inches;  number 
of  columns,  4;  distance  between  centers  of  columns,  263  feet  2  inches  • 
weight  of  iron-work,  2,140  tons. 

There  is  also  a  diagram  showing  the  manner  in  which  the  bridge  has 
been  put  into  its  place  by  hauling. 

Drawing  of  the  bridge  on  the  Danube,  at  Vienna,  constructed  at 
Creuzot  in  1S73  for  the  administration  of  the  public-works  department, 
scale  Distance  between  abutmeuts,  1,033  feet;  liumber  of  columus, 
3 ;  distance  betweeu  ceuters  of  columns,  275  feet  G  inches ;  weight  of 
iron-work,  2,400  tons. 

94.  Production. — The  exact  statistics  of  the  works,  as  regards  ex¬ 
tent  and  production  for  1873-74,  are  as  follows: 


Vienna  International  Exhibition.  1873 


Iron  and  Steel 


tit-isl 


Mitt 


LEGBND 


The  grouuds  apd  shops  of  the 
different  departments,  composing  the 
Creusot  works,  are  designated  by 
the  following  plain  tints  : 


COLLERIES . 

HIGH -FURNACES  _ 

STEEL-WORKS . 

MECHANICAL -WORKS _ 

IRON  WORKS . 

HUM. DING  <fc  REPAIRING. 


All  the  buildings  of  the  works 


The  town  is  .indicated  by 


PETERS.  PHOTO- LITHOGRAPHER. 


Scale  1  to  5,000 


metre. 


metres , 


1 


THE  CREUZOT  IRON- WORKS-STATISTICS. 


121 


Statistics  of  Le  Creuzot,  1873-74. 


Statistical  elements. 


The  works  consist  of— 

Surface  of  the  works  and  of  the  industrial  appendages.. 

Surface  of  the  buildings . . . 

Length  of  railways,  broad  gauge . . . 

narrow  gauge . 

Number  of  workmen . 

Number  of  steam-engines . . . 

Horse-power  of  the  same . 

PRODUCTION. 


"Weight  of  coals . . . 

"Weight  of  pig-iron . . 

Weight  of  wrought  iron . 

Weight  of  steel . 

Value  of  locomotive-engines,  (100  a  year) 
Value  of  other  machinery  and  bridges... 


Creuzot. 

Appendages. 

Total. 

435 

336 

771  acres. 

51 

17 

68  acres. 

35 

14 

49  miles. 

18 

62 

80  miles. 

9,  800 

5,  700 

15,500  workmen. 

234 

74 

308  engines. 

15,  700 

3,  300 

19,000  horse-power. 

190,  000 

525,  000 

715,000  tons. 

180,  000 

180,000  tons. 

90,  000 

90,000  tons. 

60,  000 

60,000  tons. 

280,  000 

280,000  pounds. 

240,  000 

100,  000 

340,000  pounds. 

Note.— The  extensions  of  the  works  at  present  in  progress,  and  which  are  to  be  completed  in  1873-74 
are  taken  into  account  in  these  statistics. 


95.  Awards  in  1867. — At  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1S67  a  grand  prize 
was  given  for  the  raw  and  finished  products  of  mineral  industry,  (Group 
Y,  class  40,)  and  another  grand  prize  for  mining-tools  and  processes  of 
working  the  mines,  (Group  YI,  class  47.)  A  gold  medal  for  railway-ma¬ 
terial;  a  gold  medal  for  civil  engineering ;  a  gold  medal  for  materials 
for  naval  architecture  and  saving  of  life;  a  gold  medal  for  methods  of 
teaching  children  and  apparatus  for  the  same,  and  also  a  bronze  medal 
to  M.  Nolet,  as  co-operator,  for  apparatus  for  the  instruction  of  adults. 

96.  Classification  of  iron  and  steel,  Creuzot. — The  classifica¬ 
tion  before  mentioned  is  based  upon  the  needs  of  the  consumer,  the  en¬ 
deavor  being  made  to  meet  in  a  uniform  and  reliable  way  the  demand 
already  existing  for  iron  and  steel  of  certain  qualities.  In  the  notes 
and  descriptions  which  follow  upon  this  subject  free  use  has  been  made 
of  the  valuable  notes,  in  French,  furnished  by  the  firm. 

When  Messrs.  Schneider  &  Co.  decided  to  greatly  extend  their 
metallurgical  works,  they  necessarily  became  solicitous  that  the  outlets 
for  their  products  should  also  be  extended.  To  attain  this  end,  the 
surest  means  was  to  seek  to  satisfy  all  the  wants  of  the  consumer  in  re¬ 
spect  of  quality  as  well  as  of  form,  or,  in  brief,  to  put  into  the  market 
the  equivalents  of  the  principal  varieties  of  iron  in  common  demand. 
Their  first  step  was  to  procure  a  certain  number  of  bars  of  the  same 
specimen  of  the  brands  best  known  in  France,  England,  Belgium,  and 
in  all  producing  countries.  These  bars  were  submitted  to  mechanical 
tests  when  cold  and  when  hot.  From  the  data  obtained  from  thousands 
of  experiments  in  this  way,  the  coefficients  of  strength  were  deduced, 
representing  the  relative  value  of  each  variety.  It  was  found  that  the 
almost  infinite  varieties  of  quality  produced  by  metallurgy  could  be 
grouped  in  seven  chief  divisions,  and  that  these  seven  groups  or  types 
would  satisfy  all  the  needs  of  trade  and  the  consumer.  It  then  re¬ 
mained  to  find  the  means  of  realizing  in  practice  the  manufacture  in  the 
large  way  of  these  seven  types  of  iron  with  uniformity  and  regularity. 


122 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


cent.)  is  first  removed,  it  being-  one  of  the  metals  oxidizable,  when  in  a 
heated  condition,  by  the  oxygen  of  the  steam. 

285.  Antimony,  having  a  greater  affinity  for  lead  than  for  silver! 
remains,  and  is  also  to  be  removed ;  but  as  it  does  not  decompose  steam 
to  a  great  extent,  even  when  at  a  high  heat,  it  must  be  eliminated  by  a 
separate  operation.  For  this  purpose  steam  is  again  conducted  into  the 
bath,  and  acts  as  an  agitator;  the  antimony  is  oxidized  by  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  A  bent  iron  pipe,  about  3.5  centimeters  in  diameter,  extend¬ 
ing  to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  is  fastened  to  the  mason-work  on  which 
the  kettle  rests.  This  is  used  to  conduct  the  steam  into  the  molten  liquid. 
A  sheet-iron  hood  is  next  fastened  and  luted  with  damp  clay  to  the  kettle. 
This  is  about  1  millimeter  high;  has  the  same  diameter  as  the  kettle, 
and  connects  with  the  large  pipe  leading  to  the  condensation-chambers. 
It  has  three  small  doors  10  centimeters  square.  The  molten  liquid  is 
now  heated  to  a  little  below  cherry-red  heat;  and  superheated  steam 
is  conducted  into  the  bath  under  a  pressure  of  two  atmospheres;  as  the 
air  is  excluded,  the  temperature  remains  higher,  the  steam  is  decoiu. 
posed,  and  the  zinc  is  almost  entirely  oxidized  in  one  and  one-half 
hours.  The  oxides  first  formed  are  mixed  with  the  liquid  lead,  but  as 
the  operation  progresses  they  become  “dry”  and  yellow,  which  is  an 
indication  that  all  of  the  zinc,  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  lead, 
has  been  oxidized. 

2SG.  The  lead  is  now  tested  for  zinc.  This  is  done  by  taking  out  a 
small  ladleful  and  scraping  I  he  surface  while  hot  with  a  piece  of  wood. 
The  lead  is  free  from  zinc  if  the  peculiar  silky  appearance  is  absent, 
which  is  caused  by  zinc.  The  hood  is  lifted  up  and  the  poor  oxides  are 
removed.  After  the  hood  has  again  been  fastened  on  the  kettle,  and 
the  three  doors  opened,  the  metallic  liquid  is  heated  to  a  cherry-red  heat, 
and  superheated  steam  conducted  into  the  bath  for  one  and  one-half  to 
two  hours.  The  completion  of  this  operation  is  known  by  taking  out  a 
small  ladleful  of  lead  and  allowing  it  to  cool.  The  abseuce  of  antimony 
is  shown  by  the  non-appearance  of  a  small  crystalline  spot  on  the  surface 
of  the  solidified  lead.  The  abstrich  is  removed  and  steam  conducted 
in  the  bath  tor  three  to  six  minutes,  whereby  a  small  quuatity  of  red 
litharge  forms,  which  is  an  additional  proof  that  the  lead  is  free  from 
impurities.  The  lead  is  then  allowed  to  cool.  Five  hours  are  consumed 
in  casting  the  “refined  Harz  lead'1  into  molds;  about  7,500  kilograms 
of  lead  are  produced  from  each  charge  of  12,500  kilograms. 

2S7.  It  has  happened  that  crusts  containing  silver  have  adhered  to 
the  kettle,  and  have  been  resmelted  in  the  high  temperature  just  employed, 
and  mixed  with  the  desilverized  lead.  Therefore  the  refined  lead  is  always 
assayed  before  casting,  and  if  it  contains  more  than  0.0006  per  cent, 
silver,  it  is  cast  in  molds,  set  aside,  and  added  in  small  quantities  to 
other  charges  before  the  third  addition  of  zinc. 

2SS.  The  regulation  of  the  temperature  is  of  great  importance  in  both 


SMELTING  SILVER-LEAD  AT  LAUTENTIIAL. 


123 


these  operations.  If  it  is  too  low  the  oxidizing  period  is  lengthened  and 
there  is  a  greater  amount  of  lead  oxidized.  Care  is  taken  at  the  same 
time,  that  the  temperature  shall  not  be  too  high,  as  the  kettle  would 
soon  be  destroyed. 

1  289.  Liquation  of  the  zinc- scum.— The  middle  kettle  is  filled  about  three- 

quarters  full  with  the  zinc-scum  from  the  kettle  on  either  side.  The  fire 
is  raised  gradually,  and  the  uuinelted  crust  ( zinJcstaub )  is  removed. 
The  fire  is  now  lowered  aud  the  crust  thereby  formed,  ( zinJcstaub ,)  zinc- 
dust,  is  removed  and  added  to  the  unmelted  crust.  The  fire  is  again 
raised  and  lowered  twice,  the  crust  formed  being  drawn  off  each  time  ; 
the  total  amount  of  zinJcstaub  produced  is  2,500  kilograms.  From  10  to 
■  20  kilograms  zinc  is  now  added  to  the  lead  and  the  same  operation  is 
repeated  as  by  the  third  addition  of  zinc.  The  lead  remaining  in  the 
kettle  contains,  besides  zinc,  a  small  amount  of  antimony.  The  presence 
of  the  latter  is  owing  to  a  small  quantity  of  the  silver-lead  taken  over 
with  the  zinc-scum.  The  zinc  and  antimony  are  removed  as  in  the  pre¬ 
ceding  operation;  the  length  of  time  for  oxidizing  the  antimony  is,  how¬ 
ever,  shorter ;  one  to  one  and  a  half  hours  being  sufficient.  The  lead 
produced  is  termed  “  refined  Harz  lead.” 

290.  Bezinclcifying  the  zinc-dust. — This  operation  is  performed  in  the 
end  kettle,  and  as  a  high  temperature  is  maintained  the  kettle  is  sooner 
destroyed  than  the  others.  If  the  zinc-dust  which  is  to  be  dezinckified 
is  too  “dry,”  it  contains  only  a  very  small  quantity  of  lead.  The  bottom 
of  the  kettle  not  being  covered  with  a  liquid  is  soon  attacked,  aud  is 
liable  to  crack.  About  5,000  kilograms  zinc-dust  are  charged,  the  steam- 
conductor  placed  in  position,  and  the  hood  fastened  and  luted  to  the 
kettle.  This  hood  is  1.4  meters  high,  and  is  provided  with  three  small 
doors,  which  are  kept  closed  during  the  operation. 

The  temperature  of  the  metallic  bath  is  now  raised  to  a  bright  cherry- 
red  heat,  and  superheated  steam,  under  a  pressure  of  one  and  a  half 
atmospheres,  is  conducted  into  the  molteu  liquid  for  four  to  six  hours. 
The  end  of  the  process  is  known  by  the  dryness  of  the  oxides  and  the 
formation  of  pure  litharge.  Before  the  hood  is  removed  steam  is  allowed 
to  enter  above  the  surface  of  the  bath  for  four  to  five  minutes ;  for  this 
purpose  an  extra  small  steam-pipe  is  used.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that 
the  alloys  just  treated  contain  so  much  zinc  (4  to  7  per  cent.)  that  a 
large  proportion  of  the  steam  is  decomposed  and  leaves  hot  gases 
charged  with  hydrogen  in  the  hood.  Were  these  not  first  driven  out 
with  free  steam,- the  hot  oxyhydrogeu  gas  would  explode  upon  coming 
in  contact  with  the  air  and  wreck  the  condensation-chambers;  this 
has  several  times  occurred.  The  oxides,  weighing  2,000  kilograms,  are 
now  removed ;  care  being  taken  that  they  are  not  drained  too  dry,  as 
this  would  cause  a  greater  silver  loss  in  the  cupellation  process  by  vol¬ 
atilization,  and  prevent  a  complete  absorption  of  the  silver  by  the  lead. 
The  enriched  silver-lead  remaining  in  the  kettle  weighs  3,000  kilograms. 


124 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

The  oxides  contain  about  CO  per  cent,  lead-oxide  and  10  per  cent,  zinc- 
oxide. 

201 .  Cupellation. — From  5,000  to  7,500  kilograms  of  the  enriched  silver- 
lead,  with  2  per  cent.  =  5S3  oz.  silver,  are  laid  on  the  cnpellation-hearth, 
the  hood  put  in  position,  and  the  charge  fused.  When  the  temperature 
approaches  a  bright,  yellowish-red  heat,  from  400  to  500  kilograms  of  the 
rich  oxides  containing  1.2  per  cent.  =  317  oz.  C  dwt.  silver,  are  thrown  on 
the  liquid  silver-lead.  A  brisk  lire  is  now  made,  the  blast  turned  on,  and 
the  cooling  caused  by  the  addition  of  the  oxides  is  soon  overcome,  and 
the  mass  fused.  When  thejzinc-oxides  have  become  desilverized,  which 
occurs  in  about  fifteen  minutes  in  the  high  heat  employed,  the  zinc-oxide 
is  drawn  off  by  means  of  a  piece  of  wood  on  an  iron  pole;  care  is  taken 
to  have  the  metallic  bath  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  the  oxide, 
as  otherwise,  litharge  would  form,  which  is  not  now  desired.  The  tem¬ 
perature  is  then  raised,  the  blast  turned  off,  and  the  preceding  operation 
is  repeated  until  the  rich  oxides,  (2,000  to  2,750  kilograms,)  have  been 
charged  and  the  desilverized  oxides  drawn  off.  The  cupellation  process 
now  commences  and  is  conducted  as  usual.  The  litharge  formed,  how¬ 
ever,  is  impure,  and  is  therefore  reduced  together  with  the  slag  formed 
by  the  oxides  of  zinc  and  lead  and  metallic  lead,  containing  0.17  per 
cent.  =  49  oz.  10  dwt.  1  gr.  silver.  The  resulting  silver-lead  is  again 
desilverized.  After  the  silver  has  brightened,  hot  water  is  thrown  on 
it;  an  iron  cross  is  then  set  in  the  silver,  which  is  further  cooled  with 
cold  water.  The  silver  is  fine.  I  f  the  temperature  is  carefully  con¬ 
ducted,  0,000  kilograms  silver-lead  and  2,000  kilograms  rich  oxides  are 
cupelled  iu  twenty  to  twenty-four  hours. 

292.  Liquation  of  shimmings,  (abzug.)  When  a  sufficiently  large  quan¬ 
tity  of  skimmings  have  accumulated,  10,000  to  15,000  kilograms, 

are  liquated  ;  for  this  purpose  one  kettle  is  always  used.  From  1,000 
to  2,oot)  kilograms  of  skimmings  are  thrown  in  the  kettle  and  the  temper¬ 
ature  is  gradually  raised  to  a  dark  cherry-red  heat  ;  the  lead  is  liquated 
and  the  real  skimmings  pushed  together  and  removed.  The  rest  of  the 
skimmings  are  then  added  to  the  molten  liquid  and  liquated  iu  quanti¬ 
ties  of  500  to  1,000  kilograms  at  a  time.  Iu  about  fifteen  to  twenty 
hours  thb  kettle  will  be  full  of  silver-lead,  which  is  ladled  into  the 
adjoining  kettle,  and  is  desilverized  with  three  additions  of  zinc.  It  is 
necessary  to  perform  the  desilverizatiou  in  another  kettle  than  that  in 
which  the  skimmings  have  beeu  liquated,  for  the  reason  that  the  kettle 
is  strongly  attacked  by  the  alloys  :  metal  containing  silver,  &c.,  adheres 
to  the  cavities  iu  the  iron  kettle,  and  these  would  become  disengaged 
and  impurify  the  silver-lead  in  all  the  stages,  but  particularly  in  the  last, 
of  its  subsequent  treatment. 

293.  Treatment  of  shimmings — Formerly  the  skimmings  were  added  to 
the  matte-charge ;  this  produced  silver-lead  containing  so  much  copper 
that  it  was  impossible  to  break  it  with  zinc.  The  skimmings  are  now 


SMELTING  SILVER-LEAD  AT  LAUTENTHAL. 


125 


smelted  with,  unroasted  lead-matte ;  the  result  being  a  silver-lead  com¬ 
paratively  poor  iu  copper,  which  is  treated  with  zinc  and  matte,  which  is 
roasted  aud  treated  with  the  copper-matte.  The  charge  is  as  'follows  : 
100  kilograms  shimmings;  100  kilograms  unroasted  lead-matte  ;  75  kilo¬ 
grams  slag  from  ore-smelting;  75  kilograms  slag  from  matte-smelting. 

294.  Manufacture  of  yellow  paint. — The  poor  oxides,  from  dezinekifyiug 
the  poor  lead  with  steam,  are  passed  through  a  sieve ;  the  pieces  of  lead 
are  set  aside,  and  the  finer  portion  is  washed  on  two  sleeping-tables, 
together  with  the  condensed  fumes  from  dezinekifyiug  and  softening  the 
hard  lead.  The  water  which  carries  oft’  the  oxides  runs  through  five 
old  Pattinsou  pots,  where  the  oxides  are  allowed  to  settle.  The  large 
pieces  of  lead  and  the  lead  obtained  by  washing  the  oxides  aud  poor 
fumes  are  reduced,  and  produce  an  inferior  grade  of  lead.  The  zinc  and 
lead  oxides  are  dried  in  an  oven  and  form  a  yellow  paint ;  an  article 
much  sought  after.  It  is  composed  of  about  GO  per  cent,  zinc  oxide  and 
40  per  cent,  lead  oxide ;  its  commercial  value  is  G  thaler — $4.26  gold — 
per  50  kilograms. 


295.— 


Time  consumed  in  desilverizing  12,5?0  kilograms  silver- 
lead. 


Weight  of  products  from  charging  of 
12.500  kilograms  silver-lead  and  150 
kilograms  zinc. 


Fusing  the  silver-lead . 

Kemoving  the  skimming . . 

Fusing  22  kilograms  zinc . 

Stirring . 

Cooling . 

Kemoving  the  copper-scum . . 

Stirring,  scraping,  removing  scum  . 

Fusing  92  kilograms  of  zinc . 

Stirring . 

Cooling . 

Kemoving  zinc-scum . 

Stirring,  scraping,  removing  scum  . 

Fusing  53  kilograms  zinc . 

Stirring . 

CooliDg . 

Kemoving  zinc-scum . 

StirriDg,  scraping,  removing  scum  . 
Dezinekifyiug  poor  lead  with  steam 

Kemoving  poor  oxides . 

Softening  with  steam . 

Kemoving  abstrich . . 

Blowing  steam  without  hood . 

Casting  refined  lead . 


Hours. 

6 

I 

4 

4 

3 

i 

i 

1 

4 

3 


Kilograms. 


Skimmings .  500 

|  Copper-scum .  500 

^Zinc-scum . .  2,000 

^  Zinc-scum .  1,  800 

Poor  oxides .  350 

Antimonial  dross .  150 

Kefined  lead . .  7,  500 


30.  35 


Lead-dross 


12,  800 
200 


13,  000 


The  surplus  weight  of  the  products  is  due  to  the  fact  that  several  of 
them  are  produced  in  an  oxidized  condition.  The  shift  is'twelve  hours, 
but  the  workmen  are  paid  per  cwt.  refined  lead  produced.  There  are 
four  workmen,  one  fireman,  aud  an  overseer  in  each  shift;  two  work¬ 
men  attend  to  two  batteries  of  three  kettles  each,  The  loss  in  lead  is 
1.62  per  cent.;  the  loss  in  silver  (loss  iu  assaying  calculated)  0.628  per 
cent.;  consumption  of  zinc,  1.4  per  cent. 


12  6 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  Harz  refined  lead,  produced  from  Lautenthal  silver-lead,  con¬ 
tains,  according  to  Herrn  Scholl  meyer.  in  1870,  the  following  amount  of 


impurities : 

Cu .  0.001413 

Sb .  0.005698 

Fe.. .  0. 0022S9 

Zn .  0.000834 

Ag .  0.00046 

Bi .  0.005487 

Ni .  0.00008 


0. 016861 

296.  The  following  results  of  the  silver-lead  treated  at  Lautenthal  by 
this  process,  in  1S69,  were  published  by  Messrs.  Wedding  and  Briiuning: 
Charge,  1,102,650  kilograms  silver-lead  =  1,584.17  kilograms  silver  and 
1,101,050  kilograms  lead. 

The  productions  were: 


/ 

Silver. 

Lead. 

Silver. 

Lead. 

Silver,  1 ,7621  kilograms  contained  line  silver . 

Kilograms. 

1,021} 

Kilograms. 

910, 188 
95,  587 
21, 175 
2,  702 
2,937 

Per  cent. 
102. 372 

Per  cent. 

85. 389 
8. 682 
2.  2*23 
o'  250 
0.267 

Total . 

1,  021} 

1,005,919 

19,612 

102.  372 

90.811 
1.  781 

1,621} 

1, 085, 561 

102.  372 

98.  592 

The  unworked  products  wore  carried  over  to  the  next  year  and  then 
treated. 

The  cost  of  desilverizing  1,000  kilograms  silver-lead  has  been  cal- 
culatcd  by  the  following  gentlemen: 

Upper  Harz,  according  to  Herr  Illiug:  Cupellation,  5  thaler ;  zinc- 
desilverizatiou,  6^  thaler;  lead  loss,  1.43;  silver  loss  =0.028  per  cent.; 
Pattinsoir’s  process,  10  thaler. 

At  Havre,  according  to  M.  Graner: 


Cost. 

Lead  loss. 

1  Treated 
per  month. 

Men  em¬ 
ployed. 

Francs. 

20-25 

55 

Per  cent. 

1 

4-6 

Kilograms. 
500,  000 
250, 000 

23 

50-52 

297.  The  principal  manipulations  have  been  described,  and  the  others 
may  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  accompanying  genealogical  tree  of  this 
process.  It  will  at  first  appear  as  though  it  were  a  very  complicated 
process,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  chart  illustrates  how  even 


Genealogical  Tree  of  the  Desilverization  of  Silver-Lead,  and  refining  of  Desilverized  Lead,  at  the  Metallurgical  Works  in 


TTar«l  lead, 

(melted  in  battery  with  hard  lead,  resulting 
from  liquating  abstrich  from  cupellation  of 
lead  obtained  from  matte-smelting.) 


T.  Fused  250  cwt  =  12,500  kilograms  silver-lead.  < 


utenthal. 


30.  Rich  lead.  I 


1 18.  Rich  load. 


17.  Rich  oxides.  I 


IIT. 
Poor  le 

(melted  in  battery 


from  matte-s  noltiug.) 


1  f, 

!).  Hurd  lend,  Load-dross  fron 


49.  I,  SAD,  (SECOND  RATE.) 

(Commercial  artic  o,  containing  small  amount  of  copper.) 


LOWER  HARZ  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


127 


the  smallest  product  is  treated,  and  that  the  greater  proportion  (35  per 
cent.)  of  the  lead  is  extracted  in  a  few  simple  manipulations. 

298.  This  process,  with  the  exception  of  the  imbibation  of  the  rich 
oxides,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  advantageous  for  works  where  large 
quantities  of  silver-lead  are  treated.  A  pure  silver-lead  is  not  necessary 
for  a  successful  operation ;  it  is  only  when  it  is  rich  in  copper  and  anti¬ 
mony  that  it  needs  a  softening;  but  so  do  the  other  concentration  pro¬ 
cesses.  The  loss  in  silver  and  lead  is  smaller  than  when  the  desilveriza- 
tion  is  conducted  according  to  Pattinson’s  process,  or  when  the  zinc 
and  antimony  are  eliminated  from  the  poor  lead  in  a  reverberatory  fur¬ 
nace.  Fewer  and  less  skillful  workmen  are  required,  and  smaller  quan¬ 
tities  of  coal  are  consumed,  than  with  Pattinson’s  process.  By  the  data 
given  above  it  will  be  seen  that  with  a  few  kettles  a  large  quantity  of 
silver-lead  can  be  treated  in  a  short  time  with  but  very  small  quantities 
of  intermediate  products,  and  producing  a  remarkably  large  percentage 
of  commercial  lead  of  a  superior  quality. 

299.  The  Lower  Harz. — The  display  made  by  the  smelting-works 
of  the  Lower  Harz  was  not  so  large  or  so  complete  as  that  made  by  the 
works  situated  in  the  Upper  Harz ;,  but  the  specimens  exhibited  were 
exceedingly  interesting. 

The  Oker  Saiger  Hiitte  exhibited  statistical  charts,  pyritous  ores  from 
the  Rammelsberg  mine ;  from  a  worked  out  part  of  (gob)  the  same  mine 
large  and  good  crystals  of  copper  and  iron  vitriol,  which  resembled  ar¬ 
tificially-produced  crystals;  also  cement,  copper,  and  mine-water,  con¬ 
taining  salts  of  copper  and  iron  in  solution  ;  sulphuric  acid  ;  selenium- 
slime  from  the  fore-chamber  of  the  sulphuric-acid  manufactory  ;  natron- 
sulphate,  produced  in  the  manufacture  of  iron-vitriol,  from  the  refiuing 
of  sulphuric  acid,  copper-matte,  black  and  refined  copper. 

The  Julius  Hiitte  exhibited  sulphur,  zinc-vitriol,  silver-lead,  litharge, 
bismuth-litharge,  and  auriferous  silver. 

300.  OJcer. — The  smelting  processes  at  the  Oker,  Julius,  and  Sophien 
Hiitte  are  based  on  the  pyritous  ores  extracted  from  the  Rammelsberg 
mine.  The  ores  are  divided  into  three  classes.  The  first  are  copper-ores, 
and  are  composed  chiefly  of  iron  pyrites,  intimately  mixed  with  blende, 
copper,  and  arsenical  pyrites.  The  second  are  the  copper-lead  ores,  and 
composed  chiefly  of  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  galena,  and  blende;  they 
assay  3.5  to  5  per  cent,  lead,  2.8  to  5.5  per  cent,  copper,  and  0.01  to  0.015 
per  cent.  =  2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.8  gr.  silver  and  a  small  amount  of  gold. 
The  third  class,  or  lead-ores,  have  the  general  composition  of  the  copper- 
lead  ores,  but  their  copper  contents  are  much  smaller,  and  they  assay 
from  4  to  10  per  cent,  in  lead. 

301.  All  the  ores  from  the  Rammelsberg  mine  were  formerly  roasted 
in  free  heaps,  but  since  1840  have  been  roasted  in  shaft-furnaces  at  Oker. 
The  sulphuric-acid  fumes  are  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  copper  and  the  copper-lead  ores  poorest  in  lead  are  reduced 
at  that  place,  but  the  lead-ores  are  sent,  after  the  first  roasting,  to  the 


128 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Herzog,  Julius  Hiitte,  and  Frau  Sopliien  Hiitte,  and  the  copper-lead  ores 
not  worked  at  Oker  are  sent  to  the  Frau  Sophien  Hiitte  for  reduction. 
The  rich  copper  and  copper-lead  ores  are  roasted  in  small  shaft-furnaces 
1.99  meters  high,  1.20  meters  wide  at  the  top,  and  0.G3  meter  wide  at 
the  bottom.  The  amount  of  sulphur  in  the  ore  is  reduced  in  the  first 
roasting  to  12  per  cent.,  producing  GO  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  of  50°  B. 
The  capacity  of  the  furnace  is  212  kilograms  ore  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  partly  roasted  ore  is  drawn  from  the  furnace  and  the  larger  lumps 
roasted  in  shaft-furnaces  3.77  meters  high,  1.8S  meters  wide,  and  3.14 
meters  long;  whereby  the  sulphur  is  eliminated  to  within  5  to  4  per 
cent.,  or  a  portion  of  the  copper-lead  ore,  after  having  been  once  roasted, 
is  sent  to  the  Frau  Sophien  Hiitte,  where  it  is  roasted  twice  in  free 
heaps. 

The  poor  copper  and  rich  pyritous  (iron)  ores  are  roasted  in  the  lies- 
brennern,  (pyrites-roasting  furnaces.)  The  bottom  is  formed  by  movable, 
rectangular  iron  rods,  by  means  of  which  the  ore  is  discharged  from  the 
furnace.  These  furnaces,  which  were  built  in  1S71,  are  2.51  meters  high, 
G.28  meters  long,  and  1.2G  meters  wide.  About  S00  kilograms  of  the 
poor  copper-ores  are  roasted  in  twenty-four  hours  to  within  5  per  cent, 
of  sulphur,  and  from  1,990  to  1,100  kilograms  of  the  pyritous  ores  are 
roasted  in  the  same  time  to  within  4  to  3  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

The  lead-ores  and  copper-matte  are  roasted  in  oblong  shaft  furnaces 
3.14  meters  high,  3.14  meters  wide,  and  1.57  meters  deep.  About  42 
per  cent,  sulphuric  acid  is  produced  from  the  roasting  of  lead-ores  in 
kilns.  After  the  first  roasting  they  are  sent  to  the  Herzog  Julius  Hiitte 
for  further  roasting  and  reduction. 

A  disadvantage  of  thus  roasting  the  ore  in  shaft-furnaces  is,  that  when 
the  ore  contains  a  large  percentage  of  blende,  a  smaller  amount  of  zinc- 
sulphate  is  formed  than  when  the  roasting  is  conducted  in  heaps;  and 
consequently  sulphuric  acid  must  be  added  to  the  water  when  the  zinc- 
vitriol  is  lixiviated,  (ride  roasting  at  the  Herzog  Julius  Hiitte,)  in  order 
that  more  zinc-sulpliate  may  be  formed,  or  the  zinc-salts  not  dissolved 
in  water  will  greatly  disturb  the  smelting  process. 

392.  Copper-smelting. — The  roasted  copper-ore  was  formerly  smelted  in 
low-hearth  blast-furnaces  (Krummofen)  with  one  tuyere.  They  were  2.09 
meters  high;  width  in  front,  0.42  meter;  width  behind,  0.G3  meter, and  0.94 
meter  deep.  The  charge  was  composed  of  roasted  ore,  calcined  and  raw 
argillaceous  slate,  slag  from  the  matte-smelting,  and  occasionally  small 
quantities  of  slag  from  the  ore-smelting.  The  products  were  konigslcnpfer , 
(copper  containing  arsenic  and  antimony,)  with  75  to  90  per  cent,  cop¬ 
per  aud  0.2  per  cent.=5S  oz.  6  dwt.  silver;  it  was  refined,  granulated, 
and  the  silver  extracted  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Baw  matte,  with 
59  per  cent,  copper  aud  0.05  per  cent. =14  oz.  11  dwt.  14  gr.  silver,  was 
roasted  in  heaps  aud  smelted  iu  the  ore-smelting  furnaces  with  argil, 
laceous  slate.  The  copper  from  this  operation  was  refined.  The  process 
of  oxidation  being  carried  too  far,  a  small  quantity  of  lead  was  added 


LOWER  HARZ  COPPER-SMELTING. 


129 


to  the  copper  and  it  was  again  refined.  The  copper-matte  from  the  same 
smelting  containing  60  per  cent,  copper,  was  roasted  in  heaps  from  five 
to  six  times,  and  then  smelted  without  any  flax.  The  copper  here  pro¬ 
duced  was  refined  with  the  over-refined  copper  from  the  previous  opera¬ 
tion.  The  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  iron  in  the  ore  caused  a  very 
imperfect  smelting  process,  and  although  numberless  attempts  were 
made,  for  the  purpose  of  removiug  the  many  difficulties  attending  the 
reduction  of  the  ores  in  shaft-furnaces,  none  met  with  material  success. 

303.  The  latest  experiments*  mentioned  in  that  direction  were  made 
in  a  shaft- furuace  3.4  meters  high ;  it  had  at  first  four  tuyeres,  but,  as 
these  were  found  to  be  too  many,  this  number  was  reduced  to  two.  An 
acid  flux  of  slag  from  the  ore-smelting  in  the  Rachette  furnace  at  Lau- 
tenthal,  was  substituted  for  the  basic  slag  formerly  used,  but  the  reduc¬ 
tion  of  iron  and  the  formation  of  salamanders  were  increased,  instead  of 
being  diminished,  and  the  furnace  had  to  be  blown  out  after  a  three- 
days’  campaign.  It  was  hereby  observed  that  the  reduction  of  iron 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  width  of  the  smelting-zone.  Other  experi¬ 
ments  in  this  furnace,  with  differently-constituted  charges,  led  to  like 
results.  The  use  of  Mansfeld  copper-slag  from  the  ore-smelting,  as  a  flux 
in  shaft-furnaces  with  one  tuyere,  was  also  unsuccessful.  It  was  expected 
to  extract  the  copper  it  contained,  (0.6  per  cent.,)  but  this  was  not  pos¬ 
sible,  as  a  slag  was  produced  with  a  still  greater  amount  of  copper.  The 
process,  however,  would  have  been  more  advantageous  than  the  one 
then  in  vogue,  had  not  the  large  amount  of  this  slag,  (60  to  70  per  cent.,) 
used  as  a  flux,  caused  a  correspondingly  large  consumption  of  fuel. 

It  was  concluded  in  1870  to  abandon  the  method  of  reducing  the  ores 
in  shaft-furnaces,  and  adopt  the  process,  now  extensivelj'  employed  in 
England,  of  roasting  the  partly-desulphurized  ores  with  salt,  dissolving 
the  copper,  silver,  and  gold,  and  a  subsequent  precipitation  of  the  same. 

304.  The  works  for  this  process  were  accordingly  commenced  in  1871, 
completed  in  1872,  and  the  process  put  in  operation  in  1873.  The  plant 
for  this  process  is  at  present  limited,  but  is  arranged  so  as  to  admit  of 
being  extensively  enlarged.  It  consists  iu  a  mill  for  crushing  the  roasted 
ore  from  the  sulphuric-acid  manufactory,  a  reverberatory  roasting-furnace 
with  a  gas-generator  attached,  in  which  the  ore  is  roasted  with  salt,  and 
the  necessary  lixiviating  and  precipitating  tubs  and  boxes. 

Herr  Ulrich,  superintendent  of  the  Oker  smelting-works,  has  proved 
by  a  series  of  experiments  that  ores  with  10  to  12  per  cent,  copper  and 
8.26  to  9.26  per  cent,  sulphur  are  as  suitable  for  this  process  as  ores 
much  poorer  in  copper.  In  England,  4  per  cent,  is  considered  the  max¬ 
imum  amount  of  copper  for  ores  to  be  treated  by  this  process.  The 
richer  ores  naturally  require  a  longer  roasting  period.  It  was  also 
shown  by  these  experiments  that  15  per  cent,  of  salt  was  the  proper 
quantity  for  ores  with  the  above  percentage  of  copper.  The  copper-ores 

*  These  experiments  are  from  Ur.  Wedding’s  improvements  in  the  government  works 
PrtussUclie  Zeitschrift. 

9  M 


130 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


were  first  treated  in  1873  at  Oker  according  to  this  method.  The  period, 
therefore,  in  which  this  process  has  been  in  operation  is  so  short  that  it 
scarcely  is  to  be  considered  as  perfect ;  for  the  daily  experiences  with  a 
process  newly  introduced  continually  show  where  improvements  can  he 
made  and  where  alterations  are  necessary. 

305.  The  different  manipulations  may  be  classed  as  follows: 

CHLORINATION  PROCESS.— PRELIMINARY  OPERATIONS. 

1.  Crushing  the  roasted  ore  from  the  sulphuric-acid  manufactory. 

2.  boasting  the  crushed  ore  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  with  salt;  a 
certain  proportion  between  the  copper  and  sulphur  is  desired.  It  is 
stated  that  for  a  successful  operation  the  sulphur  in  the  ore  must  not  be 
more  than  1.5  as  much  as  the  copper  contents. 

Copper  extraction. —  1.  Lixiviating  the  chloridized  ore  with  water,  then 
with  the  solution  from  the  first  lixiviation  of  a  preceding  charge;  these 
two  solutions  contain  the  greater  part  of,  and  the  purest  copper;  also 
about  95  per  cent,  of  the  silver  and  a  corresponding  amount  of  gold. 
The  silver  is  dissolved  by  means  of  the  alkaline  salts  of  chlorine,  which 
always  exist  in  the  mass  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities.  The  residue  is 
finally  treated  with  very  dilute  hydrochloric  acid;  the  copper  extracted 
by  means  of  the  acid  solution  is  impure,  and  is  used  in  the  production  of 
inferior  grades  of  copper. 

Each  dissolving  liquid  seldom  remains  in  contact  with  the  ore  more 
than  one  hour,  care  being  taken  that  it  is  tapped  off  immediately  upon 
its  ceasing  to  dissolve  fresh  quantities  of  copper  salts.  The  decopperized 
residue  is  removed,  and  the  lixiviating-box  prepared  for  a  new  charge. 

Silver  ami  copper  precipitation. — 1.  The  solution  containing  95  per 
cent,  of  the  silver  and  gold  is  treated,  according  to  M.  Claudet’s  patent, 
with  iodide  of  potassium.  This  is  too  well  known  to  need  a  further 
description  here. 

2.  The  copper  is  precipitated  by  means  of  iron;  steam  is  conducted 
into  the  dissolving-liquid,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  precipitation. 

Copper-smelting. — 1.  The  copper  extracted  from  the  water  solution  is 
smelted  with  black  copper,  which  is  refined,  and  produces  copper  of  a 
superior  quality. 

2.  The  copper  from  acid  solution  is  smelted  for  matte;  this  produces 
copper  of  a  poorer  quality. 

30G.  The  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  copper-vitriol  is  conducted 
here  iu  the  same  manuer  as  at  Altenau,  but  on  a  much  more  extensive 
scale.  Attempts  were  made  to  roast  the  powdered  ore  (erzklein)  in  a 
Hasenclever  and  Helbig  furnace,  but  the  unsatisfactory  results  which 
were  obtained  are  ascribed  to  the  unfavorable  condition  of  the  ore, 
which,  having  previously  been  exposed  to  a  damp  atmosphere,  had  partly 
undergone  a  chemical  reaction  in  the  formation  of  copper  and  iron  vitriol. 
This  is,  therefore,  no  criterion  of  the  inadequacy  of  this  furnace,  which 
has  given  very  good  results  at  other  places. 


CHLORINATION  PROCESS. 


131 


307.  Experiments,  made  in  concentrating  sulphuric  acid  with  the  view  of 
economizing  fuel,  have  shown  that  only  where  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  heat  generated,  as  in  the  shaft- furnaces,  wherein  the  copper-ores  are 
roasted,  is  it  possible  to  concentrate  the  acid  without  appropriating 
heat,  which  is  necessary  for  a  good  roasting  of  the  ore.  The  attempt  to 
concentrate  the  acid  by  a  battery  of  cylindrical  jars  of  lead  and  porce¬ 
lain  was  also  unsuccessful.  The  latest  trials  were  made  by  conduct¬ 
ing  steam  in  lead  pipes  through  the  acid,  the  results  of  which  the  author 
has  not  been  able  to  obtain. 

308.  The  Oker  smelting-works  producer!  in  1872  :  1,000,000  kilograms 
of  copper-vitriol ;  400  kilograms  of  argentiferous  copper. 

309.  The  Herzog  Julius  Hiitte. — The  copper-lead  ores  which  have 
undergone  one  roasting  in  shaft-furnaces  at  Oker  are  sent  to  these  works 
for  reduction.  They  are  roasted  twice  in  heaps;  the  first  roasting  is 
conducted  in  the  open  air,  the  second  under  a  roof.  The  heaps  are 
about  2.25  meters  high  ;  length  of  sides  at  the  bottom  9.5  meters,  at  the 
top  3  meters.  The  roasting-period  is  18  to  22  weeks.  The  heap  is  cov¬ 
ered  with  fine  ore.  which  has  been  twice  roasted.  The  sulphur,  owing 
to  an  insufficient  access  of  air,  is  only  partially  oxidized ;  another  portion 
is  sublimed,  and  is  obtained  by  making  deep  round  cavities  in  the  top 
of  the  heap.  The  sulphur,  upon  coming  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere, 
passes  into  a  liquid  state,  is  cooled,  and  precipitated  on  the  sides  of  the 
round  cavities.  It  is  removed  every  morning. 

The  second  roasting  in  heaps  is  conducted  under  a  roof ;  upon  the 
completion  of  the  roasting,  sulphuric  acid  is  thrown  over  the  heap,  and 
the  zinc-sulphate  is  washed  to  the  bottom.  The  fine  ore  from  the  bottom 
is  taken  to  the  lixiviating-boxes. 

310.  Manufacture  of  zinc-vitriol. — The  zinc-sulphate,  which  is  formed 
during  the  first  roasting,  is  partly  washed  to  the  bottom  by  being  exposed 
to  the  weather,  so  that,  when  the  roasting  is  finished  and  the  top  and 
larger  pieces  of  ore  removed,  the  fine  ore  and  that  in  the  bottom  of  the 
heap  contain  considerable  zinc- sulphate ;  this  is  removed  to  large  lixivi¬ 
ating-boxes,  and,  together  with  ore  obtained  from  the  second  roasting  in 
heaps,  is  treated  as  follows :  The  lixiviating-boxes  are  2.6  meters  long,  1.4 
meters  wide,  1  meter  high.  The  water  enters  through  a  wooden  trough 
over  the  top  of  the  box.  On  one  end  of  the  box  four  spigots  are  placed  ; 
the  lower  is  0.2  meter  from  the  bottom,  the  other  three  are  situated,  each , 
0.1  meter  higher  than  the  preceding  spigot.  The  ore  is  lixiviated  with 
water,  to  which  10  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added.  The  ore 
and  liquid  are  well  mixed  by  an  energetic  stirring  with  poles.  After 
the  mass  has  settled  over  night,  the' liquid  is  tapped  off  by  means  of  the 
spigots  in  the  end  of  the  box.  The  same  process  is  then  repeated.  The 
residue  is  dried  and  sent  to  the  ore-smelting.  The  liquid  is  first  con¬ 
ducted  into  a  reservoir,  where  the  impurities,  mechanically  held  in 
solution,  are  allowed  to  settle;  it  is  then  conducted  into  a  large  leaden 
pan  and  heated,  whereby  iron  sesquioxide  is  precipitated.  Copper  is 


132 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


next  precipitated  by  allowing  the  solution  to  flow  iuto  boxes,  in  which 
strips  of  zinc  are  suspended.  The  solution  is  then  conducted  back  into 
the  lead  evaporating-pan,  and  kept  at  00°  to  80  °R.  until  the  zinc-vitriol 
commences  to  foam,  when  it  is  tapped  iuto  wooden  tubs,  in  which  long 
thin  pieces  of  wood  are  suspended.  The  first  portion  of  zinc-vitriol  that 
forms  contains  silver;  the  solution  is  therefore  only  allowed  to  remain 
for  a  certain  time  in  the  first  crystallization-tub  and  is  then  conducted 
into  a  second,  where  a  complete  crystallization  takes  place.  The  zinc- 
vitriol  from  the  second  tub  is  dried  in  a  mu  tile-furnace,  and,  although 
containing  a  small  amount  of  impurities,  is  an  article  of  commerce  which 
finds  a  ready  sale.  The  zinc-vitriol  from  the  first  crystallization-tub, 
containing  a  small  amount  of  silver,  is  first  calcined  in  a  mu  file-furnace, 
and  then  added  to  the  charge  for  the  ore-smelting  iu  small  portions. 
From  17  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  zinc  contained  iu  the  ore  is  extracted  by 
this  process.  This  is  not  only  an  economical  method  of  extracting  zinc 
from  poor  pyritous  ores,  but  the  much-desired  elimination  of  zinc  from 
lead,  copper,  and  silver  ores  is  also  effected.  The  plant  necessary  for 
this  process  is  inexpensive,  everything  being  constructed  of  wood,  ex¬ 
cept  the  leaden  evaporating-pan  and  inutile  drying-furnace;  the  cost  of 
labor  is  also  very  small.  It  is,  however,  necessary  that  the  roasting  be 
conducted  iu  free  heaps,  in  order  that  the  formation  of  zinc-sulphate 
may  be  large  :  as  this  compels  capital  to  remain  idle  for  a  long  time,  it 
is  not  often  to  be  recommended. 

31 1.  The  smelting  of  the  lead-ore  is  conducted  in  hearth  blast  furnaces 
with  one  tuyere.  They  are  4.39  meters  high,  0.549  meter  wide  at  back, 
0.314  meter  wide  in  front,  and  1.2'  meters  deep.  The  charge  is  com¬ 
posed  of  100  kilograms  roasted  and  lixiviated  ore,  27.7  kilograms  copper- 
slag  from  Oker,  22.41  kilograms  ore-slag  from  Lautenthal.  2. GG  kilograms 
lead-flux,  33  kilograms  coke,  2  kilograms  charcoal.  The  campaign  com¬ 
mences  every  Monday  morning,  and  on  account  of  the  formation  of 
salamanders,  lasts  only  until  the  following  Saturday,  when  the  furnace 
is  blown  out. 

312.  The  products  are  slag,  silver-lead,  matte,  and  a  small  amount  of 
lead-speiss.  The  slag  is  broken  with  sledge-hammers,  and  the  pieces 
containing  ore,  or  silver-lead  mechanically  mixed,  are  picked  out  and 
added  to  the  ore-charge,  the  rest  discarded.  The  silver-lead  is  melted 
and  poled  in  a  Fattinson's  kettle,  the  abzug  is  removed,  and  the  lead  is 
cast  into  molds.  The  silver-lead  is  then  cupelled  in  a  German  cupella- 
tion-hearth.  The  charge  is  10,000  kilograms,  from  which  G  kilograms 
of  fine  silver  are  produced.  The  abstrich  is  reduced,  liquated,  and  anti- 
monial  lead  produced.  The  rich  litharge  is  added  to  the  ore-charge; 
the  poor  litharge  is  either  sold  or  reduced  iu  a  low  shaft-furnace. 
The  lead-matte,  containing  2.75  per  cent,  lead  and  3.9  per  ceut.  cop¬ 
per,  is  subjected  to  three  roastings  in  free  heaps,  and  is  then  smelted 
with  slag  from  Oker  and  slag  from  the  ore-smelting  at  Lautenthal.  The 
silver  lead  produced  is  treated  in  the  same  mauner  as  the  silver-lead 


MANSFELD  SMELTING-FURNACE. 


133 


from  the  ore-smelting  and  cupelled.  The  copper-matte  is  roasted  three 
times  in  free  heaps,  and  then  smelted  for  black  copper  with  3  per  cent, 
of  slag  from  Oker  and  3  per  cent,  of  calcined  argillaceous  slate.  The 
black  copper  is  sent  to  Oker. 

313.  There  are  at  present  in  operation  at  the  Herzog  Julius  Hiitte 
six  smelting-furnaces,  two  cupellation-furnaces,  and  a  zinc- vitriol  estab¬ 
lishment.  It  treated,  in  1870,  5,321,000  kilograms  of  lead-ore. 

314.  Gewerschaftlich  Mansfeldisohen  Hutten.— The  Mans- 
feld  Smelting  Company  was  represented  by  products  of  copper-smeltiug, 
such  as  refined  copper  and  copper  worked  up  into  various  articles  of 
commerce,  silver  extracted  according  to  Ziervogel’s  method,  and  a 

;  model  of  a  Pilz  furnace  with  six  tuyeres,  newly  erected  at  the  Kruglmtte. 

315.  The  round  furnace  {vide  Fig.  I)  has  entirely  superseded  the 
!  u  spectacle  ”  furnaces,  {i.  e.,  having  two  reception  basins  in  front,)  and 

has  also  proved  its  immense  superiority  over  the  latter.  The  new  fur¬ 
nace  at  the  “  Krnghiitte”  was  built  according  to  the  drawing,  (Fig.  I,) 
i  with  the  exceptions  that  a  Langon’s  charging-hopper  was  substituted 
t  for  the  Parry’s;  and,  as  the  high  furnace  worked  too  energetically  in 
i  the  reduction  of  iron,  and  produed  a  matte  rich  in  iron  and  poor  in  cop- 
j  per,  the  newly-erected  furnace  only  measured  7.22  millimeters  from  the 
sole  to  the  top,  1.88  millimeters  in  diameter  at  tuyeres,  and  2.20  milli¬ 
meters  at  the  top.  By  smelting  with  a  small  pressure  of  blast,  an  even 
and  uniform  working  is  effected.  The  matte  and  slag  are  separated 
more  perfectly  in  the  highly-heated  crucible  than  in  hearth-furnaces. 

. 

DIMENSIONS  and  description  of  FIG.  I.* 

a.  Furnace  shaft. 

b.  Slag-spout. 

c.  Tap-hole  for  matte,  which  runs  through  the  spout  d  into  the  divid- 
ij  iug-trough  e,  into  the  water-basin  /,  where  it  is  granulated  and  pre¬ 
pared  for  the  following  operation — roasting. 

g.  Blast-pipe. 

h.  Gas-pipe  leading  to  the  canal,  l. 

1c.  Parry’s  hopper,  0.94  millimeter  in  diameter  and  0.78  millimeter 
high.  By  lowering  and  raising  the  iron  cone,  i.  e.,  above  and  below  the 
opening  xx,  the  charge  is  directed  toward  the  periphery  or  center  of  the 
shaft. 

to.  Lining,  at  the  bottom  0.47  millimeter,  middle  0.31  millimeter,  top 
0.26  millimeter  thick. 

n.  Mantle  at  bottom  1.02  millimeters,  top  0.68  millimeter  thick,  6.43 
millimeters  high,  and  is  supported  by  iron  pillars  o. 

The  blast-nozzles  and  matte  tap-hole  are  cooled  by  iron  boxes  con¬ 
taining  spiral-shaped  wrought-iron  tubes,  through  which  the  water 
circulates. 

*  The  dimensions  and  drawing  are  taken  from  the  “Berg-  and  Hiittenmanische  Zei- 
tung,”  1874,  p.  115. 


]34  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

310.  The  ore  treated  is  principally  a  copper-schist,  occurring  in  beds 
in  Zechsteiu.  The  beds  have  a  maximum  width  of  03  centimeters,  but 
only  about  5.18  centimeters  of  this  is  sent  to  the  works  for  reduction. 
The  ore  contains  from  1.0  per  cent,  to  4  per  cent,  copper ;  the  copper 
carries  0.50  to  0.15  per  cent.  =  43  oz.  13  dwt.  to  103  oz.  15  dwt.  19  gr. 
silver.  The  important  mining  industry  of  Mausfeld  had  its  commence¬ 
ment  toward  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  since  that  time  the 
mines  have  been  worked  uninterruptedly.  At  first  the  ore  was  smelted 
for  black  copper,  and  the  latter  desilverized  by  liquation,  but  the  dearth 
of  lead-ores  was  the  cause  of  the  adoption  of  the  Augustin  process  in 
1830.  At  first  this  process  did  not  meet  with  good  success,  but,  later 
on,  gave  better  results. 

317.  The  Augustin  silver  extraction. — It  has  been  long  known  that  chlo¬ 
ride  of  silver  is  soluble  in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  sodium.  It  is  spoken 
of  by  lvarsten  in  his  view  of  the  process  of  amalgamation,  and  it  was 
also  formerly  made  use  of  in  Freiberg  in  the  chlorination  roasting. 

It  was  Augustin,  however,  who  iu  the  year  1843  first  made  use  of  it 
on  a  large  scale  at  the  Gottesbelobnung  I3iitte,  near  Mausfeld.  The  pro¬ 
cess  consists  in  an  oxidizing  roasting,  followed  by  a  chloridizing  roast¬ 
ing  of  the  argentiferous  substance  ;  dissolving  of  the  chloride  of  silver 
thereby  formed  in  a  chloride  of  sodium  solution,  and  precipitation  of  the 
silver  with  metallic  copper.  This  method  is  only  capable  of  treating 
such  substances  as  are  free  (or  nearly  so)  from  all  ingredients  that  act 
disadvantageously  to  the  process.  When  such  substances  are  present 
the  reactions  take  place  but  imperfectly,  and  the  process  is  accompa¬ 
nied  with  a  great  loss  of  metal.  This  process  therefore  was  better  suited 
for  argentiferous  metallurgical  products  than  for  silver-ores,  as  the  for¬ 
mer  is  more  apt  to  have  the  required  composition.  Experiments  have 
been  made  at  several  places  with  this  method  and  even  adopted  at 
some  works,  but  with  few  exceptions  it  has  been  replaced  by  others. 

318.  The  Augustin  process  was  superseded  by  the  “Ziervogal  water 
lixiviation  process”  in  1848.  This  process  is  based  upon  the  conversion 
of  the  sulphide  of  silver  contained  in  an  ore  or  metallurgical  product 
into  a  sulphate,  by  means  of  roasting,  dissolving  the  sulphate  of  silver 
in  hot  acidulated  water,  and  precipitation  of  the  dissolved  silver  with 
metallic  copper.  This  is  one  of  the  most  subtle  processes  known  to  the 
science  of  metallurgy,  as  regards  the  oxidizing  roasting.  The  oxidation 
of  the  sulphate  of  silver  is  principally  effected  by  the  gaseous  sulphur¬ 
ous  acid,  set  free  iu  the  roasting  temperature  from  the  sulphate  salts 
present.  The  salt  most  friendly  disposed  to  assist  this  reaction  is  sul¬ 
phate  of  copper,  it  being  disposed  to  part  with  its  sulphuric  acid  during 
the  period  in  which  the  sulphate  of  silver  is  formed.  The  preseuce  of 
protosulphide  of  iron  is  of  advantage  within  certain  limits,  as  it  is  con¬ 
verted  into  a  basic  salt  of  the  sulphate  of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  and  as  this 
salt  parts  with  its  sulphuric  acid  during  an  early  stage  of  the  roastiug- 
process,  the  latter  is  decomposed,  and  the  oxygen  converts  the  sulphide 


AUGUSTIN  SILVER-EXTRACTION. 


135 


of  copper  into  a  sulphate,  whereby  the  formation  of  copper-vitriol  is  for¬ 
warded  and  the  length  of  the  roastiug-period  is  shortened.  The  rich 
copper-matte,  (70  to  72  per  cent.  Co,)  poor  in  iron,  (11  per  cent.  Fe,)  of 
Mansfeld,  is  exactly  suited  to  this  method  of  treatment.  Experiments 
were  made  in  Schemnitz  with  argentiferous  raw-matte,  which  was  prin¬ 
cipally  composed  of  protosulphide  of  iron.  Only  73  per  cent,  of  the 
silver  contained  in  the  matte  was  obtained,  and  27  per  cent,  remained 
unextracted  in  the  residue.  If  metallic  copper  is  present  in  the  matte, 
it  acts  disadvantageous^  iu  the  extraction. 

In  England,  black  copper  is  granulated,  calcined,  crushed,  and  then 
roasted  with  copper  and  iron  vitriol. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  substances  to  be  treated  by  this  process 
should  be  free  from  the  following  ingredients,  viz :  zinc,  arsenic,  and 
antimony,  for  they  dispose  the  silver  to  volatilization  ;  the  sulphides  of 
lead  and  antimony  cause  the  roasting-charge  to  agglomerate.  In  a  well- 
conducted  roasting  it  is  principally  oxides  (oxides  of  iron  and  copper) 
and  sulphate  of  silver  that  are  formed  ;  some  sulphide  of  copper  is  also 
produced.  If  the  temperature  becomes  too  high,  (much  higher  than 
from  750°  to  770°  0.,)  the  sulphate  of  silver  formed  will  be  decomposed 
and  metallic  silver  formed.  It  is  clear  from  the  above  that  the  process, 
although  the  cheapest  method  of  silver-extraction  from  copper  ore  or 
products,  is  seldom  capable  of  being  made  use  of,  on  account  of  its  re¬ 
quiring  very  pure  material,  (so  far  as  regards  the  points  above  men¬ 
tioned,)  as  well  as  expert  and  experienced  workmen. 

319.  Between  1864  and  1866,  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
the  use  of  Gerstenhofer  furnaces,  for  roasting  the  granulated  and  pow¬ 
dered  copper-matte,  were  introduced;  and  siuce  1867  the  following 
improvements  have  been  made  :  Blast-furnace  with  six  tuyeres  and 
blast-kilns  for  the  production  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  a  dispensation  of 
the  black-copper  process  by  using  rich  desilverization  residue,  (entsil- 
beruugsmehle.) 

320.  The  present  reduction  process  is  simple.  It  consists  in  a  roast¬ 
ing  of  the  ore,  followed  by  a  smelting  for  copper-matte;  this  is  roasted 
in  powder  form,  (Gerstenhofer  furnace,)  and  then  is  desilverized  by  the 
Ziervogel  process;  the  copper  residue  is  then  smelted  and  refined.  The 
production  of  these  works  for  1872  amounted  to  22,900  kilograms  sil¬ 
ver,  5,500,000  kilograms  copper,  and  about  4,550,000  kilograms  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  of  50°  B.  Six  thousand  men  are  employed  in  the  mines,  and 
1,100  at  the  reduction-works. 

321.  Upper  Silesia. — The  following  articles  were  exhibited  from  the 
Friedrich  Hiitte: 

A  twisted  square  rod  of  soft  lead,  and  another  rod  of  soft  lead  which 
had  been  hammered  out  to  12.4  times  its  original  length. 

Several  products  from  the  operations  of  zinc  desilverization  and  smelt- 


136 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


ing  were  exhibited,  giving  the  visitor  an  interesting  insight  into  their 
operations.  They  were: 

Kick  argentiferous  zinc-dross,  containing  0.4  per  cent,  silver  =  11 G  oz. 
12  dwt.  per  ton  of  2,000  pounds,  and  dross  from  liquation  carrying  08 
to  70  per  cent,  lead  and  1.5  to  2.5  per  cent.  silver=43G  oz.  16  dwt.  to 
72S  oz.  16  dwt.  per  ton  of  2,000  pounds. 

Fumes  from  the  desilverization-works,  containing  47  per  cent,  lead 
and  0.018  per  cent.  silver=7  oz.,  nearly;  residue  from  ore-smelting  in 
reverberatory  furnaces,  carrying  38  to  50  per  cent,  lead  and  0.01  to  0.04 
per  cent,  silver  =  2  oz.  IS  dwt.  4.80  gr.  to  11  oz.  13  dwt.  4.S0  gr.;  fumes 
from  the  blast-furnaces,  with  70  per  cent,  zinc  oxide  and  3  per  cent, 
lead  and  cadmium  oxide;  other  fumes  from  shaft-furnaces,  with  SO  per 
cent.  Va\.  ()  and  2  percent,  l’b.  O;  fumen  from  reverberatory  furnace? 
with  50  percent.  Pb.  and  0.009  percent.  Ag.  =  24  oz. ;  fumes  from  cupel- 
lation  furnace,  with  02  percent,  l’b.  and  0.015  percent.  Ag.  =54  oz. ;  im¬ 
pure  slag,  assaying  from  2.5  to  0  per  cent,  lead  and  0.002  to  0.006  per 
cent.  silver=  11  dwt.  15.84  gr.  to  1  oz.  14  dwt.  23.52  gr.;  trift-schlacke, 
(top  slag,)  with  0.25  to  1.0  per  cent.  lead. 

322.  Upper  Silesia  has  not  so  great  a  variety  of  mineral  treasures  as 
Lower  Silesia,  but  her  ore-deposits  are  more  extensive — in  fact,  it  is  the 
richest  mineral  district  in  Germany.  Argentiferous  galena,  forming  a 
continuous  bed,  in  the  “  Muschelkalk,”  is  principally  found  on  or  near 
the  bordering  limestone  or  dolomite.  It  also  occurs  in  nodules,  asso¬ 
ciated  with  cerusite,  in  the  calamine  beds.  The  ore  is  almost  free 
from  metallic  impurities.  It  contains  more  or  less  blende,  small  amount 
of  silica,  1  per  cent,  alumina,  2.3  per  cent,  carbonate  of  protoxide  of 
iron,  and  considerable  quantities  of  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  lead.  It 
contains  from  0.0734  to  0.0764  per  cent.  =  22  oz.  silver. 

323.  The  Tarnowitz  Lead  and  Silver  Smelting- Works  were  erected  in 
1 780.  The  iron-reduction  process  was  first  practiced,  using  iron  tap-cinder 
as  the  precipitation-medium,  as  the  ores  carried  a  large  percentage  of  zinc- 
blende.  This  method  was  succeeded  by  smelting  in  what  were  pro¬ 
nounced  to  be  Flintshire  furnaces.  About  the  year  1S64  the  production 
of  ore  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that  it  was  found  necessary  to  erect 
larger  furnaces.  These  are  now  the  largest  reverberatory  furnaces  in  the 
world.  They  are  built  with  eight  working-doors,  and  hold  a  charge  of 
3,750  kilograms  of  ore.  The  new  furnaces  are  of  the  following  dimen¬ 
sions :  Length  of  hearth,  5.07  meters;  width,  2.772  meters.  The  fire¬ 
bridge  is  1. 883  meters  long  and  0.732  meters  wide.  The  fire-grate  is  2.51 
meters  long  and  0.523  meter  in  width.  The  working-doors  are  0.262  wide 
and  0.209  meter  high.  The  fine  is  divided  iuto  four  compartments,  and  is 
1.30  meters  wide  by  0.392  meter  high.  The  hearth  consists  of  a  layer 
of  sand  :  then  a  layer  of  clay  bricks,  0.157  meter  thick  ;  then  a  brasque- 
hearth,  on  the  top  of  which  is  melted  a  layer  of  basic  iron  tap-cinder. 
The  old  furnace  contained  a  charge  of  2,000  kilograms  ore.  The  con¬ 
sumption  of  fuel  in  the  new  furnaces  is  per  100  kilograms  ore  but  little 


SILESIAN  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


137 


more  than  half  of  the  consumption  for  a  like  amount  of  ore  in  the 
smaller  furnaces.  As  the  workingmen  are  paid  according  to  the  amount 
of  silver-lead  produced,  the  wages  remain  the  same. 

324.  There  are  three  distinct  smelting-operations,  as  the  processes 
are  conducted  at  present.  The  ore  carrying  about  73  per  cent,  of  lead 
is  treated  in  the  large  new  furnaces,  with  what  is  known  as  the  combined 
Carinthiau  and  English  processes.  The  time  consumed  in  roasting  is 
three  to  four  hours ;  the  entire  manipulation  lasts  seven  hours.  The 
five  new  furnaces  have  a  capacity  of  8.450.000  kilograms  ore  a  year ; 
this  is  calculating  thirteen  charges  per  furnace  a  week  and  forty  work¬ 
ing  weeks.  The  ore  containing  from  40  to  50  per  cent,  lead,  and  often 
carrying  considerable  zinc,  is  smelted  in  the  old  furnaces,  according  to 
the  iron-reduction  process  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  Iron-slag  from 
the  puddling-furnace  has  been  found  to  act  much  better  than  metallic 
iron.  The  oxygen  liberated  when  the  iron  unites  with  the  sulphur  acts 
powerfully  oxydizing.  The  charge  is  composed  of  1,500  kilograms 
galena-slimes,  500  kilograms  cerusite,  and  2,000  kilograms  ore.  From 
this  there  is  produced  from  15  to  24  per  cent,  silver-lead.  This  charge 
is  first  agglomerated,  then  iron-slag  from  the  puddling-furnace  is  added  ; 
a  large  amount  of  zinc  is  volatilized  as  zinc  oxides.  It  was  attempted 
to  dissolve  zinc  in  raw  lead-matte  (as  is  successfully  done  in  Freiberg) 
by  an  addition  to  the  charge  of  5  per  cent,  of  the  product ;  this,  how¬ 
ever,  gave  very  poor  results.  The  residue  is  smelted  in  shaft-furnaces, 
with  20  per  cent,  of  iron-slags  from  the  puddling-furnace,  and  30  per 
cent,  of  poor  slag  from  the  same  operation.  The  third  smelting-process 
is  that  whereby  the  ore  containing  under  40  per  cent,  of  lead  is  (since 
1868)  first  agglomerated  in  a  reverberatory  roasting-f'urnace,  (Fortshau- 
felungsofen.)  Water,  carbonic  acid,  and  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  are 
hereby  driven  off,  and  the  ore  is  then  prepared  for  smelting  in  shaft-fur¬ 
naces,  which  follows.  These  were  materially  improved  in  1868 ;  they 
were  widened  toward  the  top  and  furnished  with  water-tuyeres.  A  cam¬ 
paign  lasts  about  eight  weeks.  The  ore  and  fuel  are  charged  in  alter¬ 
nate  horizontal  layers.  The  residue  from  smelting  the  rich  ore,  without 
the  addition  of  iron,  or  substance  containing  this  metal,  forms  the 
greater  part  of  the  charge.  The  charge  is  made  in  proportion  to  the 
above  residue.  This  residue  is  composed  of : 


33.  18 

per  cent,  lead  oxide. 

13. -27 

per  cent,  lead  sulphate 

22.  86 

per  cent,  zinc  oxide. 

8.  96 

per  cent,  iron  peroxide. 

11. 19 

per  cent.  lime. 

3.  56 

per  cent,  silicic  acid. 

1.83 

per  cent,  iron  protosulphide. 

4.  82 

per  cent,  carbon. 

0.  015 

per  cent,  silver. 

99. 685 


138 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Composition  of  charge : 

100  kilograms  residue  from  slime  smelting. 

50  kilograms  agglomerated  slime. 

20  kilograms  rich  litharge. 

10  kilograms  hearth, 'from  cupellation-fnrnace. 

3  kilograms  iron. 

55  kilograms  slag  from  puddling-furnace. 

5  kilograms  limestone. 

40  kilograms  slag  from  same  process,  half  of  which  contains  lead  and 
silver. 

In  consequence  of  the  increased  dimensions  of  reverberatory  fur¬ 
naces,  and  the  attending  increased  production  of  residue  as  well  as  silver- 
lead,  it  was  found  necessary  in  1871  to  erect  new  free-standing  aud 
round  shaft-furnaces  with  eight  tuyeres  and  the  siphon  top  of  nu. 
Arents. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  smelting  operations  in  the  large 
furnaces  in  1803,  1804,  and  1805  :  * 


Tear. 

Amount  of  silver  and  lead  in  ore. 

Lead  produced  from  the  furnaces. 

Kilograms. 

Assaying. 

1863  . 

1864  . 

1865  . 

69.  81  per  cent.  Pb  _ 

71.  61  per  cent.  Pb . 

79.  97  per  cent.  Pb . 

0.  0761  per  cent.  Ag. ... 
0.  07341  per  cent.  Ag. . . 
0. 07401  per  cent.  Ag. . . 

2,  549 

3,  050 

3,  192 

0. 137  per  cent,  silver. 

0.  116  per  cent,  silver. 

0. 113  per  cent,  silver. 

Five  thousand  kilograms  ore  gave: 


Year. 

Residue. 

Fumes  containing — 

Kilograms. 

Lead. 

Silver. 

Kilograms. 

Lead.  ;  Silver. 

1863 . 

1,  587.  5 

1,  032 

796 

Per  cent. 
47.  5 
45.  3 
38.8 

Per  cent. 
0.018 
0.0111 

0.  0135 

53 

70  . 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

.  0. 012 

1864 . 

50  0. 005 

.  0. 009 

1365. . 

The  loss  was : 

1803  . 

1864  . 

1865  . 


Lead  per  cent.  Silver. 

..  3.22  0.0077 

. .  2.  96  0.  0003 

. .  1.  05  0.  00008 


The  production  of  the  different  metals  contained  in  the  charge  was  : 


Lead  per  cent.  Silver  per  cent- 

1S63  . 73.03  91.855 

1SG4  .  82.  43  90. 392 

1865  .  87.  49  99.  915 


The  balance  remained  in  the  intermediate  products. 

By  the  smelting  of  100  kilograms  ore,  containing  72.97  per  cent,  lead 


Vide  Percy  Kaunnelsberg,  Meiallur glides  Bh-ies  1872. 


SILESIAN  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


139 


and  0.074  silver,  46  kilograms  bituminous  coal  was  consumed.  The 
product  was  63.84  per  cent,  silver-lead,  15.92  per  cent,  residue,  contain¬ 
ing  39  per  cent,  lead,  2.75  per  cent,  fumes  containing  50  per  cent,  lead, 
equal  to  a  production  of  87.49  per  cent,  lead  and  99.9156  per  cent,  silver, 
giving  a  loss  of  1.65  of  lead,  0.00008  per  cent,  silver. 

The  lead  from  the  several  tappings  assayed  as  follows : 

Quantity  in  kilograms.  Per  cent,  silver. 

First  tapping .  440  0. 1445 

Second  tapping .  368.  5  0.  1210 

Third  tapping .  261  0. 1095 

Fourth  tapping .  133  0. 0995 

Fifth  tapping  .  106. 5  0. 1035 


Total,  (medium) .  1,309  0.5780 

325.  M.  Gruner  made  a  calculation  of  the  capacity  of  the  principal 
furnaces  using  the  English  or  Carinthian  methods,  or  modification  of 
both.  In  his  estimation  he  takes  three  hundred  working- days  in  the 
year,  and  ore  containing  70  to  80  per  cent.  lead. 

Carinthian  furnace,  150  tons ;  1  ton  =  1,000  kilograms. 

The  furnace  at  Engis,  350  to  400  tons. 

Bleyberg  furnace  with  two  fire-places,  1,200  tons. 

English  furnace  at  Snailbeach,  1,000  tons. 

English  furnace  in  Flintshire,  1,200  to  1,400  tons. 

English  furnace  at  Tarnowitz,  1,200  to  1,400  tons. 

From  a  comparison  made  by  Percy  of  the  capacity  of  the  same  furnaces 
I  take  the  following  figures ;  the  capacity  of  the  Carinthian  furnace  is 
taken  at  the  unit : 


Furnace. 

Lead  assay  of 
the  ore. 

Size  of  oharge. 

Amount  of  lead 
produced  in  the 
same  time. 

Per  cent 
67.  4 

1 

1 

77.7 

4 

6 

5 

7.5 

Flintshire . 

75.  80 
73 

6 

6.10 

113.6 

16 

The  large  production  in  the  Flintshire  furnace  is  owing  to  the  principle 
there  employed,  viz,  of  shortening  both  the  roasting  and  reaction 
periods.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  treat  the  immense  amount  of  ore. 
The  disadvantage  accompanying  such  a  process  is  the  high  temperature 
employed,  causing  volatilization  of  lead  and  silver,  to  condense  which 
exteusive  chambers  are  employed.  This  is  considered  of  less  importance 
than  the  increased  production,  the  saving  of  fuel,  and  general  expenses. 

326.  The  zinc- desilver  ization  process. — Pattinson’s  crystallization  pro- 


140 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


cess  was  experimented  on  at  these  works  in  1837,  but  was  first  intro¬ 
duced  on  a  large  scale  in  1861.  This  gave  way  in  I860  to  the  zinc- 
desilverization  process.  Already,  in  1842,  Karsteu*  published  that  he 
had  discovered  that  lead  gives  up  its  contents  of  silver  to  zinc  in 
proportion  as  a  melted  mixture  of  lead  and  zinc  is  exposed  to  the  con¬ 
ditions  most  favorable  to  a  complete  separation,  which  is  slow  cooling, 
lie  did  not  suggest,  however,  that  this  be  applied  to  practical  metal¬ 
lurgy;  but  one  year  after  Mr.  Parkes  had  taken  out  his  patent  (1S50) 
for  the  desilverization  of  lead  by  means  of  zinc,  Karsteu  made  a 
number  of  experiments  on  a  large  scale,  which  did  not  lead  to  suc¬ 
cessful  results.  Karsteu  attributed  the  failure  to  the  formation  of 
dross  and  oxides  attending  the  mixing  of  the  zinc  and  silver  lead, 
which  withdrew  much  metallic  zinc.  Percy  more  correctly  ascribed  it 
to  the  imperfect  separation  of  zinc  from  lead. 

327.  The  zinc-desilverizatiou  process  was  practically  introduced  here 
in  1869,  and  Pattinson’s  process  discarded.  The  difficulties  which  were 
attendant  upon  the  separation  of  the  rich  zinc-dross,  ( zinkstatib ,)  and 
which  caused  several  small  private  works  to  re  adopt  Pattinson’s  process, 
have  been,  at  the  Friedrichshiitte,  successfully  surmounted.  Steam 
(Cordurie’s  method)  was  employed  to  oxidize  zinc,  &c.,  and  the  method 
was  similar  also  in  other  respects  to  the  one  employed  at  Lautenthal. 
Although  the  imbibition  of  rich  oxides  by  t lie  cupellation  of  the  silver- 
lead  is,  in  Lautenthal,  preferable  to  Flach's  method,  it  is,  on  account  of 
the  large  quantity  of  abstract  produced,  containing  much  silver  and 
zinc,  and  the  high  temperature  employed,  &c.,  an  extremely  undesirable 
process.  In  addition  to  this,  the  absence  of  copper  and  antimony  from 
the  lead  caused  such  a  large  amount  of  lead  to  be  oxidized  by  thesepa- 
ration  of  the  zinc-silver  alloy  from  the  lead-silver  alloy,  (i.  e.,  rich  oxides 
from  zinc-dust,)  by  means  of  steam,  that  it  was  found  to  be  necessary 
to  abandon  this  part  of  the  process,  and  experiments,  therefore,  were 
made  in  order  to  determine  in  what  manner  the  silver-zinc  dross  could 
most  economically  and  advantageously  be  treated. t  ‘  With  this  object 
in  view,  experiments  were  made  on  a  small  scale.  First,  the  zinksUmb, 
or  silver  zinc  alloy,  was  melted,  with  an  addition  of  salt  and  charcoal, 
in  cast-iron  crucibles,  but  it  was  soou  found  that  this  method  was  im¬ 
practicable.  The  cast-iron  crucibles  would  melt  upon  the  approach  of 
the  high  temperature  necessary  for  the  reaction.  This  is  caused  by  an 
insufficient  supply  of  liquid  lead,  which  would  prevent  the  kettle- 
bottom  from  softening.  Another  obstacle  to  this  method  was  that  the 
amount  of  rich  lead  produced  averaged  only  63.25  per  cent.,  with  about 
three-fourths  of  the  silver  contained  in  the  zinc-dust.  By  Flach’s  proc¬ 
ess  85.38  per  ceut.  rich  lead  is  produced,  with  an  important  amount  of 
silver  in  the  slag. 

*  Karsteu  Archives,  1853,  25,  p.  196. 

tThe  data  of  these  experiments  are  from  Dr.  Weddings  yearly  report  to  the  Preus- 
sische  Zeitachrift. 


SILESIAN  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


141 


A  second  series  of  experiments  were  then  made  in  graphite  crucibles. 
It  was  desired,  in  a  continual  operation,  to  combine  separation  of  the 
silver-lead  alloy  from  the  silver-zinc  alloy,  and  at  the  same  time  accom¬ 
plish  a  reduction  of  zinc.  To  effect  this,  the  zinc-dust  was  mixed  with  5 
per  ceut.  dust-coal  and  subjected  to  a  high  heat.  In  the  lid  of  the  cru¬ 
cible  there  was  a  pipe  to  conduct  off  the  reduced  zinc.  The  results 
were  so  unfavorable  that  this  idea  was  abandoned,  and  experiments 
made  to  separate  the  silver-lead  alloy  from  the  silver-zinc  alloy  in 
wrought-irou  crucibles. 

328.  The  results  hereby  obtained  were  so  good,  that  it  has  been  in¬ 
troduced  and  practiced  for  the  last  three  years  with  great  success.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  authentic  statements  of  expenses  of  this  method 
were  not  to  be  obtained.  But  the  fact  that  it  is  used  to  desilverize  so 
large  a  quantity  of  silver-lead  as  is  there  produced,  where  economy  is 
so  closely  pursued  and  a  royalty  is  not  taken  into  consideration,  is  a 
strong  proof  that  it  has  material  advantages  over  other  known  methods. 
Additional  buildings  were  erected  in  1872,  in  which  the  following  proc¬ 
ess  is  conducted:  The  distillation-furnace  is  an  ordinary  zinc  furnace ; 
it  contains  24  muffles.  Heat  is  produced  by  a  gas-generator.  The  cast- 

,  iron  crucibles  are  cylindric,  2.6  centimeters  in  diameter,  52  centimeters 
deep,  and  2.6  centimeters  thick.  The  zinc-dust  ( zinkstaub )  is  mixed  with 
coal  about  the  size  of  pease  and  5  per  cent,  salt ;  the  latter  is  decrepi¬ 
tated  with  5  per  cent,  kieserite,  (Mg  O,  S  O  3+H  02.)  This  mass  is 
placed  in  the  already  heated  crucible,  in  the  bottom  of  which  crushed 
coke  is  spread  13  millimeters  thick  ;  a  layer  of  the  same  thickness  is 
spread  on  the  top  of  the  mass.  The  lid  is  then  put  ou,  and  the  charge 
is  exposed  to  a  low  temperature  for  about  two  hours  and  a  half ;  at  the 
end  of  this  time  the  rich  lead  will  have  collected  in  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible.  Eight  crucibles  have  the  capacity  of  a  low-shaft  furnace. 
The  products  are  rich  lead,  75  per  cent,  of  the  lead  contained  in  the 
zinc-dust  carrying  2.063  per  ceut.  silver,  and  a  residue  with  25  per  cent, 
of  the  lead  contained  in  the  zinc-dust. 

329.  The  rich  lead  is  cupelled.  The  zinc  in  the  residue  is  distilled  off 
in  common  clay  zinc-muffles.  Lead  attacks  clay,  and,  in  the  high  tem¬ 
perature  necessary  to  distill  zinc,  quickly  destroys  the  muffle.  To  make, 
therefore,  the  clay-muffle  practicable,  a  great  number  of  experiments 
were  made  to  find  a  suitable  material  to  serve  as  a  lining,  which  would 
neither  be  attacked  by  the  lead,  burned  by  the  high  heat,  nor  easily 
cracked.  A  lining  possessing  these  characteristics  was  made  by  Herr 
Gerhard.  He  treats  coke-cinder  with  a  weak  acid,  heats  it,  and  after 
this  is  made  adhesible  to  the  clay  by  means  of  a  small  addition  of  an 
alkali-salt,  it  is  burned  on  the  inside  of  the  muffle.  This  is  now  glazed 
by  a  mixture  of  clay  and  condensed  lead-fumes,  when  it  is  ready  for 
use.  These  muffles  have  by  trial-distillations  proved  to  be  good  and 
sound  after  having  been  ten  days  in  operation.  Each  muffle  contains 
a  charge  of  25  kilograms  residue,  to  which  30  per  cent,  of  crushed  coke 
has  been  previously  added  aud  thoroughly  mixed. 


142 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


330.  The  distillation  lasts  twenty-four  hours.  The  products  from  4 
muffles  are  20.2  to  30.2  kilograms  rich  lead,  containing  3.52  to  4.01  per 
cent,  silver.  This  quantity  of  rich  lead  is  further. increased  from  8.7  to 
10. 2  kilograms  lead,  with  2.50  to  3.47  per  cent,  silver,  by  leaving  the 
residue  in  the  muffle  and  collecting  the  small  globules  of  lead  therein 
contained.  The  amount  of  raw  zinc  produced  varies  between  18.8  and 
22  kilograms.  This  zinc  contains — 

1.25  per  cent.  lead. 

0.03  per  cent,  cadmium. 

0.19  per  cent,  coal  and  impurities. 

0.00012  per  cent,  silver. 


1.47012 

Upon  cleaning  out  the  muffle,  the  residue  is  found  to  have  assumed 
an  almost  black  color,  which  indicates  that  the  reduction  was  about 
complete.  The  mass  is,  in  distillation,  reduced  to  three-fourths  of  its 
original  size.  Only  a  small  amount  of  lead-fumes  are  produced  in  the 
course  of  distillation,  but  they  issue  forth  in  larger  quantities  when  the 
residue  is  removed  from  the  muffle  as  the  latter  is  still  heated. 

331.  This  method  is,  for  grades  of  lead  which  are  comparatively  free 
from  antimony  and  copper,  probably  the  most  desirable  in  practice. 
Experiments  are  to  be  made  at  Lautenthal  in  order  to  ascertain  if  lead 
containing  copper  and  antimony  can  also  be  worked  with  this  modifica¬ 
tion  to  advantage.  There  is  apparently  no  reason  that  it  should  not 
likewise  prove  a  success  with  their  silver-lead,  as  there  the  copper  is 
estimated  by  the  rtrkt  of  the  three  additions  of  zinc,  and  the  antimony 
remains  mostly  with  the  poor  lead.  It. dispenses  with  several  by-prod¬ 
ucts  which  cause  objectionable  processes  to  utilize  them,  and  allows 
an  extraction  of  metallic  zinc.  It  is  also  preferable  to  the  modification 
known  as  the  “Balbacli  system.”  The  repeated  refining  and  liquation 
in  f  urnaces  and  hearths  is  not  so  desirable  as  the  use  of  kettles  and 
steam  for  eliminating  a  small  quantity  of  antimouy  and  copper  and  the 
larger  amount  of  zinc  remaining  in  the  desilverized  lead.  I  mean  that 
the  latter  process  is  more  economical  in  regard  to  fuel,  labor,  cost  of 
construction,  and  the  loss  of  lead;  as  in  the  low  temperature  by  which 
the  process  is  conducted  in  kettles  the  loss  of  lead  is  exceedingly  small. 

332.  The  Walter  Crouecli  Hiitte,  near  Eoddziu,  was  represented  by 
samples  of  ore,  silver-lead,  commercial  soft  lead,  silver,  and  litharge. 
These  works  were  fouuded  in  1864,  and  treat  all  the  lead-ores  that  are 
extracted  outside  of  the  district  in  which  the  Friedrich  mine  is  located; 
the  latter  district  is  reserved  by  the  government.  The  smelting  process 
is  similar  to  that  of  Friedrichs  Hiitte.  The  total  amount  of  lead  pro¬ 
duced  by  these  two  works  is  greater  than  the  production  at  the  Frei¬ 
berg  works,  and  second  only,  in  Gerinauy,  to  the  works  at  Stolberg, 
near  Aix  la  Chapelle.  There  were  about  690  laborers  employed  in  the 
Friedrich  mine  in  1872,  who  extracted  10,830,000  kilograms  lead-ore. 


RHENISH  LEAD-SMELTING. 


143 


This  was  reduced  at  the  Friedrich  works  in  seven  reverberatory  smelt¬ 
ing-furnaces,  five  shaft-furnaces,  and  two  cupellation-furnaces.  There 
are  also  ziuc-desilverization  works,  and  the  necessary  auxiliary  appara¬ 
tuses.  The  production  in  1869  was : 


Friedrichs  Hiitte.  Walter  Cronech  Hiitte. 
Kilograms.  Kilograms. 

Lead . . .  4,  385,  750  1, 466,  400 

Litharge.. .  865,600  579,400 

Silver., . . .  5,140.5  1,938 

The  product  for  1873  was,  in  both  works  : 

Kilograms. 

Lead . . .  7,629,150 

Litharge . . . .  1, 751,  600 

Silver .  8,  336. 5 


333.  The  Rhine  Provinces. — Although  lead  mining  and  smelting  in 
the  Aix  la  Chapelle-Eifel  district  dates  from  the  commencement  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  the  mines  and  reducing-works  have  been  in  the 
hands  of  so  many  different  persons  and  corporations  that  their  operations 
were  necessarily  very  limited.  It  was  in  the  middle  of  the  present  cen¬ 
tury,  when  large  companies  were  formed  and  the  many  small  works  were 
consolidated,  that  the  production  of  this  district  grew  to  immense  pro¬ 
portions,  and  is  now  only  second  to  a  few  English  lead-smelting  localities. 
The  spirit  shown  there  now  is  extremely  progressive,  and  several  impor¬ 
tant  improvements  in  running  and  smelting  have  originated  there. 

334.  Galena,  cerusite,  blende,  and  calamine  occur  in  veins  and  irreg¬ 
ular  deposits  in  the  neighborhood  of  Stolberg,  on  the  border  of  the  lime¬ 
stone  and  schiefer  formations.  Rear  Oommern,  galena  occurs  in  bunt- 
sandstein  as  nodules. 

335.  The  smelting-works  of  the  Rhine  provinces  were  all  represented 
by  small  and  incomplete  collections  of  their  intermediate  and  final  pro¬ 
ducts.  Herbst  &  Company,  from  Coll  in  the  Eifel,  exhibited  several 
specimens  of  ore,  silver-lead,  silver,  and  commercial  lead.  These  works 
treat  the  lead-ores  from  the  lead  and  zinc  mines  of  Miinsterfeld,  near 
Stolberg,  and  Gertrudensegen,  near  Much.  The  grants  for  these  mines 
were  issued  in  1839  and  1847,  but  they  are  not  yet  fully  developed. 
The  lead-ores  are  treated,  together  with  Spanish  ores,  at  the  Schliessen- 
maar  Hiitte,  which  was  founded  in  1835.  The  ores  average  over  52  per 
cent,  lead,  and  carry  copper,  antimony,  and  zinc.  The  combined  roast¬ 
ing  and  reduction  process  is  here  practiced.  The  ores  are  roasted  in 
such  a  high  temperature  that  they  are  partly  agglomerated.  This  is 
desired,  and  often  to  produce  this  result  a  small  addition  of  siliceous  ore 
is  made.  The  furnace  used  has  a,  double  hearth,  (Fortschanfelungsofen ) 
with  working-doors  on  one  side  only.  The  furnace  is  13.5  meters  long 


144 


VIENNA  INTEKNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  le73. 


and  3.0  meters  wide.  The  charge  is  drawn  every  six  hours.  Its  capac¬ 
ity  is  5,000  kilograms  in  tweuty-four  hours,  accompanied  with  a  con¬ 
sumption  of  12  to  13  per  cent,  bituminous  coal.  The  blast  furnaces 
employed  are,  with  one  exception,  G.28  meters  high  and  have  one  tuyere. 
This  is  a  Stolberg  crucible  furnace ;  it  is  G.2S  meters  high,  0.785  meter 
wide,  and  1.098  meters  deep.  It  has  live  tuyeres,  oue  iu  each  side,  one 
iu  the  back  wall,  and  one  iu  each  back  corner,  which  are  all  directed 
toward  the  slag-spout.  The  capacity  of  the  furnace  with  oue  tuyere  is 
5,000  to  5,500  kilograms  ore.  The  charge  consists  in  100  kilograms  ore, 
28.7  kilograms  iron  tap-cinder,  14.3  kilograms  limestone,  and  a  small 
amount  of  old  lead-slag.  The  slag  produced  is  a  pisquisilicate. 

330.  Z i no- dtsil veriza t ion . — The  silver-lead  is  desilverized  by  the  zinc 
method,  with  the  use  of  chemical  agents  to  dezinckify  the  poor 
lead  and  to  separate  the  zinc-silver  alloy  from  the  enriched  silver- 
lead.  The  manipulations  are  as  follows:  15,000  kilograms  of  the 
silver-lead — containing  0.05  per  cent.  A g  =  14.5  oz.,  0.5  per  cent, 
antimony,  0.01  per  cent,  copper — are  melted  iu  a  kettle  2.52  meters 
in  diameter  and  0.60  meter  deep;  at  the  end  of  ten  hours  the  lead  is 

in  a  molten  condition  and  the  abzug  is  drawn  oil’.  The  zinc  is  added 

/ 

in  three  portions.  After  the  temperature  has  been  sufficiently  raised, 
the  first  portion  of  90  kilograms  block-zinc  is  thrown  in  the  liquid 
lead.  After  this  has  melted  it  is  well  stirred  for  twenty  minutes ; 
the  mass  is  then  allowed  to  cool  slowly  for  twenty  minutes,  when 
the  copper-scum  (kupferschaum)  will  have  formed.  The  copper  and 
gold  contained  in  the  lead  is  herein  concentrated.  The  copper-scum  is 
drawn  oil';  but,  as  the  first  quantity  (90  kilograms)  of  zinc  formed  an 
alloy  with  the  lead,  &c.,  necessary  for  a  separation  of  copper,  gold,  and 
zinc,  and  a  great  part  of  the  zinc  is  still  in  the  lead,  the  second  addition 
is  only  (50  kilograms)  zinc  ;  this  is  added  after  the  temperature  of  the 
metal  bath  has  first  been  raised.  Twenty  minutes  are  consumed  iu  stir¬ 
ring.  The  alloys  are  cooled  for  two  hours,  and  the  zinc-silver  alloy 
(zinkschaum)  is  then  taken  off.  The  kettle  is  now  refilled  with  silver- 
lead  from  a  previous  operation,  assaying  0.0025  percent.,  or  3  oz.  silver. 
The  third  addition  of  zinc  is  0.7  kilograms,  by  which  the  same  opera¬ 
tions  are  performed  as  by  No.  2. 

337.  The  products  are  copper-scum,  in  which  the  gold  is  concentrated, 
500  kilograms ;  zinc-scum,  containing  the  silver,  3,000  kilograms;  poor 
lead  =  zinc-lead  alloy,  containing  0.000G2  per  cent.  =  3  dwt.  13.99  gr. 
Ag,  and  0.77  per  ceut.  zinc,  12,500  to  13,000  kilograms.  The  time  con¬ 
sumed  in  treating  15,000  kilograms  silver-lead  is  twenty-four  hours. 

338.  The  poor  lead  remaining  in  the  kettle  coutaius  0.5  to  0.7  per 
ceut.  zinc  and  a  small  amount  of  antimony;  the  former  is  eliminated 
by  means  of  a  mixture  of  150  kilograms  lead-sulphate  (from  the  sul¬ 
phuric-acid  manufactories  near  Stolberg)  and  50  kilograms  of  salt.  It 
is  added  iu  small  quantities,  the  mass  beiug  continually  stirred  uutil  a 
test  taken  out  in  au  iron  spoon  does  not  show  the  silky  appearance  pecu- 


RHENISH  LEAD-SMELTING. 


145 


liar  to  lead  containing’  zinc.  This  operation  lasts  about  twenty-four 
hours.  The  lead-sulphate  and  soda-chloride  react  upon  one  another, 
producing  soda-sulphate  and  lead-chloride.  The  latter  is  decomposed 
by  zinc-forming  lead  and  zinc-chloride.  The  result  is  about  175  kilo¬ 
grams  of  scum,  which  contains  25  per  cent,  of  metallic  lead.  After 
this  scum  has  been  removed  the  antimony,  which  has  not  been  materi- 
j  ally  affected  by  the  chlorine  salts,  is  eliminated  by  stirring  40  kilograms 
I  of  unslaked  lime  with  the  remaining  lead.  The  lime  absorbs  the  anti¬ 
mony,  and  in  about  thirteen  hours  the  operation  is  complete.  The  lead 
[  is  used  in  the  manufacturing  of  white  lead. 

339.  Dezinckifying  the  zinc-scum. — A  charge  of  1,500  kilograms  zinc- 
scum  is  melted  in  an  iron  kettle,  similar  to  the  kettle  in  which  the  cop- 

j  per-scum  was  liquated.  It  is  then  treated  with  450  kilograms  carnallit 
(2  Mg  Cl-f-K  Cl+12  H2  O)  from  “  Stassfurt,”  and  150  kilograms  sal- 
miac.  The  temperature  is  kept  for  three  days  at  about  400°  C.,  and 
j  the  result  of  the  reaction,  which  occurs  in  consequence  of  a  vigorous 
stirring,  are  chloride  of  zinc,  ammonia,  and  1,300  kilograms  enriched 
silver-lead.  The  latter  is  tapped  off  by  means  of  an  iron  pipe  from  the 
kettle- bottom.  The  residue  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  silver- 
lead,  and  to  extract  this  300  kilograms  of  zinc-scum  are  added  to  and 
melted  with  the  residue.  This,  after  having  been  well  stirred,  is  tapped 
off.  The  products  are  about  1,500  kilograms  enriched  silver-lead, 
l  assaying  2.7  per  cent.  =  787  oz.  2  dwt.  silver,  which  is  cupelled,  and  a 
'  residue  containing  8.10  per  cent,  lead  with  2.7  per  cent,  silver,  which 
is  smelted  with  the  liquated  copper-scum  in  a  shaft-furnace. 

340.  Liquation  of  copper-scum. — The  copper- gold  scum  (kupferschaum) 
is  liquated  in  oblong  kettles.  These  are  2.5  meters  long,  1.6  meters 
wide,  and  0.87  meter  deep.  The  lead  herefrom  is  added  to  the  desil- 
verization-kettle  after/  the  second  zinc-charge.  The  copper-gold-zinc 
residue  is  then  smelted  in  a  shaft  furnace  with  25  per  cent,  iron  tap- 
cinder  and  50  per  cent,  lead-matte. 

341.  The  products  herefrom  are  silver-lead  containing  0.7  to  0.8  per 
cent.  =  2.33  oz.  6  dwt.  Ag,  and  a  small  amount  of  gold  and  matte,  with 
9.8  to  10  per  cent,  copper. 

342.  The  lead  is  treated  with  zinc,  &c.,  as  above  described,  (with  the 
exception  that  the  first  scum  is  not  treated  separately  from  the  follow¬ 
ing  two ;)  the  silver  produced  contains  0.001  per  cent.  gold.  The  matte 
is  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace  with  non-argentiferous  lead-ores  and  pro¬ 
ducts.  The  lead  from  this  smelting  is  refined  and  is  then  commercial 
lead.  The  matte  contaius  20  per  cent,  copper  and  is  roasted  with  salt, 
&c.,  preparatory  to  a  humid  process.  The  dross  produced  in  dezinckify- 
ing  the  poor  lead  is  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace  with  the  antimonial  dross 
and  iron  tap-cinder,  whereby  the  zinc  is  partly  volatilized  and  partly 
slagged.  The  resulting  lead,  containing  1  to  3  per  cent,  antimony,  is 
melted  in  an  iron  kettle,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  antimony  is 
eliminated  with  unslaked  lime.  The  lead  obtained,  although  of  an  infe- 

10  M 


146 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


rior  quality,  is  sufficiently  soft  to  be  rolled  into  sheet-lead.  The  dross 
is  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace  with  iron  tap-cinder.  This  lead  contains 
10  to  11  per  cent,  antimony,  and,  in  order  to  oxidize  the  impurities,  it  is 
melted  in  an  iron  kettle  and  treated  with  0.5  per  cent,  soda  saltpeter. 
This  produces  lead  with  10  to  111  per  cent,  antimony,  which  is  used  for 
making  type.  The  dross  from  this  manipulation  is  set  aside  until  a 
large  quantity  has  accumulated,  when  it  undergoes  the  same  operation. 
This  method  is,  on  account  of  the  time  consumed,  only  suitable  for  small 
works.  It  has,  however,  the  advantage  of  not  requiring  a  large  outlay, 
is  simple  in  its  manipulation,  and,  on  account  of  the  very  low  tempera¬ 
ture,  400°  C.,  the  loss  of  lead  and  silver  is  insignificant. 


Jl. 

p. 

c. 

IX 

Per  cent. 

Antimony .  0. 040 

Copper .  0.008 

Zinc .  0.777 

Per  cent. 

0.  U03 

0.  007 

0.  005 
0.003 

. 

Per  cent. 

0.  0010—0.  00006 
0. 0004—0. 0005 

0.  0019-0.  0023 

Per  cent. 
0.  0020 
0.  0029 
0.  0023 
0.  0009 
0.  0008 

Bismuth . 

0. 0023—0.  0(124 

0. 0003 

0. 0005 

Silver .  0.  OOOG'J 

/ 

0.  00002 

0.  0005 

The  above  analysis  will  present  an  insight  into  the  desilverization 
process  practiced  at  Call.  «  is  desilverized  lead,  before  the  elimination 
of  zinc;  l>  is  lead  refined  by  means  of  lead-chloride  and  lime;  c  is  lead 
refined  with  lead-sulphate  and  salt;  d  is  a  late  analysis  of  the  refined 
lead.  These  works  employed  in  1872,  G2  workmen;  they  produced 
550,000  kilograms  lead. 

Bit.  Dio  Stolbergor  Actien-Gesellschaft  fiir  Bergbau,  Blei-  und 
Zinkfabrication. — “The  Stolberg  Stock  Company  for  Mining  and  the 
Production  of  Lead  and  Zinc,”  exhibited  specimens  of  ores  and  com¬ 
mercial  soft  lead.*  This  company  has  its  headquarters  in  Aix-la-Chap- 
elle,  owns  bituminous-coal  mines  near  Stolberg  and  Dortmund,  and  also 
lead,  zinc,  and  iron-pyrites  mines  near  Stolberg,  Ehrenbreitenstein, 
Barmen,  Ramsbeck,  Brilon  in  the  Harz,  and  in  Spain.  It  also  smelts 
ores  from  Sardinia. 

"The  analysis  accompanying  the  latter  showed  the  following  percentage  of  foreign 
substances  in  1,000,000  kilograms  : 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

8b  ... 

Kilograms. 
.  39.1 

Sb  ... 

Kilograms. 
.  40.  1 

Sb  ... 

Kilograms. 
.  31.7 

Cu  ... 

.  8. 4 

Cu... 

. 20.6 

Cu  ... 

Zu  ... 

.  7.  S 

Zn  ... 

.  22.1 

Zn  ... 

.  2. 2 

Fe  ... 

.  6. 8 

Fe  ... 

.  14.1 

Fe.... 

62.1 

96.9 

38.4 

RHENISH  LEAD-SMELTING. 


147 


The  ores  treated  are  of  a  varied  composition  ;  a  large  proportion, 
however,  carry  a  considerable  amount  of  copper,  antimony,  and  zinc. 
Four  calcining-furnaces  are  used  for  calamine. 

345.  Twenty  furnaces  are  employed  to  roast  lead-ores  and  blende. 
The  first  are  treated  in  double-hearthed  reverberatory,  and  the  latter  in 
furnaces  according  to  Hasenclever  and  Helbig’s  system;  models  of  the 
latter  were  exhibited.  The  construction  of  these  furnaces  is  illustrated 
in  Figures  III  and  IY.  It  is  asserted  that  it  is  easily  manipulated,  and  that 
it  roasts  well — i.  e.,  blendic  ores  with  33  per  cent,  of  sulphur  are  roasted, 
so  that,  after  the  operation,  they  contain  ouly  1.2  per  cent.  (?)  sulphur, 
and  permits  the  use  of  the  sulphurous-acid  fumes  for  the  manufacture 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  disadvantages  compared  to  the  Gerstenhofer 
furnace  are,  the  large  cost  of  construction,  consumption  of  fuel,  its 
small  capacity,  and,  as  the  ore  is  liable  to  adhere  to  the  sliding-surface 
and  partitions,  a  moderate  amount  of  lead  in  a  substance  would  dis¬ 
qualify  it  for  treatment  iu  this  furnace.  The  last  objection  applies  also 
to  a  chloridizing  roasting.  The  muffle  roasting-furnace,  standing  in 
connection  with  a  tower,  as  formerly  constructed  by  Hasenclever  and 
Helbig,*  did  not  allow  of  the  good  roasting  of  blende  in  the  tower,  the 
temperature  in  the  same  not  being  sufficient  for  this  purpose  ;  zinc  only 
melting  on  tbe  lower  plate  and  lead  scarcely  on  the  upper.  After  the 
hot  gases  from  the  muffle  were  employed  for  heating  the  tower,  and  iron 
plates  used  instead  of  fire-clay,  the  roasting  was  better,  and  blende, 
containing  30  per  cent,  sulphur,  only  contained  19  per  cent,  sulphur  on 
arriving  at  the  foot  of  the  tower,  at  the  end  of  the  muffle  8.75  per  cent., 
and  when  taken  from  the  furnace  only  1.04  per  cent.  (?)  The  roasting 
gases  containing  6  per  cent,  sulphurous  acid,  could  also  be  used  to  advan¬ 
tage  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  canals,  however,  proved 
to  be  inadequate  for  the  gases  of  combustion;  the  cinders  and  dust 
coming  from  the  fire-place  could  not  be  removed ’during  the  operation 
of  roasting,  and  they  easily  obstructed  the  passage  between  the  iron 
and  fire-clay  slabs.  This  caused  cracks,  and  sulphurous  acid  escaped  with 
the  gases  from  the  fire-place.  This  disadvantage  has  been  avoided  by 
the  newest  method  of  construction,  (Fig.  I:)B,  charging- funnel  for  hold¬ 
ing  the  ore,  from  which  it  glides  through  an  inclined  canal,  which  is  1.8 
meters  wide,  0.5  meter  high,  and  9  meters  long.  The  incline  of  the 
canal  is  43°.  The  ore  is  heated  from  below  by  the  gases  from  the  fire¬ 
place  passing  through  the  canal.  The  gases  produce  a  temperature  in 
the  ore-canal  sufficiently  high  to  melt  antimony  in  the  upper  part  of 
same.  H,  50  partition-walls  which  reach  to  within  a  few  centimeters  of 
the  bottom  wall  of  the  canal.  They  cause  the  ore  to  pass  through  the 
canal  in  a  thin  layer,  and  also  cause  the  sulphurous  acid  evolved  to  pass 
over  the  ore  in  a  roundabout  manner — that  is, .through  apertures  alter¬ 
nating  with  each  other  on  the  sides  of  the  partition-walls.  The  roasting 

*  The  description  of  Hasenclever  and  Helbig’s  improved  roasting-furnace  is  from  the 
Zeitsehrift  des  Vereins  Deutscher  Ingenieur,  1872,  p.  505. 


148 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

I 

gases,  rich  in  sulphurous  acid,  escape  at  S  into  a  cooling-chamber  cov¬ 
ered  with  iron  plates,  upon  which  the  ore  is  dried  before  entering  the 
furnace.  Entrance  can  be  obtained  to  the  different  compartments  of 
the  canal  by  means  of  boles  on  the  sides,  which  are  closed  by  slides. 
Entrance  is  also  obtained  in  the  same  manner  to  the  fire-canals.  I,  hol¬ 
low  discharging-roller,  kept  cool  by  air  passing  through  from  side  to 
side;  it  is  revolved  by  a  small  water-wheel.  The  motiou  is  not  con¬ 
tinual,  but  periodical.  As  soon  as  a  bucket  fills  with  water,  the  wheel 
revolves  half  the  way  round,  and  with  it  the  discharging-roller,  whereby 
the  ore  is  discharged  from  the  inclined  canal  into  the  muffle  b ;  the  rest 
of  the  ore  in  the  inclined  canal  gliding  down  as  fast  as  the  roller  dis¬ 
charges.  The  muffle  b  is  6.5  meters  long,  1.8  meters  wide,  and  0.4 
meter  high,  and  has  live  working-doors.  The  ore  is  spread  out  in  the 
muffle  every  two  hours  and  gradually  shoved  to  the  rear,  where  it  falls 
through  an  opening  on  the  lower  hearth,  a,  which  is  directly  heated  by 
the  flames  from  the  fire-place.  The  hearth  a  is  5.7  meters  long  and  0.4 
meter  high.  The  ore  is  here  completely  roasted  and  gradually  shoved 
toward  the  fire-bridge.  The  sulphurous  acid  evolved  on  the  lower  hearth 
passes  off  with  the  gases  of  combustion  through  e,  c,  <7,  and  /«,  into  the 
chimney;  /,  Uoiituis  gas-generator,  hot  air  passing  in  over  the  generator; 
/,  workiug-door ;  k,  door  for  charging  generator  with  fuel.  Blende  con¬ 
taining  only  30  per  cent,  sulphur  is  said  to  contain  10  per  cent,  sulphur 
when  reaching//,  6.4  per  cent,  at  the  rear  of  the  muffle,  and  1.2  per 
cent.  (?)  on  reaching  the  fire-bridge. 

346.  The  lead-ores  treated  at  these  works  are  prepared  for  the  smelt¬ 
ing  operation  by  roasting  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  These  have  one 
hearth  and  four  working-doors  on  each  side.  They  are  10.8  meters  long 
and  1  meters  wide.  Their  capacity  is  3,330  kilogrjirasore  in  twenty-four 
hours,  with  a  consumption  of  25  to  20  per  cent,  bituminous  coal.  Twelve 
shaft-furnaces  are  used  to  smelt  the  roasted  ore.  Ten  of  these  are  of 
the  construction  known  as  the  Stolberg  furnace.  Those  used  here  are 
crucible-furnaces  with  four  tuyeres  in  the  back  wall.  Two  are  small 
llasehetfe  furnaces,  1.26  meters  wide  and  1.57  meters  deep.  The  charge 
is  composed  of  40  to  50  per  cent,  iron  tap-cinder,  S  per  cent,  limestone, 
20  per  cent,  lead-slag,  22  per  cent,  cokes.  Cerussite  is  made  into  balls 
with  powdered  iron  tap-cinder  and  lime,  and  is  then  smelted  in  the  same 
manner  as  galena.  The  capacity  of  the  Kachette  furnace  is  25,000  kilo¬ 
grams  ore  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  consumption  of  fuel  is  the  same  as 
in  the  Stolberg  furnace. 

847.  Both  the  pattiusonizing  and  the  zinc-desilverization  methods  are 
used.  The  purer  grades  of  silver-lead  are  desilverized  by  means  of  zinc 
in  iron  kettles.  The  charge  for  the  latter  process  is  12,000  kilograms. 
It  is  necessary  with  silver-lead  containing  a  large  quantity  of  antimony 
to  eliminate  the  latter  after  the  abzug,  formed  by  melting,  has  been  re¬ 
moved,  and  before  the  first  addition  of  zinc,  by  conducting  superheated 
steam  through  the  molteu  metallic  mass,  whereby  the  autimouial  lead 


STOLBERG  SMELTING-PROCESSES. 


149 


is  stirred  up  and  brought  in  contact  with  the  air,  and  the  antimony 
oxidized,  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  lead.  This  dross  is  drawn 
off,  and  the  lead  is  desilverized  by  three  additions  of  zinc.  The  amount 
of  zinc  consumed  with  silver-lead  containing  copper  averages  1.2  per 
cent. 

348.  The  poor  lead  isdezinckified  by  means  of  superheated  steam.  The 
zinc-scum  is  liquated  in  iron  kettles,  and  then  treated  with  steam,  (vide 
Lautenthal ;)  the  rich  lead  is  cupelled.  The  zinc-dust  is  treated,  accord, 
iiig  to  Flach’s  method,  in  a  shaft-furnace  with  three  tuyeres  and  a  low 
pressure  of  blast.  The  charge  is  100  zinc-dust,  50  iron  tap-cinder,  and 
a  small  quantity  of  the  upper  part  of  the  cupellation-hearth.  The  result¬ 
ing  silver-lead  is  cupelled.  This  process  is  said  to  possess  several  ad¬ 
vantages,  such  as  small  cost  of  construction,  requires  but  few  workmen 
to  conduct  it,  and  gives  immediate  results,  83  per  cent,  of  lead  being  ex¬ 
tracted.  But  it  has  also  important  disadvantages,  and  it  is  a  disputed 
point  whether  it  is  more  desirable  than  the  Lautenthal  method.  It  is, 
in  all  probability,  far  inferior  to  the  method  practiced  at  Tarnowitz. 

In  order  to  avoid  a  great  volatilization  of  lead  the  pressure  of  the  blast 
must  be  made  small,  but  in  this  case  the  amount  of  zinc  volatilized  is 
also  diminished  ;  only  very  little  silver  is  volatilized,  but  large  salaman¬ 
ders  are  formed,  which  are  rich  in  silver  but  difficult  to  work.  The  zinc 
is  partially  slagged  and  partially  volatilized.  The  slag  and  salamanders 
are  both  added  in  small  quantities  to  the  ore-smelting. 

349.  The  silver-lead  free  from  impurities,  viz,  antimony,  copper- 
arsenic,  &c.,  is  pattinsonized  in  two  batteries;  each  battery  is  com¬ 
posed  of  two  kettles,  viz,  the  melting  and  the  crystallization  kettles. 
The  method  is  the  so-called  “  mechanical  pattinsonizing.”  The  system 
used  at  Stolberg  was  invented  by  M.  Boudehen.  It  is  also  applied  at 
Hozappel  and  Bouin.  The*  stirrer  in  the  crystallization-kettle  is  moved 
by  a  vertical  hollow  shaft,  “  within  which  there  is  a  hollow  shaft.  By 
a  well-known  arrangement  of  bevel-wheels,  these  shafts  are  made  to 
revolve  in  opposite  directions.  On  the  lower  part  of  the  outer  shaft, 
within  the  pot,  is  fixed  a  stirrup-like  frame,  from  the  sides  of  which  pro¬ 
ject  short  flat-edged  scrapers  ;  on  the  inner  shaft  are  fixed  flat  arms  of 
equal  length,  arranged  spirally,  and  with  their  sides  oblique.  Engine- 
power  of  5  or  6  horses  is  required  to  drive  this  machinery.  It  is 
asserted  that  the  cost  of  manual  labor  is  only  half  of  that  in  Pattinson’s 
process,  and  the  total  saving  is  estimated  at  20  francs  — ■  $4  per  ton.” 
The  considerable  outlay  for  machinery  and  skilled  manual  labor  appears 
to  be  the  principal  objection  to  this  method.  In  Stolberg  the  charge  is 
12,000  to  125,000  kilograms  silver-lead.  The  silver-lead  is  melted  in  the 
upper  kettle,  A,i  and  then  tapped  through  the  iron  pipes  into  the  lower 
kettle,  B,  which  has  previously  been  heated.  In  order  to  reduce  the 

*  The  following  description  and  drawing  of  apparatus  are  from  Percy’s  Metallurgy 
of  Lead,  page  143.  The  drawing  given  is  Jordan’s  system.  Boudelien’s  is  the  same  in 
principle. 

t  See  Figures  7  and  8. 


150 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


temperature  of  the  metallic  liquid  an  addition  of  silver-lead  is  made. 
The  stirrer  is  then  set  in  motion  and  small  jets  of  water  thrown  upon 
the  molten  alloy.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  the  mass  will  have  become 
pasty,  when  the  stirrer  and  water-streams  are  stopped  and  the  mother- 
liquid  is  tapped  into  a  heated  pot,  c.  An  iron  hook  is  set  in  the  lead 
while  molten,  and  when  the  lead  has  cooled  it  is  lifted  out  by  means  of 
a  tackle.  A  fresh  quantity  of  silver-lead,  about  3,000  kilograms,  assay¬ 
ing  about  the  same  in  silver  as  the  remaining  crystals,  is  added  from 
the  melting-kettle,  A,  to  the  crystalliziug-kettle,  B ;  during  this  operation 
the  motion  of  the  stirrer  is  reversed.  The  molten  alloy  soon  liquefies 
the  crystals,  when  the  already-described  operation  is  again  performed. 
After  this  operation  has  been  repeated  seven  times,  the  poor  lead  con¬ 
tains  but  0.00.50  per  cent.  =  1  oz.  23.47  grs.  Ag.  The  crystals  are 
melted,  tapped  off,  taken  to  another  kettle  for  remelting  and  casting  in 
pigs.  An  obstruction  to  the  process  is  thus  avoided.  The  mother- 
liquid  is  enriched  in  eight  operations.  The  mother-liquid  resulting  is 
then  returned  to  the  kettle  and  further  enriched  in  live  operations;  it 
contains  2.4  per  cent.  =  009  oz.  12  dwt.  Ag.  Eighty  mufile-furnaces  are 
employed  in  reducing  zinc-oxide.  Regenerative  furnaces  are  a 
to  several  of  these,  and  are  said  to  give  very  economical  results. 

350.  These  works  produce  a  greater  amount  of  lead  than  any  other 
establishment  in  the  world.  Their  production  in  the  last  few  years 
has  averaged:  Lead,  10,550,000  kilograms;  silver,  7,S50  kilograms; 
zinc,  7,(500,000  kilograms ;  1,850,000  kilograms  was  manufactured  into 
sheet-zinc. 

351.  The  Rheinisch-Nassauisehe  Berg-uml  I liitten-Actiengesellschaft 
was  represented  by  a  collection  lead  and  zinc  ores,  and  a  few  interme¬ 
diate  products,  viz.  commercial  lead  and  silver.  This  company  was 
formed  on  January  1,  1873,  by  a  consolidation  of  the  Eschweiler  Gesell- 
scliaft  fiir  Bergban  uud  Hiitten,  located  at  Stolberg,  and  the  Holzappeler 
Blei  tind  Silber-Bergwerksgesellschaft,  located  at  Holzappel.  It  owns 
lead,  zinc,  and  irou -pyrites  mines  near  Stolberg,  Bensberg,  and  Wieslocb. 
The  ores  from  these  mines,  together  with  ores  from  Montevecchio  in 
Sardinia,  Gar  Ron  ban  in  Algiers,  Utah,  and  Nevada,  are  treated  at 
the  Binsfelohammer  Iliitte,  near  Stolberg,  and  the  Wilhelms  Zinkhiitte 
near  Eschweiler.  The  Holzappeler  Iliitte  treats  the  ores  from  the  lead- 
mines  near  Holzappel  and  Obernhof.  The  ores  at  Binsfeldhammer  are 
worked  by  the  combined  roasting  and  reduction  process. 

352.  The  roasting-furnaces  are  6.3  meters  long  and  2.3  meters  wide ; 
they  are  donble-hearthed,  and  each  hearth  has  three  working-doors,  on 
one  side  only.  The  roasted  ore  is  smelted  in  shaft-furnaces.  These 
were  all  originally  of  the  Stolberg  pattern,  but  round  shaft  (Pilz)  fur 
naces  have  recently  been  introduced.  The  silver-lead  is  desilverized  by 
means  of  zinc.  Superheated  steam  is  used  as  the  oxidizing  medium. 
The  zinc-dust  from  liquation  of  the  zinc-scum  (zinkscliaum)  is  smelted 
with  iron  tap-cinder  in  the  reverberatory  furnaces  that  were  formerly 
used  for  the  smelting  of  ore,  according  to  the  “  French  process.” 


LEAD-SMELTING  AT  HOLZAPPEL. 


151 


Siemens’s  regenerative  gas-furnaces  have  been  in  operation  at  Wilhelms 
since  1862. 

353.  The  gas  generative  and  regenerative  systems  have  proved  to  he 
very  advantageous  for  zinc-furnaces  in  the  past,  and,  as  the  price  of 
coal  will  probably  continue  to  grow  larger  without  a  corresponding  in¬ 
crease  in  the  value  of  zinc,  the  gas  generative  or  regenerative  system 
will,  in  the  future,  be  necessary  to  an  economically  successful  working 
of  zinc-ores. 

354.  Holzappel. — The  combined  roasting  and  smelting  process  for 
lead-ores  has  taken  the  place  of  a  modified  Cariuthian  smelting  process 
in  reverberatory  furnaces  at  Holzappel.  The  ore  is  galena,  with  blende 
and  copper  pyrites.  The  gangue  is  quartz,  siderite,  and  argillaceous 
slate.  The  ore  is  roasted  and  agglomerated  in  single-hearth  reverbera¬ 
tory  furnaces,  having  five  working-doors  on  each  side.  The  hearth  is 
9.41  meters  long  and  3.14  meters  wide.  Its  capacity  is  6,000  kilograms 
in  twenty-four  hours,  with  a  consumption  of  17  per  cent,  bituminous 
coal.  The  ore  remains  in  the  furnace  thirty  hours  ;  a  charge  of  750  kilo 
grams  is  drawn  every  six  hours.  The  roasted  agglomerated  ore  contains 
about  5  to  6  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

The  roasted  ore  is  smelted  in  Stolberg  crucible  shaft-furnaces.  They 
have  two  tuyeres,  and  are  4.079  meters  high  ;  front  width,  0.785  meter  ; 
back  width,  0.941  to  1.25  meters.  The  charge  is  composed  of  750  kilo¬ 
grams  ore,  250  kilograms  iron  tap-cinder,  500  kilograms  lead-slag,  125 
kilograms  limestone,  135  kilograms  coke,  and  small  variable  quantities 
of  cupellation,  hearth,  and  furnace  accretions. 

The  silver-lead,  containing  0.01  per  cent.=2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.80  gr.  silver, 
is  pattinsonized.  Mechanical  pattinsonizing  was  first  introduced  at  these 
works.  The  mechanical  stirrer  used  was  invented  by  M.  Boudhen.  The 
process  is  similar  to  that  at  Stolberg. 

355.  This  company  produced  in  1872 — 


Zinc. 

Lead. 

Silver. 

Binsfeldhammer  Hiitte  . . 

. .  .kilos. . 

1,200,000 

Wilhelm’s  Hiitte  . . .  . 

. . .  kilos . 

950.  000 

Holzappel . 

. .  .kilos. . 

300, 000 

300 

Making  a  total  production  of  zinc,  950,000  kilograms  ;  lead,  1,500,000 
kilograms;  silver,  300  kilograms. 

356.  The  Mechernicher  Bergwerks  Actien  Yerein,  of  Mechernich  in 
Commeru,  was  represented  by  maps,  illustrating  the  size  and  character 
of  their  mines,  ores,  silver-lead,  commercial  lead  and  silver.  This  com¬ 
pany  works  the  large  lead-mine  “Meinerzhagener  Bleiberg,”  and  the 
smelting-works  at  Mechernich.  The  Meinerzhagener  Bleiberg  mine  was 
originally  divided  into  several  smaller  mines,  dating  from  the  seventeenth 


152 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


century,  which  were  consolidated  into  one  in  1857.  The  mining  consists 
in  both  surface  and  subterranean  working.  The  sandstone  stratum  is 
over  20  meters  thick,  and  is  impregnated  with  small  galena  nodules, 
averaging  from  2  to  4  millimeters  in  diameter.  The  size  of  the  lev¬ 
els  and  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  mine  permit  the  use 
of  small  steam-engines  to  draw  the  ore-cars.  Rock-drilling  machines 
are  used,  and  the  blasts  are  exploded  by  means  of  electric  sparks.  The 
levels,  &c.,  are  lighted  with  gas.  There  were  2,700  workmen  employed 
in  this  mine  in  1872,  who  extracted  4,700,000  kilograms  ores  assaying 
from  1.3  to  2.0  per  cent.  lead.  In  ten  hours  950  centimeters  of  ore  and 
gangue  are  mined.  The  same  quantity  of  ore  is  dressed  in  eighteen 
hours.  The  concentration  is  carried  to  57  to  00  per  cent.  lead. 

357.  The  ore,  which  is  composed  chiefly  of  galena,  silica,  and  alumina, 
is  treated  according  to  the  combined  roasting  and  smelting  process.  It 
contains  but  a  very  small  quantity  of  copper;  which  removes  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  retaining  a  large  amount  of  sulphur  in  the  roasted  ore,  in  order 
to  concentrate  the  copper  in  a  matte;  and  is  free  from  those  minerals, 
the  component  parts  of  which  form  combinations  with  silica,  requiring 
a  high  fusing  temperature,  (blende,  calcite,  &c.,)  and  a  large  consilmp- 
tion  of  fuel,  accompanied  by  an  increased  metallic  volatilization.  In 
consideration  of  this  the  ore  undergoes  a  u slag-roasting.” 

338.  Double-hearthed  reverberatory  furnaces,  (Fortschaufelungsoefen,) 
10. 1  meters  long  and  3.70  meters  wide,  were  formerly  exclusively  used; 
but  lately  a  furnace  whose  hearth  is  22  meters  long  has  been  erected. 
It  is  superior  to  the  short  ones,  inasmuch  as  the  ore  does  not  so  easily 
agglomerate  in  the  preliminary  periods,  whereby  a  siliceous  crust  would 
form  and  prevent  a  further  oxidization.  In  this  long  furnace  the  ore  is 
oxidized  so  gradually  that  the  roasting  progresses  without  interruption 
for  six  days;  whereby  the  sulphide  of  lead  is  converted  into  sulphate, 
and  a  small  amount  of  oxide  of  lead.  As  the  charge  is  moved  toward 
the  fire-bridge  the  high  temperature  causes  the  silicic  acid  to  unite  with 
the  lead-oxide,  and  to  decompose  the  sulphate  of  lead,  forming  a  homo¬ 
geneous  basic  lead-silicate,  containing  minute  particles  of  undecom¬ 
posed  galena,  with  the  following  composition: 

8  to  9  per  cent.  Ah  0> 

23  to  24  per  cent.  Si  O.. 

00  to  61  per  cent.  Pb. 

1  to  1.5  per  cent.  S.  =  11.2  to  7.5  sulphide  of  lead. 

The  furnace  contaius  40,000  kilograms  ore.  Oue  thousand  live  hun¬ 
dred  kilograms  roasted  ore  is  drawn,  and  1,500  kilograms  raw  ore  is 
charged,  every  six  hours,  making  the  capacity  of  the  furnace  7,000  kilo¬ 
grams  iu  twenty-four  hours,  with  a  consumption  of  13  to  13  per  cent, 
bituminous  coal.  The  last  furnace  erected  is  24.5  meters  long.  It  is 
desired  to  couduct  the  roasting  slower,  and,  by  carefully  regulating  the 
temperature,  obtain  a  product  containing  still  less  sulphur.  The  reduc¬ 
tion  of  the  ore  occurs  in  Stolberg  shaft-furnaces  with  four  water-tuyeres 


LEAD-SMELTING  AT  HOLZAPPEL. 


153 


5.02  meters  high,  1,590  meters  wide,  and  1,255  meters  deep.  One  tuyere 
is  placed  on  each  side  and  the  other  two  in  the  back  corners;  they  are 
all  directed  toward  the  slag-spout.  The  blast  is  0.25  meter  water- 
column. 

The  charge,  in  June,  1871,  was  a  normal  one  and  consisted  of: 


Parts. 

Eoasted  ore,  (agglomerated,)  with  GO  to  65  per  cent .  100 

Old  slime,  with  about  20  per  cent,  lead . .. .  28.  5 

By-products,  from  the  zinc  desilverization .  20 

Iron  slag,  from  puddling-furnace  . . . . -  50 

Furnace  accretions . - . . . . .  16 

Limestone  . .  18 

Pig-iron,  to  decompose  a  small  amount  of  galena  remaining  in 

slagged  ore . . . . .  15  • 

Coke . . . _ . . .  20 

The  slag  from  this  smelting  was  composed  of — 

Per  cent. 

Si  02 .  38.  2 

Fe  O .  28.71 

CaO .  19.36 

Mg  O . 0.79 

A1203 .  11.44 

Cu  +  Pb . 1.5 


100.  00 

The  products  are  a  small  amount  of  lead-matte,  contaiuing^lO  per  cent, 
lead,  a  very  small  quantity  of  copper,  and  20  per  cent,  sulphur.  The 
matte  is  roasted  several  times  in  stalls  and  then  smelted.  The  compo¬ 
sition  of  the  charge  is  : 


Roasted  lead-matte .  100.00 

Iron  slag,  from  puddling-furnace . .  .  17.  77 

Limestone . . .  17.77 


Coke . . .  11.11 

The  lead  from  the  matte-smelting  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shot. 
The  matte  is  repeatedly  roasted  and  smelted  until  the  contents  of  lead 
is  reduced  to  20  per  cent.,  and  the  copper  is  concentrated  to  1  per  cent., 
when  it  is  laid  aside. 

The  silver-lead  from  the  ore-smelting,  containing  0.02  per  cent.  =  5  oz. 
16  dwt.  14  gr.  silver,  is  desilverized  by  means  of  zinc. 

359.  The  process  of  desilverization  is  about  the  same  as  that  practiced 
at  Lautenthal.  The  charge  is  30,000  kilograms;  afterthis  is  melted  in  an 
iron  kettle  and  the  abzug  removed,  225  kilograms  of  zinc  are  added ;  when 
the  zinc  has  melted  it  is  stirred  for  thirty  minutes  and  then  allowed  to 
slowly  cool  for  about  eight  hours.  The  solidified  silver-zinc  alloy  is  now 
removed. 


154 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


The  second  addition  of  zinc  is  75  kilograms,  tlie  third  is  24  kilograms. 
The  time  allowed  for  cooling,  after  the  second  and  third  addition  of  zinc, 
is  eight  hours.  This  is  a  waste  of  time,  as  the  separation  of  the  differ¬ 
ent  alloys  occurs  in  a  much  shorter  period  when  repeatedly  stirred  and 
the  zinc-scum  removed.  A  saving  of  labor  is  hardly  the  object  sought 
for. 

300.  The  poor  lead  is  dezinckified  by  means  of  superheated  steam,  the 
desirability  of  using  steam  being  increased  by  the  lead  containing  a 
small  quantity  of  antimony  and  nickel.  The  zinc-scum  (zinkscliaum) 
is  liquated  in  iron  pipes,  which  are  inclined  at  a  small  angle.  The  result¬ 
ing  lead  is  desilverized  with  the  silver-lead  from  the  ore-smelting;  the 
residue  remaining  in  the  iron  pipes  (enriched  silver-zinc  alloy)  is 
smelted  in  a  sliaft-furuace.  , 

.  The  furnace  is  first  charged  with  100  per  cent,  iron  tap-cinder  and  20 
per  cent.  coke.  When  the  slag  flows  freely,  the  silver-zinc  alloy  is 
charged,  commencing  with  25  per  cent.  The  normal  charge  consists 


in — 

Silver-zinc  alloy  .  100 

Leap-matte,  containing  9  to  10  per  cent,  lead .  40 

Iron  tap-cinder .  90 

Coke .  1G-1S 


In  order  to  avoid  an  unnecessary  volatilization  of  lead,  the  pressure 
of  the  blast  is  not  permitted  to  exceed  0.131  meter  water-column.  The 
lead  assaying  2  to  0  per  cent.  =  583  oz.  silver,  is  poled  and  cupelled. 
The  copper  lead  matte,  when  a  sufficiently  large  quantity  has  accumu¬ 
lated,  is  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace  with  the  following  products: 

# 


Copper  lead  matte .  150 

Old  lead-slag .  30 

Iron  tap-cinder . 70 

Fumes  from  condensation-chambers .  50 

Sweeping .  100 

Coke  . .  . - .  10 


The  pressure  of  blast  is  0.13  meter  water-column.  The  silver-lead  is 
cupelled.  The  matte,  containing  about  50  per  cent,  copper  and  a  small 
quantity  of  silver,  is  sold.  The  loss  iu  lead  in  1870  was  estimated  at 
9.3  per  cent. 

301.  The  production  of  these  works  for  lS72_is  estimated  at  1,400,000 
kilograms  lead,  000  kilograms  silver. 

302.  Nassau. — The  “Emser  Blei  und  Silber  niitten”  exhibited  a  sys¬ 
tematic  collection  of  dressed  ores  and  several  metallurgical  products, 
among  which  were  the  following:  Fine  silver;  soft  lead,  99.99  percent, 
being  pure  lead ;  pulverized  litharge,  with  92  per  cent.  Pb.  and  8  per  cent. 
O:  prime  red  litharge,  with  92  per  ceut.  Pb.  and  8  percent.  O;  cuprif¬ 
erous  litharge,  with  91  per  ceut.  Pb.,  1  per  cent.  Cu.,  and  8  per  ceut. 
O;  lump  litharge,  with  92  per  cent.  Pb.,  and  8  per  cent.  O;  “zinc- 


NASSAU  LEAD-SMELTING. 


155 


yellow,”  (produced  in  the  zinc-desilverization  process  by  the  dezinckifi- 
cation  of  the  desilverized  lead  by  means  of  steam,)  containing  60  per 
cent,  zinc  oxide  and  40  per  cent,  lead  oxide. 

363.  The  Emser  Hlitte  was  founded  in  1769,  and  the  ore  was  smelted 
in  reverberatory  furnaces  up  to  about  the  year  1835  :  the  iron  reduction 
process  of  smelting  was  then  introduced,  and  the  smelting  operations 
conducted  in  one-tuyered  blast-furnaces  of  the  old  Harz  pattern,  which 
were  succeeded  by  Vogel’s  furnace  with  two  tuyeres.  The  latter  furnace 
was  much  more  economical  as  regards  the  consumption  of  fuel  than  the 
former;  the  loss  of  lead  was  also  diminished  by  their  use.  Within  the 
last  few  years  the  iron  reduction  process  has  been  done  away  with  and 
the  combined  roasting  and  reduction  process  has  taken  its  place.  The 
ore  assays  50  per  cent,  lead  and  0.05  per  cent.  =  14  oz.  11  dwt.  14  gr. 
silver;  it  carries  a  considerable  amount  of  blende,  copper  pyrites,  tetra- 
hedrite,  and  siderite. 

364.  It  is  roasted  in  siugle-hearthed  reverberatory  furnaces,  ( Fort - 
scliaufelungsoefen ,)  7.85  meters  long  and  4.08  meters  wide.  They  have 
working-doors  on  both  sides.  Its  capacity  is  4,800  kilograms  ore,  with 
a  consumption  of  25  per  cent,  bituminous  coal.  The  roasted  ore  contains 
5  to  4.5  per  cent,  sulphur.  The  fumes  from  roasting  were  in  1871  per¬ 
mitted  to  escape  into  the  air,  whereby  the  loss  of  lead,  &c.,  was  greatly 
increased. 

365.  Two  twelve-tuyered  Rachette  furnaces,  4.393  meters  high — at 
the  bottom,  2.823  meters  long,  1.098  meters  wide  ;  at  the  top,  2.994  me¬ 
ters  long,  1.569  meters  wide — are  used  for  the  reduction  of  the  ore.  The 
charge  is  composed  of— 

100  parts  roasted  ore. 

133  parts  slag  from  same  operation. 

50  parts  reheating  slag. 

]0  parts  lime. 

8  parts  lead-flux. 

30  parts  coke. 

The  capacity  of  each  furnace  is  45,250  kilograms  charge  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  pressure  of  blast  is  0.013  meter  quicksilver-column. 
It  was  intended  in  1873  to  erect  a  Pilz  furnace,  with  the  hope  of  mate¬ 
rially  diminishing  the  amount  of  zinc-accretions,  &c. 

366.  The  lead-matte,  containing  4  per  cent,  copper  and  8  per  cent, 
lead,  is  roasted  in  stalls  and  smelted.  The  silver-lead  from  the  matte¬ 
smelting,  on  account  of  its' containing  a  considerable  amount  of  copper, 
is  not  desilverized  with  zinc,  but  is  sent  directly  to  the  cupellation-fur- 
nace.  The  concentrated  copper-matte  is  sold. 

367.  The  silver-lead  from  the  ore-smelting  is  desilverized  by  means  of 
zinc.  On  account  of  the  small  quantity  of  silver-lead  to  be  treated,  the 
battery  consists  of  only  four  desilverization-kettles,  two  for  treating  the 
silver-lead,  one  for  liquating  the  lead  in  the  zinc-scum,  and  one  in  which 
the  zinc,  &c.,  in  the  zinc-dust  (zinkstaub)  is  oxidized.  The  kettles  are 


156 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


1.7  meters  in  diameter  and  1.1  meters  deep.  The  charge  is  5,000  kilo¬ 
grams.  The  zinc  is  added  to  the  molten  silver-lead  in  three  portions. 
The  amount  of  zinc  used  is  200  kilograms  =  1.3  per  cent. 

The  alloy  (copper-scum)  formed  by  the  first  addition  of  zinc  holds  the 
gold  contained  in  the  silver-lead.  This  is  kept  and  treated  by  itself, 
but  in  a  similar  manner  as  the  zinc-scum.  The  silver-zinc  alloy  from 
the  second  and  third  additions  is  first  liquated  in  an  iron  kettle.  The 
resulting  lead  is  treated  with  a  second  and  third  portion  of  zinc.  The 
zinc-dust  is  removed  to  the  fourth,  or  rich,  kettle,  and,  after  having 
been  brought  to  a  cherry-red  heat,  is  violently  stirred  with  superheated 
steam.  The  zinc  and  a  portion  of  lead  are  hereby  oxidized.  The  lead 
containing  2  per  cent.  =  583  ounces  silver  is  cupelled.  The  rich  oxides 
are  smelted  in  a  two-tuyered  furnace  4.SG  meters  high,  0.13-meter  pres¬ 
sure  of  blast,  quicksilver-column.  1 1  was  formerly  used  for  ore-smelting. 
The  charge  is  composed  of — 

100  parts  rich  oxides. 

100  parts  iron  tap-cinder. 

100  parts  lead-slag. 

30  parts  coke. 

It  is  assorted  that  the  formation  of  salamanders  is  small,  but  an  im¬ 
portant  feature  of  this  process  is  the  volatilization  of  silver.  The  tumes 
assay  0.004  per  cent.  =  l  oz.  3  dwt.  7  gr.  silver.  The  desilverizatiou-lead 
is  treated  with  steam,  whereby  the  zinc  and  antimony  are  oxidized. 
Rachotte  furnaces  with  twelve  tuyeres  were  tirst  employed  at  Ems. 

308.  l*u  1872  these  works  produced — 


Kilograms. 
1,080,000 
1,  710, 000 


3,050 


CHAPTER  IX. 


AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  EMPIRE  EXHIBITS. 

Condition  of  metal-industry;  Display;  Exhibits  of  tiie  Pribram  Smelting, 
Works,  Kscheutzischer,  Zeciie  and  Mies,  Brixlegg  Smelting-Works,  Jochberg 
Smelting-Works,  Muhlbach  Smelting-Works,  Bleiberg  Smelting  Company - 
Egger  Smelting-Works,  J.  Rainer,  Smaller  Carinthian  Smelting-Works, 
Raible  Smelting-Works,  Puntschard  White-Lead  Works,  F.  P.  Herbst,  Lud-  „ 
wig  Kursch  Smelting- Works,  Krain  Ludwig’s  Kursch  Zinc-Works,  Froue, 
Bulgaria,  Royal  Hungarian  Mint;  Smelting-works  at  Sciiemnitz,  Kremnitz, 
Tarnowitz,  and  Newsohl,  Tajora;  Metallurgical  process  in  the  Lower  Hun¬ 
garian  mining-districts,  Waldburgerschaft  Smelting- Works,  Transylvania, 
Nagy  Barya. 

369.  Lead-metal  industry  in  the  Austrian-Hungariau  Empire  has  a 
very  ancient  origin,  hut,  on  account  of  a  lack  of  large  ore-deposits,  it  has 
never  grown  to  extensive  dimensions.  It  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  many 
important  improvements,  made  by  Peter  Ritter  v.  Rittinger,  by  means  of 
which  the  ores  are  carefully  dressed  and  the  obnoxious  minerals  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  valuable  elements,  that  they  are  enabled  to  conduct  the 
smelting  processes  in  an  economical  and  profitable  manner.  The  lead 
and  silver  mining  and  smelting  centers  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  have, 
unfortunately,  been  without  railroad  communications,  which  have,  in 
some  respects,  greatly  retarded  their  development.  A  railroad  was 
fiuished  and  opened  to  Schemnitz  last  summer,  which  will  enable  the 
reducing-works  to  operate  on  quite  an  enlarged  scale.  The  government 
has  already  adopted  measures  to  consolidate  the  reducing-works  in  and 
near  Schemnitz  into  one. 

370.  The  empire  was  well  represented  at  the  Exposition  in  Group  I, 
and  it  was  greatly  regretted  that  the  mining  and  metallurgical  products 
were  not  exhibited  so  as  to  form  a  connected  display,  and  thus  present 
one  large  exhibit  instead  of  the  many  lesser  ones.  The  products  of  each 
separate  district  were  scattered  through  the  Austrian  portion  of  the 
“  Industrial  Palace,”  presenting  a  striking  contrast  to  Germany’s  dis¬ 
play,  and  making  it  difficult  for  the  visitor  to  obtain  a  comprehensive 
oversight  of  the  whole  by  comparison. 

371.  Bohemia.— The  Pribramer  Silberhtitte  was  represented  by  plans  of 
the  smelting-works;  statistical  map  of  production,  embracing  the  receipts 
and  expenses,  gain  and  loss,  for  each  year  from  1751  to  1871 ;  charts  illus¬ 
trating  the  different  steps  in  dressing  the  ores,  and  each  manipulation 
in  their  reduction,  and  systematically-arranged  collections  of  vein-pieces, 


158 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


(41 ;)  dressed  ores,  (50 ;)  intermediate  and  final  metallurgical  products, 
(52;)  models  of  machinery  for  dressing  ore;  and  model  of  the  newly- 
erected  large  cupelling-furnace. 

372.  A  large  pyramid,  placed  opposite,  and  similar  to  that  from 
Brixlcgg,  attracted  attention.  The  bod}*  was  composed  of  vein-pieces, 
ores,  and  products;  a  piece  of  silver  from  the  German  cupellation- 
furnace  formed  its  apex.  This  exhibit  was  in  itself  a  model  of  complete¬ 
ness,  and  showed  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject.  The  following 
have  been  selected  from  this  display  as  being  of  especial  interest : 

Commercial  antimouial  lead,  noted  for  its  large  percentage  of  anti¬ 
mony,  (18  to  20  per  cent. ;)  silver-lead,  soft  lead,  commercial  lead,  from 
pattinsonizing,  produced  by  reducing  and  pattiusouiziug  the  rich  litharge. 
Black,  red,  and  green  litharge ;  the  former  is  reduced  and  produces  auti- 
monial  lead;  the  two  latter  are  articles  of  commerce.  Silver,  from  Ger¬ 
man  cupellation-hearth,  in  the  form  of  a  large  cake,  about  3  feet  G  inches 
in  diameter  and  2  to  4  inches  thick.  It  weighed  1,015  Zoll.  pounds  = 
507.5  kilograms,  and  was  valued  at  4,570  gulden,  (Austrian.)  Near  the 
edge  of  the  silver-cake  there  were  large  pyramids,  formed  by  sprouting 
while  cooling.  The  pyramids  were  from  4  to  S  inches  high.  There  were 
also  bricks  of  refined  silver  exhibited. 

373.  In  addition  to  the  enumerated  products,  there  was  a  model  of 
Rittinger’s  continual-acting  percussion-table,  in  one-third  of  the  natural 
dimensions.  This  table  is  intended  to  classify  sorted  slimes.  The  frame 
of  the  bed  is  of  wrought-iron,  and  it  is  suspended  by  four  hooks  from 
four  iron  pillars.  The  floor  of  the  bed  was,  in  the  model,  of  marble. 
Its  capacity  is  0.063  to  0.12G  centimeter  slime  iu  one  hour.  It  concen¬ 
trates  pure  slime  to  GO  to  70  per  cent,  of  lead. 

374.  There  was  also  exhibited  a  model  of  the  cupellatiou-furnace,  in 
one-sixteenth  of  its  natural  dimensions,  erected  in  1S72  by  Herr  Cermak. 
This  furnace  (see  drawings)  is  rectangular,  with  a  surface  of  hearth 
equal  to  12  square  meters.  There  are  two  movable  hoods,  each  cover¬ 
ing  one-half  of  the  furnace.  This  furnace  is  intended  for  a  charge  of 
25,000  kilometers  =  24.G3  tons  English  lead.  It  has  four  fire-places ; 
these  are  placed,  two  in  each  end ;  the  doors  are  in  the  front  and  rear 
of  the  furnace.  Either  wood  or  bituminous  coal  can  be  used  as  fuel. 
The  lead-fumes  are  caught  iu  small  hoods,  hung  over  the  litharge-open¬ 
ing,  and  led  iuto  the  main  escape-pipe  for  the  gases  and  fumes  ;  this  is 
cast-iron,  and  is  conducted  through  the  blast-canal,  thus  warming  the 
blast.  It  was  intended  to  construct  three  similar  furnaces  in  1873-74, 
with  gas-generating  furnaces  attached.  The  drawiug  at  the  end  of  this 
report  is  a  copy  of  the  drawing  by  which  the  furnace  was  built. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  DRAWINGS,  FIGURES  IX  TO  XVI,  OF  THE  NEW 
OHPELLATION-FURNACE  BUILT  AT  PRISBAM  IN  1872. 

A,  hearth  made  of  marl. 

B,  hearth  made  of  slag. 


BOHEMIAN  PROCESSES. 


159 


0,  foundation,  with  holes,/,  for  escape  of  moisture. 

b ,  two  doors  for  charging  or  watching  the  process. 

D,  two  movable  hoods ;  d,  sections  of  the  same. 

E,  four  iron  columns  supporting  an  iron  rail,  upon  which  rest  the 
pulleys  that  raise  the  hoods. 

g,  small  hood  overhanging  litharge-doors,  F,  and  leading  into  G  for 
escape  of  furnace-fumes. 

H,  iron  pipe  containing  blast ;  this  is  placed  in  the  canal,  G,  by  means 
of  v/hich  the  blast  is  heated,  h,  tuyeres. 

K,  door  to  fire-place.  lc,  fire-grate,  with  blast  from  l  m,  ash-pit. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  the  results  obtained  with  this  fur¬ 
nace  at  Pribram  were  not  to  be  had.  But  it  is  highly  probable  that 
it  would  be  very  advantageous  for  works  where  large  quantities  of  sil¬ 
ver-lead  are  cupelled,  as  at  Pribarm.  There  must  be  a  great  saving  of 
fuel  and  labor  when  cupelling  large  quantities  of  silver-lead,  especially 
if  it  is  poor  in  silver,  when  compared  to  the  method  often  practiced  of 
repeatedly  adding  fresh  quantities  of  silver-lead,  which  has  the  effect  of 
cooling  the  molten  mass,  and  producing  an  impure  litharge  throughout 
the  first  part  of  the  process.  The  concentration  of  the  silver  cannot  be 
carried  in  this  furnace  beyond  certain  limits,  owing  to  the  increased 
temperature,  and  proportionate  consumption  of  fuel  necessary  to  heat 
the  resulting  small  amount  of  silver  in  the  large  hearth. 

375.  Latest  improvements  in  the  metallurg-ical  process.— 
Since  the  close  of  the  year  1871,  the  combined  washing  and  smelting 
process  has  taken  the  place  of  the  iron -reduction  process,  in  use  up  to 
that  time.  Long  reverberatory  roastiug-furnaces  are  used  for  roasting 
ores,  and  Rundofen  (cylindrical  blast-furnaces)  with  seven  tuyeres,  for 
the  smelting  and  reduction  of  the  roasted  ore.  In  consequence  of  this 
change,  less  lead-matte  had  to  be  roasted  and  reduced  by  smelting, 
whereby  the  reduction  was  accompanied  with  a  smaller  amount  of 
intermediate  products,  less  loss,  and,  consequently,  a  decrease  in  the 
general  cost,  as  the  following  figures  will  show : 


Cost  of  smelting  per  cwt.*  of  ore 

Loss  in  silver . 

Loss  in  lead  . . . . 


1871. 

1  fl.  88.30  kr. 
1.271  per  cent. 
21.61  per  cent. 


1872. 

1  fl.  73.98  kr. 
0.853  per  cent. 
17.50  per  cent. 


The  following  communication  upon  the  cost  of  smeltiug  and  the 
latest  improvements  made  at  Pribram  appeared  in  The  Berg-und 
Hiittenmannische  Zeitung ,  1873,  p.  409. 

In  making  use  of  the  iron-reduction  process,  the  yield  in  lead-matte 
was  70  per  cent,  of  the  ore  melted.  In  1870,  with  the  roasting  and 
smelting  process,  combined  with  the  iron -reduction  process,  the  yield 
was  still  as  high  as  42.95  per  cent. ;  in  1871,  only  31.32  per  cent,  was 
produced ;  since  1872,  with  the  combined  roasting  and  smelting  process 


*  1  Austrian  cwt.  =  56  kilograms  123  pounds  English. 


160  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

alone,  and  working  an  ore  containing  53  percent,  lead,  the  yield  in  lead- 
matte  was  only  10. S  per  cent,  of  the  ore  smelted. 

During  the  last  three  years  the  ores  have  continually  increased,  as 
regards  metallurgical  treatment,  in  rebelliousness,  the  percentage  of 
zinc-sulphide,  copper-sulphide,  and  silicic  acid,  being  continually  on  the 
increase.  The  following  three  average  analyses  will  show  this  increase 
in  the  ingredients  above  mentioned,  a,  is  an  average  analysis  of  the 
lead  ores  in  December  of  the  year  1S70,  after  the  same  had  been  freed 


from  all  blendic  ore,  made  by  Patera ;  b,  average  analysis  of  the 


ores  in  the  year  1871,  made  by  Miizek;  and  c,  average  analysis 

,  in  the 

year  1872,  made  by  the  same : 

a. 

b. 

C. 

71.  40 

c  8.  11 

25 

C.  40 

8.  01 

3.  01 

1.  30 

1.  50 

0.39 

0.36 

0.  37 

0.  04 

o.  li 

Trace. 

Trace. 

5.  44 

2.  04 

1.  07 

•  0. 51 

0.  G7 

5.01 

7.01 

9. 17 

0.  57 

0.23 

Trace. 

1.  43 

o 

1.50 

0.  14 

Trace. 

Trace. 

7.60 

k  40 

11.  92 

0.  37 

0.67 

99.57 

99.  76 

100. 17 

In  1  STD,  instead  of  the  four  English  roasting-furnaces,  three  long 
reverberatory  roasting-furnaces  were  put  in  operation,  and  the  fourth  in 
the  beginning  of  March,  all  of  which  worked  well  and  with  a  large  sav¬ 
ing  in  fuel,  as  compared  with  the  English  furnaces.  These  furnaces 
roasted  ores  containing  55  per  cent,  galena,  so  as  to  free  them  from  all 
the  sulphur  contained  therein  within  2  to  3  per  cent.,  thus  causing  the 
good  results  spoken  of  above  as  regards  the  production  of  lead-matte. 
By  comparing  the  former  roasting  in  English  and  double-roasting  fur¬ 
naces  of  the  year  1800,  with  that  in  the  long  revei'beratory  roasting- 
furnaces  in  1S71  and  1872,  we  have  the  following  results  : 


1869. 

1871. 

1872. 

"Workingmen's  wages  per  cwt.  of  ore . - . kreutzer.. 

Bituminous  coal  per  cwt.  of  ore . . . - . pounds.. 

Cost  of  bituminous  coal  per  ewt.  of  ore* . florins.. 

Cost  of  roasting  per  cwt.  of  ore . - . kreutzer.. 

a  27 
35.  32 
18.  90 
27. 17 

9.18 
25.  41 
16. 03 
25.21 

9.13 

23.  48 
15.  50 

24.  63 

*  Tlie  cost  of  1  cwt.  of  bituminous  coal  in  1869, 1871,  and  1872  was  53.5,  63,  and  66  kreutzer. 


In  order,  however,  to  rightly  judge  of  the  cost  of  roasting  in  both 
kinds  of  furnaces,  the  cost  of  roasting  a  cwt.  of  ore  must  be  carried  back 


i 


LATEST  IMPROVEMENTS. 


161 


to  the  wages  paid  in  1809,  and  the  saving  in  fuel  should  be  made  inde¬ 
pendent  of  the  favorable  price  of  coal  in  that  year.  We  then  have  the 
following  results  for  the  roasting  in  the  long  reverberatory  furnaces  : 


• 

1871. 

1872. 

Kreutzer. 

0.  64 
6.22 

Kreutzer. 

1.  61 
7.  81 

6.86 

9.  42 

Since  October,  1871,  the  lead-matte  aud  furnace-accretions  have  been 
roasted  in  stalls.  The  new  cylindrical  blast-furnace  with  seven  tuyeres, 

( rundofen ,)  with  bosh  and  closed  top,  finished  in  1872,  allows  of  from  six 
to  seven  times  greater  production  than  the  old  blast-furnace  with  two 
tuyeres,  aud  saves  almost  one-third  of  the  fuel  necessary  for  the  latter. 

The  condensing-chambers  have  proved  to  be  effective.  They  gave, 
at  the  end  of  the  year  1871,  418  cwt.=20i§{}{}  tons  of  furnace-fumes, 
haviug  a  value  2,293  fl.  12  kr.  in  metal,  which  is  about  equal  to  6  per 
cent,  interest  on  the  cost  of  building  the  canal. 

The  fluxing  with  lead-matte,  lead-slag,  and  limestone  was  continued 
as  usual ;  also  the  addition  of  the  small  percentage  of  pig-iron,  4  to  5 
per  cent.,  for  reason  of  the  poverty  of  the  Pribram  ores  in  this  metal; 
but  the  addition  of  the  iron-slag  from  puddling-furnace  was  diminished, 
by  being  partially  replaced  with  the  cheaper  limestone.  A  mixture  of 
charcoal  and  coke  came  into  use  as  fuel,  as  the  use  of  the  latter  alone 
was  still  too  expensive,  (1  cwt.  coke  costing  2  fl.,  and  1  cwt.  charcoal 
1  fl.  30  kr.)  The  pecuniary  possibility  of  the  exclusive  use  of  coke  will 
be  decided  by  the  seven-tuyered  furnace. 

For  the  further  manipulation  of  the  silver-lead,  a  German  cupellatiou- 
furnace,  finished  in  1S72,  and  of  improved  construction,  was  made  use 
of.  In  1871,  the  Pattinson  apparatus  was  finished,  consisting  of  a  melt¬ 
ing-kettle  and  a  crystallization-kettle,  and  in  working,  by  allowing  the 
mother-liquid  to  flow  off,  a  normal  decrease  of  the  percentage  of  silver 
in  the  crystals  was  effected. 

In  the  manufactory  for  the  manufacture  of  zinc  oxide,  finished  in  1871, 
finely  crushed  blendic  ores,  containing  17  per  cent,  zinc,  are  treated 
until  the  residue  contains  only  20  per  cent,  of  the  metal  originally  con¬ 
tained  in  the  ore. 

In  order  to  perfect  a  systematic  manipulation,  the  following  arrange¬ 
ments  are  to  be  introduced :  A  fine  brick  factory,  a  refining-furnace  for 
impure  lead,  zinc-desilverization,  the  extraction  of  bismuth  from  the 
test  of  the  cupellation-furnace,  the  resmelting  of  old  lead-slag  in  cylin¬ 
drical  blast-furnaces,  the  production  of  minium,  a  blast  heating-appa¬ 
ratus,  and  a  steam  blast-engine,  to  be  used  for  the  cupellation,  or  during 
any  interruption  of  the  other  machinery,  &c.  The  number  of  workmen 
employed  in  1869  was  285,  and  in  the  last  three  years  they  averaged  306. 

11  M 


102  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,.  1873.  * 

f 

37G.  The  results  of  extraction  iu  the  years  1870  to  1872,  as  compared 
to  those  of  1869,  are  as  follows  : 


1869. 


1.  BOASTING  OF  THE  OKE  IN  REVERSE fiATORY  FUR¬ 
NACES. 


Consumption  of  biturniuons  coal  per  100  cwt. 
or« . cwt..  35.32 

2.  SMELTING  ;  A  COMBINED  ROASTING  AND  SMELTING 
PROCESS. 

Consumption  of  charcoal  per  100  cwt.  ore _ tons. .  83.  52 

Consumption  of  coke  per  luo  cwt.  ore . cwt..  1.  31 

Consumption  of  charcoal  per  100  cwt.  of  total  charge, 

including  lead-slag . . . tons. .  j  20.  03 

Consumption  of  coke  per  100  cwt.  of  total  charge, 

including  lead-slug . cwt..  1.35 

Consumption  of  pig-iron  per  100  cwt.  ore . cwt.  1.  62 

Consumption  of  iron-slag  from  puddling-furnace 

per  too  cwt.  ore . wheelbarrows.  19.  85 

Limestone  and  lime  consumption  per  100  cwt. 

ore . cwt.  2.85 

Coosuniptlonofapatblcirou-oreperlOOcwt.orc  cwt . 


3.  IRON- REDUCTION  PROCESS. 

Consumption  of  charcoal  per  its)  cwt.  ore.. ..tons.. 

Consumption  of  coke  per  100  cwt.  ore . cwt. 

Consumption  of  charcoal  per  100  cwt.  of  total 
eba/ge,  inclusive  of  lead-slag . tons.. 

Consumption  of  coke  per  100  cwt.  of  total  charge, 
inclusive  of  lcad  sldg . owt.. 

Consumption  of  pig-iron  per  100  owt.  ore  ...cwt.. 

Consumption  of  iron  slag  from  puddling  fumnee 
per  100  cwt.  ore .  wheelbarrows.. 

Consumption  of  limestono  per  100  owt.  ore.,  cwt.. 

3.  CL’PELLATION. 

Thirty-inch  solt  split-wood  per  100  owt.  silver- 
lead . .  kinder. .. 

•I.  EXPENSES  OF  PRODUCTION. 


51.  61 
a  83 


18.  73 


236 
16.  87 


16.30 

3.09 


218 


A  miut  ponnd  of  silver . .  6  tls. 

Without  consideration  of  the  special  and  genernl 

cost  of  extraction .  16.68 

With  consideration  of  the  special  nod  genernl  costs 
of  extraction . 


5.  SUMMARY  OF  METALLIC  LOSS. 

for  100  mint-pounds  of  the  silver  contained  in  the 

ore . mint-pounds. . 

Per  100  cwt.  of  lend  contained  in  ore . cwt. . . 

Amount  of  lend-mntte  remaining . cwt.. 


1870. 


31.  01 


86. 05 
17.58 


21.  25 


1.  31 
3.20 


7.00 

5.91 


2  612 
21.78 
9(5.  15 


62  01 
2  96 


18.05 


0.86 

17.73 


2  11 

6.60 


2  76 

6  tls. 
75. 12 
tls.,  80  kr. 


3.  392 
21.  86 
83.  17f 


1871. 


1872. 


25.11 


99.  37 
3.91 


26.58 


1.01 

1.  18 


7.92 


9.33 

1.73 


255 


23. 18 


71.  21 
11.32 


26. 32 


1.  16 
3.97 


10.30 


13.(55 

3.61 


81.68  . 

23.  99  . 

. . 

17.18  . 

12  63  . 
9.70  . 


2.  66 


8  tls. 


6  tls.  . 

20.09  ! . 

11  kr.  7  tls.,  96  kr. 


1.271 

21.61 

56.00 


0.  853 

17.  50 
511 


It  must  be  remembered  here  that  the  decrease  in  the  loss  of  metal  in 
1872  is  still  more  favorable,  as  the  amount  of  lead-matte  on  hand  is 
only  r>41  cwt.,  whereas  iu  1871  the  same  amounted  to  5, GOO  cwt.;  the  year 
1S72,  therefore,  shows  a  decrease  of  5.059  cwt.  The  charcoal,  in  com¬ 
parison  with  that  of  former  years,  was  of  poor  quality,  in  consequence 
of  the  bad  quality  of  wood  used,  it  being  that  which  had  been  broken 
down  during  the  storms  of  1808  and  1870,  and  consisting  principally  of 
the  top  branches  of  the  trees;  while,  on  the  other  baud,  coke  stood  at  an 
uncommon  high  price;  and,  further,  because  the  rapid  increase  in  the 
price  of  almost  all  material,  as  well  as  wages,  produced  an  important 
difference  in  the  cost  of  extraction. 

377.  There  are  at  present  employed  at  the  Pribram  Smelting-Works— 
Four  stalls  and  two  shaft-furnaces  for  roasting  matte. 


PRIBRAM  SMELTING-WORKS. 


163 


Four  single-bearthed  reverberatory  roasting-furnaces,  14.5  meters 
long-  and  2.35  wide,  with  seven  working-doors  on  each  side.  Tbe  ca¬ 
pacity  is  4,032  kilograms  in  twenty-four  boars.  A  charge  of  1,000  kilo¬ 
grams  is  drawn  every  six  hours.  Tbe  roasted  ore  contains  3  per  cent, 
sulphur.  The  fumes  and  gases  are  conducted  through  a  false  hearth  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  furnace,  and  from  thence  through  a  condensing- 
canal,  300  meters  long,  which  ends  in  a  chimney  24.G4S  meters  high. 
Ore  is  dried  by  placing  it  on  the  top  of  the  furnace  before  it  is  charged. 

One  three-tuyered  shaft-furnace,  7.0  meters  high  and  0.4  meter  square 
at  the  tuyeres. 

Three  two-tuyered  shaft-furnaces,  7.6  meters  high  by  the  tuyeres,  0.3 
meter  wide,  and  0.4  meter  deep. 

One  seveu-tuyered  shaft-furnace,  with  cast-iron  water-cooling  boxes, 
(Pilz,  built  in  1871,)  8.2  meters  high  and  1.6  meters  wide  at  the  tuyeres. 
The  shaft  widens  above  the  tuyeres  and  narrows  at  the  top.  It  is  2 
meters  wide  at  the  mouth.  The  ore  is  charged  by  means  of  a  mechan¬ 
ical  hopper.  This  furnace  gave  such  good  results,  that  a  second  one 
was  commenced  in  1872  on  the  same  plan,  with  the  addition  of  au  air¬ 
heating  apparatus  and  one  oue-tuyered  low  shaft-furnace  for  reducing 
poor  and  rich  litharge. 

Four  German  cupellation-furnaces;  each  will  contain  6,720  kilograms 
lead.  These  furnaces  are  built  in  a  square,  and  the  silver-lead  taken  to 
them,  and  the  products  from  cupelling  are  removed  by  hand-cars,  which 
run  on  the  rails  surrounding  the  furnace.  The  silver  lead  is  cupelled 
without  previous  concentration.  It  contains  0.5  per  cent.  =145  oz.  16 
dwt.  silver. 

One  new  rectangular  cupellation-furnace,  which  has  already  been 
described. 

One  small  cupelliug-furnace,  Avith  movablejhood,  for  refining  the  silver 
from  large  cupellation-furnace.  The  silver  charged  is  about  y8^  fine  ; 
this  is  refined  to  T9o90V 

A  Pattinson  battery  of  two  kettles,  Avhich  are  used  to  desilverize  the 
rich  litharge.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  the  necessary  crushing- 
mills,  engines,  &c. 

378.  The  Pribram  Smelting- Works  produced  in  1871 — 

Kilograms. 

Lead .  500,976 

Litharge .  1,627,864 

Silver .  1,822,688 

379.  The  smelting- works  at  Kscheutzischer  Zecheand  Mies  exhibited 
a  few  samples  of  ores  and  products.  These  were  from  the  former. 
Bleudic  galena-ores  are  roasted  in  a  long  reverberatory  furnace ;  the 
exhibited  specimens  contained  numerous  pieces  of  undecomposed  galena 
and  blende,  silver-lead,  silver,  and  litharge.  From  the  latter  were  lead- 
ores,  roasted  ores,  and  silver-lead. 

The  richest  ores  from  the  mining-districts  where  Kscheutzischer- 


164 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Zeche  and  the  Mies  smelting-works  are  situated  are  sent  to  Germany 
for  redaction. 

350.  Tyrol. — The  Copper  and  Zinc  Smelting- Works  of  Brixlegg  ex¬ 
hibited  a  plan  of  the  partly  erected  reduction-works  aud  samples  of  their 
ores,  among  which  the  following  were  noteworthy  :  Copper  pyrites,  from 
Schwarz,  carrying  13  per  cent,  copper;  bouruonite,  from  Schwarz,  with 
10  per  cent,  copper  aud  0.13  per  cent.  =  37  oz.  16  dwt.  19  gr.  silver. 
Tetraliedrite,  from  Madersbacher  Kopfel,  with  0  per  cent,  copper  aud 
0.2  per  cent.  =  56  oz.  6  gr.  silver.  In  addition  to  these  there  were  raw 
matte,  concentrated  matte,  rosette-copper,  from  Brixlegg  and  Jochberg, 
sheet-copper,  copper-kettles,  and  tuyeres,  aud  a  piece  of  impure  silver, 
which  crystallized  upon  being  allowed  to  cool  on  the  crystalliziug-hearth. 
The  crystals  were  imperfect  octahedrons.  The  half  which  was  visible 
was  about  oue-tifth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  addition  to  these  was  a 
pyramid  about  25  .cet  high,  5  feet  diameter  at  the  bottom,  and  2  feet 
at  the  top.  It  was  made  of  wood,  upon  which  were  fastened,  by  means 
of  paste,  the  different  ores  treated.  On  the  apex  was  placed  a  piece  of, 
rose-copper. 

351.  A  model  of  the  newly-erected  round  six-tuyered  shaft-furnace 
was  also  exhibited.  The  smelting-zone  is  surrounded  with  iron  water¬ 
cooling  boxes.  This  is  a  crucible-furnace  with  a  charging-hopper,  cast- 
iron  slag-spout  and  tap-pots.  A  system  of  condensation-chambers  are 
constructed  under  the  floor  of  the  works.  The  dimensions  of  this  fur¬ 
nace  are,  6.3  meters  high,  1.5  meters  wide  at  top,  1.2  meters  in  smelting- 
zone.  Its  capacity  is  300  centner=16,S00  kilograms  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

382.  These  works  were  first  erected  in  1150,  and  were  organized  and 
entirely  rebuilt  in  1870  by  the  government  as  a  central  smelting-works 
for  the  copper,  silver,  and  zinc  ores  extracted  from  the  government 
mines  in  the  Tyrol  and  Salzburg,  and  ores  bought  from  private  parties. 
With  this  object  in  view  there  have  already  been  erected  one  single- 
hearthed  reverberatory  roasting-furuace,  IS  meters  long  aud  1  meters 
wide;  one  sliaft-furnace ;  one  reverberatory  furnace,  for  concentrating 
copper-matte;  one  large  copper-refining  furnace,  with  a  Siemens  gas- 
producer;  one  cupelling-furnace ;  one  low-shaft  furnace,  for  smelting 
matte  for  black  copper ;  a  small  copper-reliuing  hearth ;  two  copper- 
hammers;  and  a  copper-rolling  mill.  At  present  there  are  three  zinc 
muffle-furnaces,  but  it  is  proposed  to  build  two  shaft  roasting,  four  Gers- 
lenhofer,  and  eight  muffle- furnaces,  viz,  three  with  eighty  muffles  and 
five  with  136  muffles  each,  all  to  be  heated  with  Boetims  gas-geu- 
erators ;  also,  a  sheet-zinc-rolling  mill  and  a  sulphuric-acid  manufactory. 

3S3.  The  ores  treated  at  these  works  have  a  varied  composition;  their 
conteuts  of  copper,  silver,  lead,  aud  zinc  may  be  seen  iu  the  following 
table,  takeu  from  The  Berg-  mid  nuttenmannische Zeitung,  1873,  p.  94: 


TYROLESE  PROCESSES. 


165 


Copper. 

Silver. 

Lead. 

Zinc. 

Schwarz  . . . . . . 

Percent. 

5-10 

2-25 

5-16 

1-  5 

2- 20 
1-14 

0.  080  to  0. 10  per  cent.  =  23  oz. 

6  dwt.  to  29  oz. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

0. 11  to  0.  26  per  cent.  =  31  oz. 
20  dwt.  to  84  oz.  10  dwt. 

30-33 

Copper-ores  containing  silver  . . . 

0.  005  to  0.  07  per  cent.  =  1  oz. 

9  dwt.  to  20  oz.  8  dwt. 

0.  005  to  0. 13  per  cent.  =  1  oz. 

9  dwt.  to  37  oz.  16  dwt. 

4-63 

40-63 

Ores  from  Madersbaclier  Kopfel  contain  a  small  amount  of  nickel  and 
cobalt.  In  addition  to  these,  raw  matte  from  Kitzhichel,  containing  24 
per  cent,  copper,  is  treated. 

384.  Processes. — Formerly  the  ores  from  the  mines  owned  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment  and  metallurgical  products  from  Klausen  and  Kitzhichel  were 
treated  according  to  the  complicated  Brixlegg-abdarr  process,  (a  process 
of  liquation.)  In  1872  the  smelting  process  was  simplified,  and  consists 
at  present  of  two  separate  treatments,  the  copper-process  and  the  lead- 
process. 

385.  In  the  copper  process  roasted  copper  ores*  are  mixed  with  un¬ 
roasted  ores  (both  being  free  from  lead  and  silver)  and  necessary  fluxes, 
and  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace  for  raw  matte.  This  is  roasted  and  con¬ 
centrated  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  Tkeconcentrated  matte  is  roasted, 
and  then  either  refined  in  a  copper-refining  furnace,  whereby  block- 
copper  results,  or  smelted  in  a  low  shaft-furnace  for  black  copper,  which 
is  refined  in  a  small  refining-hearth,  whereby  rosette-copper  is  produced. 

386.  The  lead-process  consists  in  mixing  the  copper-ores  containing 
silver  with  gold-ores  and  slimes  from  Lend  and  Bockstein,  and  roasted 
argentiferous  galena.  These  are  smelted  in  a  shaft-furnace,  the  prod¬ 
ucts  of  which  are  speiss,  matte,  and  silver-lead.  The  silver-lead,  con¬ 
taining  a  small  amount  of  gold,  is  cupelled.  The  raw  speiss  is  partly 
roasted  and  then  concentrated.  The  matte  is  roasted  and  smelted  a 
second  time  in  a  shaft- furnace,  with  roasted  lead-ores  or  oxidized  lead- 
products.  The  silver-lead  from  this  operation,  containing  all  the  gold 
which  was  in  the  matte,  is  cupelled ;  the  concentrated  matte  is  roasted 
and  smelted  in  a  shaft  for  argentiferous  black  copper.  The  silver  is 
extracted  from  this  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

387.  The  zinc  and  copper  produced  at  these  works  are  partly  manu¬ 
factured  into  sheet-zinc,  sheet-copper,  copper-kettles,  tuyeres,  &c.  The 
Brixlegg  Smelting- Works  produced  annually,  copper,  280,000  kilograms; 
copper  articles,  kettles,  &c.,  33,600  kilograms;  sheet-copper,  67,200  kilo¬ 
grams;  silver,  700  kilograms;  gold,  10  kilograms;  also,  a  small  quautity 
of  litharge  and  speiss.  It  is  estimated  that  upon  completion  of  the  zinc- 
furnaces  and  the  sulphuric-acid  manufactory,  the  annual  production  of 

*  Vide  “ Ausstellung  des  K  E  ackerbauministeriums,”  Wien,  1873,  p.  79. 


166 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  16T3. 


these  two  articles  will  be,  zinc  and  sheet-zinc,  2,SOO,000  kilograms  ;  sul¬ 
phuric  acid,  1,120,000  kilograms;  and  the  value  of  the  total  production 
will  be  920,000  florins  =  $308,000  gold. 

38S.  The  Smelting- Works  of  Jochberg  exhibited  a  few  samples  of  cop¬ 
per-matte,  with  22  to  24  per  cent,  copper  and  slag.  The  copper-ores  are 
copper  pyrites;  the  gangue  is  chiefly  slate  and  quartz.  They  average 
18.5  per  cent,  copper.  These  works*  produced  formerly  rosette-copper, 
but  their  operations  are  now  confined  to  the  production  of  raw  matte, 
which  is  sent  to  Brixlegg  for  further  treatment.  The  new  round  shaft- 
furnace  at  the  Jochberg  works  has  seven-  tuyeres,  and  is  (5.3  meters 
high  and  1.3  meters  wide  in  the  crucible.  The  copper  from  the  Jochberg 
ores  is  of  a  superior  quality,  comparing  favorably  with  the  best  copper 
of  Kussia  and  Sweden. 

381).  The  Copper- Works  of  the  Mitterberger  Gewerkschaft  of  Miihl- 
bach,  in  Salzburg,  were  represented  by  a  small  display  of  ores,  eopper- 
matte,  and  black  and  refined  copper.  The  ore  is  composed!  chiefly  of 
copper  pyrites;  the  gangue  is  of  a  quart zose  and  spathic  nature.  An 
analysis  made  from  an  average  sample  was  as  follows:  Cu.  =  11.5  per 
cenf. ;  S.  —  lfl.l  ;  Be.  =  27.1 :  Si  Cb  =  22.2.  Small  quantities  of  alumina* 
calcite,  and  magnesia. 

391).  The  smelting  process  is  simple.  The  ore  is  roasted  in  heaps  and 
smelted  in  shaft-furnaces,  with  about  1<>  per  cent,  slag,  from  the  black- 
copper  smelting,  25  per  cent,  slag,  from  the  matte-smelting,  and  20  per 
cent,  of  roasted  copper-matte.  The  resulting  copper-matte  contains 
about  25  per  cent,  copper,  and  is  run  from  the  furnace  into  water, 
whereby  it  is  granulated.  The  granulated  matte  is  roasted  and  smelted 
pi  a  low-shaft  furnace  (to  avoid  a  reduction  of  iron)  with  quartz,  and 
slag  from  the  ore-smelting.  The  concentrated  copper-matte  contains 
about  50  per  cent,  copper.  It  is  crushed,  roasted  in  reverberatory  fur¬ 
naces,  and  again  smelted  in  a  low-blast  furnace  with  quartz  and  slag 
from  the  ore-smelting.  The  result  of  this  smelting  is  black  copper, 
which  is  refined  in  a  copper-refining  hearth.  The  product  is  rosette- 
copper.  The  sweepings  are  smelted,  and  form  an  inferior  quality  of 
copper.  The  nickel-sweepings  are  granulated  and  sold. 

391.  The  increased  production  of  ores  caused  the  works  to  increase 
the  facilities  for  their  reduction.  The  improvements  consist  in  a  round 
shaft-furnace  and  a  large  refining-furnace,  which  have  taken  the  place 
of  low-blast  furnaces  and  small  refining-hearths.  The  description  of 
the  round  furnace  and  the  comparison  of  the  new  and  old  shaft  fur¬ 
naces,  are  from  the  Oesterreichische  Zeitschrift  far  Berg  und  Riitten- 
icesen,  1871.  Xo.  22.  The  communication  is  by  Herru  Superintendent 
A.  Ivhuen.  The  furnace  is  round,  widened  toward  the  top,  has  five 
wrought-irou  water  tuyeres,  and  has  the  following  dimensions:  height 
from  bottom  of  furnace  to  gas  canal.  14 feet 6 inches;  from  bottom  of  fur- 


'  Vide  “AvssteUnng  des  K  K  ackerbauministeriumg,”  Wien,  1873,  p.  89. 
t  Vide  ■ ‘  Berg-  und  Huttenmannische  Zeiiung 1871,  p.  285. 


TYROLESE  PROCESSES. 


167 


nace  to  tuyeres,  3  feet  6  inches;  from  the  tuyeres  to  the  supporting-ring, 
3  feet  9  inches;  from  the  supporting-ring  to  gas-canal,  7  feet  3  inches; 
height  of  charging-hopper,  3  feet  10  inches;  diameter  at  tuyeres,  3  feet ;  at 
the  mouth,  4  feet ;  height  of  tuyeres  above  the  slag-spout,  11  inches.  The 
tuyeres  have  an  opening  of  2^  inches  in  diameter,  and  are  inclined  1  inch. 
About  700  to  800  cubic  feet  of  air  is  consumed  per  minute  by  the  pres¬ 
sure  of  t82  to  t92  inch  quicksilver-column.  The  wall  of  the  smelting-zone, 
about  the  tuyeres,  is  cooled  by  means  of  cast-iron  pipes  through  which 
water  is  made  to  circulate.  Underneath  the  tuyeres  are  cast-iron 
troughs,  into  which  the  water  runs  from  the  pipes  placed  above.  The 
upper  shaft  is  supported  by  an  iron  ring,  which  rests  upon  three  iron 
pillars.  This  part  of  the  shaft  is  formed  of  sheet-iron  lined  with  fire¬ 
brick;  it  is  narrow  at  the  bottom,  but  widens  at  the  top.  A  chimney 
is  built  over  the  furnace  to  catch  the  sulphureted  and  arseniureted 
hydrogen,  which  escapes  from  the  ore  in  the  charging-hopper.  The 
furnace-gas  escapes  by  a  canal  attached  to  the  side  of  the  furnace.  In 
the  bottom  of  the  canal,  near  the  furnace,  is  a  funnel,  which  catches  the 
small  ore  particles,  which  are  carried  off  by  the  draught  when  finely- 
crushed  ore  is  smelted.  The  gas-canal  falls  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and 
leads  to  condensing-chambers.  The  three  tuyeres  are  directed  toward 
the  center  of  the  furnace.  The  blasts  from  the  two  front  tuyeres  cross 
each  other  3  inches  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  furnace.  The  object  of 
this  is  to  keep  the  slag-opening  clear  and  to  utilize  all  of  the  blast. 

A  smelting  of  similar  charges  in  the  round  and  low  shaft  furnaces 
produced  in  the  first  matte  was  1  to  1.5  per  cent,  poorer  in  copper,  0.5 
to  1  per  cent,  in  iron,  and  2  to  3  per  cent,  richer  in  iron  than  in  the  lat¬ 
ter.  The  slag  from  the  round  furnace  was  1  per  cent,  poorer  in  iron  and 
3  per  cent,  richer  in  silicic  acid  than  in  the  low  shaft-furnace.  The  slag 
from  both  contained  1  per  cent,  copper.  In  spite  of  the  greater  contents 
of  the  matte  in  iron,  which  is  eliminated  in  the  following  concentration, 
the  advantages  of  the  new  furnace  are  very  great,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  following  comparison  :  The  capacity  of  the  round  furnace  is  greater 
than  that  of  three  low-blast  furnaces,  with  almost  32  per  cent,  saving  in 
fuel.  A  large  proportion  of  the  ore  (55  per  cent.)  is  slime,  which  causes 
a  large  volatilization  and  irregularities  in  the  working  of  the  furnace. 
If  the  slimes  are  agglutinated  with  milk  of  lime,  the  costs  and  charge 
are  increased,  and  the  contents  of  the  matte  in  iron  is  greater.  This 
inconvenience,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  avoided  by  producing  a  smaller 
amount  of  slime  in  the  dressing-works,  and  by  smelting  with  coke  in¬ 
stead  of  charcoal. 

392.  There  is  smelted  in  the  round  furnace  in  twenty-four  hours  a 
charge  of  322  centner,*  with  a  consumption  of  42.2  sacks  (one  sack 
=  20  cubic  feet)  charcoal.  The  products  are  120  centner  matte  and  61 
centner  fumes;  or,  calculating  after  deducting  the  fumes  from  100 
centner  ore,  which  is  smelted  in  10.2  hours  with  18.8  sacks  charcoal, 
the  products  are  51.3  centner  matte  and  29.9  centner  fumes. 


*  One  centner  =  110  pounds. 


168 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


One  hundred  centner  ore  are  smelted  in  the  low  shaft-furnace  in 
thirty-four  hours  with  27.5  sacks  of  charcoal,  producing  50  centner 
matte  and  2  of  fumes.  The  saving  is,  therefore,  in  the  round  furnace  per 
100  centner  2S.8  hours’  time  and  8.7  sacks  of  charcoal. 

393.  Carinthia. — The  “Bleiberger  Bergswerks-Union,”  the  most  im¬ 
portant  lead  mining  and  smelting  corporation  iu  Carinthia,  is  located  at 
Klagenfurt.  It  was  represented  by  an  interesting  display  of  statistical 
charts,  maps  of  the  mining-district,  ores,  and  products.  The  products 
were  “  riihr ”  and  “  press”  lead,  also  the  following  articles  from  the  man¬ 
ufactories  owned  by  this  company: 

A  coil  of  lead  wire  and  several  samples  of  lead  pipe.  One  piece  of  lead 
pipe  was  coiled  so  as  to  resemble  a  pyramid.  It  was  371.01  meters 
long,  lb. 97  millimeters  thick,  outside  measurement,  and  weighed  358.96 
kilograms.  One  piece  was  plated  with  tin,  both  inside  and  out. 

A  collection  of  pipes  ranging  from  6.57  millimeters  to  0.126  meter 
thick,  outside  measurement.  Those  under  32.5  millimeters  thick  were 
plated  on  the  outside  with  tin. 

Samples  of  sheet-lead  from  0.518  millimeter  toS.770  millimeters  thick. 
One  large  piece  of  sheet-lead,  24.65  meters  long,  1.896  meters  wide,  2.194 
millimeters  thick,  weighed  1,372  kilograms. 

In  addition  to  these  there  were  several  qualities  of  red  lead,  massicot, 
litharge,  and  lead-ashes. 

394.  The  Bleiberger  Bergwerks-ll nion  own  lead-mines  near  Bleiberg 
and  5Iiss,  iu  Lower  Carinthia;  reduction-works  in  Bleiberg,  near  Vil- 
lach,  in  5Iiss,  and  three  factories  in  Villach,  viz,  one  for  shot,  one  for 
litharge  and  red  lead,  and  one  for  pipes,  sheet-lead,  lead-foil,  &c. 

Twenty-seven  furnaces  are  in  operation  at  their  reduction-works, 
twenty-five  of  which  are  reverberatory  furnaces  used  in  the  reduction 
of  ore,  and  two  “  Rossie's  ”  shaft-furnaces,  in  which  the  residue  is  treated. 
Wood  serves  as  fuel  in  the  first,  and  charcoal  in  the  second.  The  loss 
amounts  to  5.5  per  cent,  of  the  lead  contained  in  the  ore;  part  of  this 
remains  in  the  residue  and  is  finally  extracted.  Real  loss,  2.56  per  cent. 

The  galena  is  free  from  silver,  and  occurs  in  veins,  beds,  and  irregular 
deposits  in  limestone.  It  is  accompanied,  chiefly,  by  blende,  calamine, 
cernsite,  calcite,  and  barytes. 

395.  The  lead  from  Bleiberg  is  celebrated  for  its  purity,  and  is  known 
as  “Villach  lead.”  Its  purity  is  owing  to  the  absence  of  large  quanti¬ 
ties  of  injurious  foreign  substances  in  the  ore,  and  to  the  peculiar  reduc¬ 
tion  process  which  it  undergoes  in  small  reverberatory  furnaces.  “Vil¬ 
lach  lead "  contains,  according  to  Streng,  the  following  amount  of 
impurities  : 


Antimony .  0.026 

Zinc .  0.  004 

Irou .  0.  004 

Copper . Trace. 


CARINTHIAN  PROCESSES. 


169 


The  riihr  lead  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  different  oxides  of 
lead,  the  press  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  shot. 

396.  The  main  object  in  the  Carinthian  process  is  to  obtain  pure  lead 
and  to  extract  from  the  ore  the  greatest  amount  possible  in  the  rever¬ 
beratory  furnace.  To  do  this  the  furnace  is  made  small,  in  order  that 
the  temperature  may  be  kept  under  good  control ;  the  charge  is  there¬ 
fore  necessarily  small ;  the  roasting  is  conducted  slowly  at  a  low  tem¬ 
perature,  and,  to  avoid  the  reduction  of  copper  and  antimony,  the  reac¬ 
tion  temperature  is  kept  as  low  as  possible.  The  disadvantages  of  this 
method,  which  are  to  be  considered  and  compared  to  the  advantages, 
are  the  attendant  increased  cost  of  fuel,  (6.63  centimeters  wood  to  100 
lead  is  consumed,)  labor,  and  the  small  quantity  of  lead  produced  in  a 
certain  time.  A  Carinthian  furnace  costs  about  $120  gold.  Double  and 
triple  hearth  furnaces  have  been  tried,  but  it  was  found  that  they  were 
not  suitable  for  this  process.  It  was  desired  to  roast  in  the  upper  and 
reduce  in  the  lower,  but  this  was  impossible,  on  account  of  the  different 
durations  of  these  periods.  Furthermore,  the  temperature  was  difficult 
to  regulate,  and  the  expenses  of  repairing  were  large. 

The  furnace  is  3.27  meters  long  and  1.53  meters  wide.  The  hearth  is 
inclined  toward  the  front,  at  an  angle  of  9£°.  The  lead  flows  out  of  the 
furnace  as  fast  as  it  is  reduced.  The  hearth  is  contracted  toward  the 
front  to  a  vertical  section,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  bottle.  The 
fire-place  is  built  in  the  side  of  the  furnace,  so  that  the  flames  enter 
the  hearth  at  the  back  end  of  the  right  side;  they  are  then  drawn 
toward  the  front  of  the  furnace  and  enter  the  chimney,  which  is  0.47 
meter  in  diameter  and  6.3  meters  high.  As  wood  is  used  as  fuel, ‘it  is 
found  desirable  to  allow  the  small  amount  of  air  necessary  for  oxidiza¬ 
tion  to  enter  with  the  flames. 

397.  The  following  short  description  of  the  Carinthian  process  is  prin¬ 
cipally  from  Percy,  Eammelsberg,  Metallurgie  des  Bides :  p.  181,  1873: 

When  the  hearth  has  been  heated  to  a  dark-red  heat,  168  to  196.5  kil¬ 
ograms  ore,  containing  from  67  to  75  per  cent,  lead,  is  thrown  in  through 
the  working-door  and  spread  over  the  hearth.  The  roasting  is  con¬ 
ducted  slowly  and  carefully,  so  that  the  charge  neither  grows  pasty  nor 
adheres  to  the  working-implements.  The  ore  is  worked  every  twenty 
minutes  for  about  three  hours,  when  the  desired  quantity  of  oxide  and 
sulphate  of  lead  will  have  formed. 

The  temperature  is  now  raised,  in  order  to  cause  the  oxidized  particles 
to  react  on  the  sulphate  of  lead.  The  mass  is  continually  worked.  Lead 
flows  from  the  hearth  into  a  cast-iron  pot,  which  is  placed  in  front  of  the 
working-door.  This  period  lasts  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  hours,  and 
is  called  Ubleiruhren.v  The  lead  produced  in  this  period,  which  is  the 
purest,  was  formerly  termed  u  jungfernblei,”  (virgin  lead,)  and  was  sold 
as  it  flowed  from  the  furnace  without  undergoing  any  further  treatment. 
It  is  now  called  riihrblei ,”  and  is  freed  from  impurities  by  liquation 
before  it  is  sold.  The  amount  of  riihrblei  produced  is  56  to  73  kilograms. 


170 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  next,  or  third  period,  is  called  “  bleipressen The  quantity  of  the 
residue,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  hearth,  is  so  small,  that,  in  order 
to  effect  a  saving  of  fuel,  the  residues  from  two  charges  are  worked 
together.  If  a  second  residue  is  ready  it  is  thrown  in  with  the  oue 
already  in  the  furnace.  Coal-dust  is  spread  over  the  mass,  and  while 
the  temperature  is  raised  the  coal-dust  and  residue  are  well  stirred. 
This  period  lasts  seven  to  eight  hours,  during  which  07.3  to  101  kilo¬ 
grams  lead  is  produced. 

From  twenty-one  to  twenty-three  hours  are  necessary  to  treat  336.8 
kilograms  ore.  Tlje  lead-product  is  207.7  to  213.3  kilograms  =  93  per 
cent,  of  the  lead  contained  in  the  ore.  The  residue  from  the  last  opera¬ 
tion,  or  dross,  is  50.5  to  50  kilograms.  It  contains  3  per  cent.,  often 
0  per  cent.  lead.  This  is  crushed  and  dressed  until  the  lead  is  concen¬ 
trated  to  50  to  00  per  cent.,  when  it  is  either  charged  with  the  oi*e  or 
submitted  to  the  third  operation,  u pressen.”  In  the  latter  case  kriitz 
(dross)  lead  is  produced.  As  the  lead  llows  slowly  from  the  hearth  it 
becomes  mechanically  impure;  it  is  therefore  returned  to  the  furnace 
and  freed  from  these  impurities  by  liquation. 

398.  Production  of  the  Bleiberger  Bergwerks  Union"  averages — 

/ 

Lead. 

Bleiberg  Smelting-Works .  1,  0S0,  000  kilograms. 

Miss  Smelting- Works  .  190, 000  kilograms. 

One-sixth  of  this  is  extracted  from  poor  stamped  ore.  three-sixths  from 
jigged  ore,  and  two-sixths  from  lump  ore.  The  zinc-ores  are  sent  to  the 
zinc-reduction  works  at  Sagor,  Ivenec,  in  Croatia,  and  Johaannistkal  in 
Krai  u. 

The  red-lead  and  litharge  manufactory  employs  eighteen  workingmen 
and  two  superintendents.  It  treats  yearly  about  616,000  kilograms 
lead,  and  produces  617,200  kilograms  red  lead  and  litharge,  valued  at 
200,000  florins. 

The  shot  manufactory  employs  four  men  and  oue  master.  It  produces 
yearly  about  403,200  kilograms  shot,  valued  at  130,000  florins. 

The  sheet  lead  and  pipe  manufactory  employs  nineteen  workmen.  It 
treats  yearly  about  380,800  kilograms,  and  produces  yearly  about  352,800 
kilograms  of  manufactured  lead  articles. 

399.  The  following  smaller  Carinthiau  smelting-works  were  repre¬ 
sented  :  Gustav  v.  Egger  exhibited  samples  of  commercial  lead  from  his 
works  near  Pateruion  in  Upper  Carinthia.  The  ore,  galena,  is  associated 
with  calcit  and  blende.  The  reduction-process  is  similar  to  the  Bleiberg 
process.  These  works  produce  yearly  from  7,616  to  30,464  kilograms 
lead.  It  is  expected  that  the  reduction  will  greatly  increase  iu  the 
next  few  years. 

400.  J.  Eaiuer,  of  Klagenfurt,  exhibited  geological  charts,  samples  of 
ores,  “  tropf”  and  ustabv  lead  from  the  smelting-works  at  Bleiberg 
and  Schaffler.  In  addition  to  these  there  were  samples  of  the  following 
manufactured  articles:  shot,  lead  ashes,  litharge,  aud  several  kinds  of 


CARINTHIAN  PROCESSES. 


171 


wliite  lead.  Herr  Eainer  owns  a  fourteen  twenty-fourth  interest  in  the 
“Bleiberg  und  Schmelzwerk  Bleiberg,77  in  Feistritz,  near  Bleiberg ;  a 
two-thirds  interest  in  the  “  Bleiberg  und  Schmelzwerk  Schwarzenbach ;  ’’ 
a  three-eighths  interest  in  the  “  Bleiberg  werk  Rechberg77  and  Petzen  ; 
a  one-eighth  interest  in  the  “  Bleiberg  und  Schmelzwerk,  Miss.’7  The 
Bleiberg  Union  owns  the  other  seven-eighths.  He  owns,  in  addition  to  the 
above,  several  smaller  mines  and  reduction-works. 

401.  The  smelting  process  at  all  these  works  is  the  Cariuthian  process. 
The  production  of  the  smelting-works  at  Miss  has  already  been  given. 
The  production  of  the  Bleiberger  Sell  m  el  z  werk  e,.  founded  in  1851, 
averages  182,616  kilograms  lead.  The  Bleiberg  Schaffler  und  Grafen- 
steiuer  Alpe,  founded  in  1809,  averages  139,384  kilograms  of  lead. 

402.  “Ciprian  Struggl’s  heirs,77  of  Raibl,  exhibited  geolographical 
maps  of  the  Baibl  district,  samples  of  ores,  Urulirv  and  “press77  lead. 
The  ore  occurs  in  beds,  in  limestone,  associated  with  blende.  It  is  the 
rule  here  that  when  the  thickness  of  the  galena-deposit  decreases,  that 
of  the  blende  increases,  and  vice  versa. 

403.  Four  Cariuthian  reverberatory  furnaces  are  used  for  the  reduc¬ 
tion  of  the  ore;  the  metallic  loss  is  8.6  per  cent,  of  the  lead  contained 
in  the  ore. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  amount  of  foreign  substances  con¬ 
tained  in  the  Baibl  lead  : 


Riihr  lead.  Press  lead. 

Antimony . . .  trace.  0. 102 

Copper . faint  trace.  trace. 

Sulphur . . . L .  0. 118  0.  382 

Iron  .  trace.  trace. 

Lead . . .  99.  882  99.  516 


The  production  of  these  works  averages  25S,49G  kilograms. 

The  government  works  at  Baibl  have  six  Cariuthian  furnaces  in 
operation,  and  produce  annually  338,520  kilograms  lead. 

404.  Franz  Puntschart  &  Sons,  of  Klagenfurt,  exhibited  several  sam¬ 
ples  of  white  lead.  The  purity  of  the  Cariuthian  lead,  together  with 
the  peculiar  process  employed  in  the  manufacturing  of  white  lead, 
(which  originates  in  the  Dutch  method,)  has  enabled  the  Cariuthian 
manufacturers  to  produce  an  excellent  article,  which  is  greatly  sought 
for  and  exported  to  England,  France,  America,  Belgium,  Holland,  Rus¬ 
sia,  Germany,  Italy,  and  the  oriental  countries.  The  yearly  production 
averages  168,000  kilograms. 

405.  The  white-lead  manufactory  of  this  firm  was  erected  in  the  year 
1800.  According  to  the  process*  then  in  vogue,  thin  sheet-lead  was 
rolled  up,  forming  a  spiral  pyramid ;  this  was  placed  in  clay  pots,  the 
necessary  amount  of  acetic  acid  added,  and,  in  order  to  secure  the  heat 
for  the  reaction,  the  pots  were  buried  in  horse-manure. 


*  The  data  concerning  this  firm  were  obtained  from  the  “Special  Katalog  der  Collec. 
tiv-Ausstellung  in i  Pavilion  der  Kanitner’schen  Montan  Indus  Snellen.”  Klagenfurt,  1873. 


172 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

40G.  This  method  was  greatly  improved,  about  the  year  1S35,  by  the 
erection  of  lead-chambers.  In  these,  thin  sheet-lead  was  hung  for 
oxidization.  The  door  of  the  lead-chambers  contained  numerous  holes; 
under  each  hole  a  pot  containing  acetic  acid  (produced  from  raisins) 
was  placed,  and  the  acetic-acid  fumes  were  driven  into  the  lead-chambers 
by  a  simple  and  ingenious  contrivance.  The  acetic-acid  pots  under  each 
chamber  were  brought  into  communication  with  two  copper  kettles, 
under  which  tire  was  maintained  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cold  acetic 
acid  entered  the  copper  kettles  through  pipes  connecting  the  kettle  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  pots,  and  upon  being  heated  escaped  through 
pipes  from  the  top  of  the  kettle  into  the  pots  containing  the  cold  acetic 
acid.  The  latter  soon  became  heated,  and,  volatilizing,  entered  the 
lead-chambers.  By  this  process  it  is  possible  to  produce  greater  quan¬ 
tities  of  white  lead,  which  are  perfectly  amorphous. 

407.  In  the  year  1S72  the  manufactory  was  bought  by  Herr  Franz 
Puutschart,  who  immediately  made  important  improvements  on  the  old 
method.  These  consisted  in  the  introduction  of  purified  pyroligneous 
acid,  which  is  cheaper  than  acetic  acid  and  produces  better  white  lead, 
and  in  the  discovery  that  white  lead  dried  by  air  is  better  than  that 
dried,  by  artificial  heat.  To  effect  this  lie  erected  extensive  air  drying 
chambers.  This  firm  produces  annually  (172,000  kilograms  white  lead. 

408.  Franz  I’.  Herbert  exhibited  also  several  samples  of  white  lead, 
lie  owns  manufactories  in  Klagenfurt  and  Wolfsberg,  Carinthia,  and  in 
Lavis,  in  the  Southern  Tyrol. 

The  manufactory  in  Klagenfurt  was  founded  in  1700.  The  process  is 
the  same  as  that  of  Herr  Puntschart. 

400.  Styria.. — The  Ludwigs  Kuschelischen  lliitte,  near  Peggan,  was 
represented  by  lead  ores,  galena,  silver-lead,  enriched  and  commercial 
lead  and  silver. 

410.  The  ores  that  are  treated  at  the  Ludwig  Smelting- Works  are 
argentiferous  galena,  associated  with  blende,  iron  pyrites,  baryte,  and 
quartz.  The  blende  is  so  intimately  mixed  with  the  galena  that  it  is 
only  to  be  eliminated  by  dressing  to  S  per  cent.  The  smelting  is  con¬ 
ducted  according  to  the  former  Harz  iron-reduction  process.  The  un¬ 
roasted  ore  (slime)  is  smelted  with  iron  tap-cimler  in  a  shaft-furnace  21 
feet  high. 

111.  The  silver-lead  contains  0.08  per  cent.  =  26  oz.  6  dwt.  12  gr.  sil¬ 
ver.  It  is  desilverized  by  means  of  zinc.  For  this  purpose  there  is  a 
battery  of  three  kettles;  the  two  outer  ones  for  desilverizing  the  lead, 
and  the  middle  one  for  liquating  the  lead  from  the  zinc-scum  and  for  the 
further  treatment  of  the  zinc-scum.  The  silver-lead  is  melted  in  the  two 
outside  kettles,  and,  after  the  removal  of  the  dross,  (abzug.)  ziuc  is  added 
to  the  molten  liquid  for  about  an  hour;  the  temperature  is  then  de¬ 
creased  till  the  ziuc-scum  forms,  which  is  ladled  into  the  middle  kettle. 
The  bath  is  heated,  stirred,  and  cooled,  when  the  scum  formed  is  also 
ladled  into  the  middle  kettle.  Two  more  portions  of  ziuc  are  now  added 


STYRIAN  PROCESSES. 


173 


and  the  former  manipulations  repeated.  The  total  consumption  of  zinc 
is  0.7  per  cent,  of  the  silver-lead  treated.  The  silver-lead  assays,  after 
the  removal  of  the  first  zinc-scum,  0.02  per  cent.  =  5  oz.  16  dwt.  14  gr. 
silver  ;  after  the  removal  of  the  second,  0.003  per  cent.  =  17  dwt.  11  gr. 
silver ;  and  after  the  removal  of  the  third,  0.0005  per  cent.  =  2  dwt.  21 
gr.  silver.  The  poor  lead  is  dezinckified  by  means  of  steam.  The  remain¬ 
ing  lead  is  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  silver-lead  charged,  and  is  a  superior 
quality.  Analysis  made  for  zinc  and  iron  failed  to  discover  a  trace  of 
the  former,  and  the  latter  was  only  found  in  unweighable  quantities. 
This  report  failed  to  state  how  the  lead  from  liquated  zinc-scum,  as  well 
as  the  latter,  (zinkstaub,)  was  treated.  But  it  is  probable  that  the  former 
is  treated  with  a  second  and  third  zinc  charge,  and  the  latter  is  cupelled* 
This  conclusion  is  drawn  from  the  fact  that  the  works  have  no  distilling- 
apparatus  or  shaft-furnace  for  the  treatment  of  rich  oxides  should  such 
be  produced.  In  addition  to  the  desilverization -battery,  there  are  also  a 
shaft-furnace  and  one  cupelliug-furnace  in  operation  at  these  works. 

412.  The  annual  production  is — 

Kilograms. 

Lead .  288,  000 

Silver . '. . . . . .  2,  240 

413.  Krain. — The  “  Ludwigs-Kuschelzink  Hiitte,”  of  Johannisthal, 
exhibited  zinc-ores  (calamine  and  blende)  and  different  grades  of  zinc. 
An  analysis,  accompanying  a  sample  of  zinc,  showed  the  amount  of 
impurities  contained  in  this  metal  to  be — 

Per  cent . 

Zinc . . .  99.  92 

Lead . . .  0.  02 

Iron . . . .  0.06 


100.  00 

The  sample  exhibited  showed  silver-white  cystal  surfaces.  Although 
this  is  unusually  pure  zinc,  it  is  probable  that  the  analysis  sent  to  the 
Exposition  was  not  an  average  analysis  of  the  best  grade  zinc.  I  give 
an  analysis,  made  at  the  imperial  assay-office  in  Vienna,  of  the  Johan¬ 
nisthal  zinc : 

Per  cent. 

Zinc .  99.  404 

Lead .  0.  563 

Cadmium  . .  .• .  0.  019 

Iron  . . .  0.014 


100.  000 

414.  The  same  works  also  exhibited  a  model  of  “Kuschel  and  Hiuter. 
huber’s”  rotary  roasting-furnace,  and  blende  treated  therein  from  two 
roasting  periods.  The  unroasted  ore  contains  55  per  cent,  zinc ;  the 


174 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


half-roasted  ore,  G0.4  per  cent,  zinc ;  and  the  dead-roasted  ore,  07. 7  per 
cent.  zinc.  The  construction  of  this  furnace  was  made  public  by  Herrn 
H.  Hinterhuber  in  1S71.  I  reproduce  his  description  : 

The  furnace  presents  tlie  appearance  of  a  German  cupellation-hearth. 
Its  main  features  are  a  horizontal  revolving  hearth,  made  of  fire-clay, 
and  stationary  rakes.  The  rakes,  which  are  not  attacked  by  sulphur, 
&c.,  or  easily  destroyed  by  fire,  give  this  furnace  a  decided  advantage 
over  those  of  Parkes,  Bruntou,  and  Gibb  and  Gelstharp.  The  hearth 
consists  of  an  iron  shell,  in  which  is  carefully  stamped  a  mixture  of 
unburnt  fire-clay  and  dust  of  fire-bricks,  (chamotte.)  It  is  12  feet  in 
diameter  and  revolvable.  Covering  the  hearth  is  a  strong  arch  12  inches 
thick  ;  in  the  center  it  is  17  inches  above  the  hearth,  and  on  the  periph¬ 
ery,  7  inches.  Through  the  center  of  the  arch  pass  10  hollow  three- 
cornered  teeth  of  fire-clay,  placed  in  a  row;  these  last  on  an  average 
two  and  one-half  months.  The  points  of  the  teeth  nearly  touch  the 
surface  of  the  hearth.  There  is  a  charging- funnel  over  these  teeth,  the 
charge  passing  through  the  teeth  or  rakes  on  to  the  hearth,  after  the 
plugs,  which  keep  them  closed,  have  been  withdrawn.  In  order  that  the 
resulting  roasted  product  should  be  of  a  uniform  nature,  it  is  of  im¬ 
portance  that  the  surface  of  the  hearth  should  be  perfectly  even, 
and  that  the  teeth  of  the  rake  be  made  of  good  fire-proof  material 
which  will  not  shrink  or  become  distorted.  The  hearth-material  is 
covered  with  largo  fire-bricks  well  joined  and  plastered.  The  points 
of  the  five  teeth  on  one  side  point  in  the  opposite  direction  from  those 
on  the  other  side,  thus  effecting,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  a  raking 
and  a  turning  of  the  charge.  On  one  side  of  the  hearth  there  are  two 
ordinary  fire-places  or  gas-generators,  and  opposite  the  same,  on  the 
other  side,  thirteen  tines,  which  conduct  the  gases  of  combustion  into  a 
semicircular  collecting-chamber  common  to  them  all,  and  from  here  the 
gases  pass  off  into  a  chimney.  The  draught  is  regulated  by  apertures 
situated  in  the  outer  wall  of  the  collecting-chamber  corresponding  to 
the  Hues,  which  may  be  opened  or  closed.  The  steam  is  conducted  into 
the  furnace  through  two  nozzles  situated  between  the  two  fire-places. 
Though  partially  contrary  to  former  experience  and  the  statements  of 
I’lattner,  the  introduction  of  steam  into  the  furnace  has  proved  to  be 
very  effective  in  removing  sulphur  and  arsenic  ;  and  also  in  operations 
of  calcination  for  the  removing  of  carbonic  acid.  It  also  opposes  the 
evolving  of  fume's  during  the  first  period  of  the  roasting  operation.  At 
the  Johanuistbaler  Zinkhiitte  the  roasting  products,  rich  in  sulphur, 
could  be  roasted  dead  in  from  1  to  2  hours  sooner,  when  steam  was 
employed,  thau  wheu  the  operation  was  conducted  without  its  employ¬ 
ment.  The  amount  of  zinc  produced  was  also  2  per  cent,  greater. 
The  reason  why  Plattuer  obtained  less  satisfactory  results  may  have 
been  the  fact  that  lie  endeavored  to  decompose  the  metallic  sul¬ 
phides  with  steam  by  exclusion  of  air.  The  roasting  charge  is 
allowed  to  fall  upon  the  hearth  of  the  sufficiently-heated  furnace  by 


THE  KUSCHEL  AND  HINTEKHUBER  FURNACE. 


175 


opening  the  hollow  rake-teeth.  At  first,  where  it  is  only  intended  to 
expel  the  hydroscopic  moisture  of  the  charge,  the  draught  is  feeble  and 
regulated  by  the  openings  in  the  collecting-chamber  for  the  gases,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  carrying  off  of  small  particles  of  ore.  The  hearth 
is  also  made  to  revolve  slowly.  If  the  charge  is  very  moist,  the  raking- 
apparatus  is  raised  at  first  so  that  it  will  not  come  in  contact  with  the 
charge,  and  is  not  lowered  until  all  the  moisture  is  expelled  from  the 
ore.  Steam  is  employed  both  during  the  first  period  and  the  dead-roast, 
ing  period.  When  metallic  sulphides  are  being  treated,  it  not  only 
causes  a  more  complete  desulphurization,  but  also  diminishes  the  time 
necessary  for  conducting  the  operation.  Steam  is  only  employed  during 
the  first  period  in  merely  heating  and  calcination  operations,  it  opposing 
the  carrying  off  of  small  particles  of  the  charge  by  the  draught  in  the 
furnace,  and  also  conducing  to  the  ejection  of  carbonic  acid.  After  the 
completion  of  the  operation  a  slide  discharging-apparatus  is  lowered 
down  upon  the  hearth  through  a  radial  slit  in  the  furnace-arch,  which 
brushes  the  roasted  charge  through  four  apertures  situated  on  the  periph¬ 
ery  on  the  hearth  into  a  space  under  the  furnace. 

415.  The  following  results  were  obtained  at  the  Johannisthaler  Zink- 
hiitte  in  treating  zinc-blende,  containing  43  to  46  per  cent,  ziuc  and  22  to 
25  per  cent,  sulphur,  in  the  mechanical  roasting-furnace,  (A,)  and  in  a 
Mansfield  double-hearth  long  reverberatory  roasting-furnace,  (B  :) 


A. 

B. 

Amount  roasted  in  twen ty-four  hours . 

Time  necessary  in  roasting,  per  charge . 

Production  of  zinc  from  roasted  blende . 

Consumption  of  coal  in  twenty-four  hours . 

21  to  42  cwt . 

18  to  22  hours . 

35  to  39  per  cent  .. 
24.  6  cwt . 

20  to  24  cwt. 

12  to  15  hours. 

33  to  3(5  per  cent. 
24.  6  cwt. 

2.  5  florins. 

The  above  calculated  per  ton  of  raw  ore  roasted  would  be: 


A. 

3. 

Consumption  of  coal . 

58.  6  to  117  pounds 

103  to  113  pounds. 
10.  4  to  12.  5  krs. 

The  fluctuation  in  the  amounts  roasted  within  the  same  time  is  caused 
by  the  varying  size  of  the  ore-grains.  By  proper  treatment  of  the  ore- 
charge,  42  cwt.  of  blende  can  be  roasted  on  an  average  in  twenty-four 
hours,  with  a  saving  of  43  per  cent,  in  fuel  and  6S  per  cent,  in  wages, 
as  compared  with  the  results  obtained  by  the  long  reverberatory  fur¬ 
nace.  From  30  to  40  cwt.  of  crushed  or  washed  calamine  carrying  zinc- 
blende  were  treated  in  the  mechanical  roasting-furnace  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  in  the  long  reverberatory  furnace  only  24  cwt. 

The  furnace  has  been  in  use  over  three  years  at  the  works  named. 
The  mechanical  furnaces  have  many  advantages  over  most  other  roast- 


176 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


ing-apparatus.  The  most  important  are  saving  of  fuel  and  wages,  and 
the  maintenance  of  a  well-regulated  temperature.  The  roasting  is  said 
to  be  very  good.  They  also  are  adapted  to  chloridizing  roasting.  The 
costs  of  repairs  were  not  obtained,  but,  as  they  must  be  large,  they 
should  not  be  omitted  when  this  class  of  furnace  is  taken  into  con¬ 
sideration. 

410.  These  zinc-works  at  Johannisthal  were  erected  in  18G0.  They 
received' the  greater  part  of  their  ores  at  first  from  Upper  Styria  and 
Northern  Carinthia,  but  the  mines  near  the  smelting-works  have  lately 
been  more  fully  developed,  and  although  ore  from  the  above  localities 
are  still  treated,  the  reduction-works  are  not  dependent  on  them.  There 
are  at  present  five  Mansfeld  reverberatory  roast  iug-furnaces  with  two 
hearths,  one  Kuschiel  and  Ilinterhuber’s  roasting-furnace,  ten  Belgian 
distillery-furnaces,  and  one  Silesian  furnace  with  a  gas-generator.  The 
annual  production  of  zinc  is  573,018  kilograms. 

417.  Bukowina. — The  Copper- Works  of  Pozoritta  in  Bukowina,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  “  Griechisch-Orientalischeu  Keligionsfond  in  der  Buk¬ 
owina,”  were  well  represented.  In  this  display  the  following  were  con¬ 
sidered  noteworthy : 

A  statistical  map;  a  black  line  denoted  the  quantity  of  copper  pro¬ 
duced  in  different  years,  and  a  red  liue  showed  the  amount  of  money 
received  for  the  above  copper.  This  made  a  comparison  of  the  price  of 
copper  in  the  different  years  with  the  quantity  produced. 

A  series  of  copper-ores  containing  from  3  to  10  percent,  copper  showed 
the  principal  mineral  to  be  copper  pyrites ;  the  gangue  is  quartzose.  A 
systematic  collection  of  metallurgical  productions  presented  an  interest¬ 
ing  insight  into  the  copper  process. 

1.  Copper-matte  from  ore-smelting  contained  11  per  cent,  copper 
This  is  roasted  in  heaps  nine  or  ten  times  and  smelted  for  black  copper. 

2.  Slag,  from  smelting  of  ore  for  matte.  This  is  either  made  into 
buihling-stone  or  thrown  on  the  slag-dump. 

3.  Black  copper,  from  smelting  of  roasted  matte.  This  is  refined. 

4.  Slag,  from  smelting  of  matte  for  black  copper;  coutaiued  0.5  to  8 
per  cent,  copper.  It  is  smelted  with  roasted  ore. 

5.  Cakes  of  refined  copper ;  contained  90  per  cent,  copper;  this  is 
agaiu  refined  iu  a  small  furnace. 

0.  Copper  sand,  produced  toward  the  eud  of  the  refining  process. 

7.  Copper  ingots,  from  second  refining  ;  they  are  made  into  kettles. 

8.  Copper  bars,  from  second  refining  ;  they  are  articles  of  commerce. 

41S.  There  are  at  Tozoritta  two  roasting-stalls,  three  shaft-furnaces, 

(two  for  ore  and  one  for  matte-smelting,)  two  refining-furnaces,  and  five 
copper-hammers.  As  the  copper-production  is  yearly  decreasing,  it  is 
proposed  to  change  one  of  the  ore  shaft-furnaces  iuto  an  iron-smelting 
furnace.  These  works  produced,  in  1371,  from  ores  and  old  copper, 
16,022  kilograms  copper. 

419.  Hungary. — A  very  iuteresting  exhibit  was  made  by  the  Royal 


HUNGARIAN  PROCESSES.  177 

Hungarian  Mint  of  different  coins,  dies,  and  the  various  utensils  em¬ 
ployed  in  coining. 

420.  There  was  also  a  new  process  of  extracting  silver  from  silver 
copper  alloys,  illustrated  by  specimens  of  the  products  occurring  in  the 
I  different  manipulations.  This  process  was  invented  and  carried  out  by 
the  mint  warden,  Herr  Johann  Cimeg.  It  consists  in  a  series  of  smelt¬ 
ings  of  the  silver-copper  alloy,  in  crucible  furnaces,  with  a  quantity  of 
!  sulphur  sufficient  to  unite  with  a  certain  percentage  of  the  copper, 
whereby  copper,  having  a  greater  affiuity  for  sulphur  than  for  silver, 
forms  a  matte,  having  a  smaller  proportion  of  the  silver  than  was  con¬ 
tained  in  the  alloy.  While  the  silver  is,  by  degrees,  concentrated  in 
the  alloy,  the  copper-matte,  being  of  a  less  specific  gravity,  rises  to  the 
top  and  is  drawn  off.  The  silver-copper  alloy  remains  behind,  and  is 
resmelted  with  copper-matte,  or  with  an  alloy  and  sulphur.  The  exhib¬ 
ited  specimens  illustrated  the  process,  and  were  taken  from  the  different 
meltings : 

No.  I.  Copper-matte,  assaying  11.1  per  cent,  and  silver-copper  alloy 
with  45.7  per  cent.,  from  melting  in  crucible  400  pounds*  six-kreutzer 
pieces  and  353  pounds  matte  assaying  14.2  per  cent.  Ag.  from  a  former 
operation.  Eesult,  308  pounds  matte. 

No.  II.  Matte,  11.3  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  46.2  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
smelting  the  alloy  remaining  from  No.  I  in  crucible  with  347  pounds 
matte,  assaying  14.2  to  14.6  per  cent.  Ag.,  from  a  former  smelting. 

No.  III.  Matte,  13.1  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  48  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  with  No.  II  with  359  pounds  matte  assaying 

14.6  to  15.9  per  cent.  Ag.  Eesult,  312  pounds  matte. 

No.  IV.  Matte,  13.3  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  51.1  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  No.  Ill  with  307  pounds  matte  assaying 

17.9  to  18  per  cent.  Ag.  Eesult,  330  pounds  matte. 

No.  V.  Matte,  13.3  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  52  per  cent.  Ag.,  from  melt¬ 
ing  alloy  remaining  from  No.  IV  with  346  pounds  matte  assaying  18.5  to 

18.7  per  cent.  Ag.  Eesult,  313  pounds  matte. 

No.  VI.  Matte,  13.5  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  52.5  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  No.  V  with  335  pounds  matte  assaying 

18.7  to  18.9  per  cent.  Ag.  Eesult,  321  pounds  matte. 

No.  VII.  Matte,  13.7  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  54.5  percent.  A g.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  No.  VI  with  289  pounds  matte  assaying 

18.9  to  25.2  per  cent.  Ag.  Eesult,  261  pounds  matte. 

No.  VIII.  Matte,  15.8  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  60.6  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  No.  VII  with  100  pounds  six-kreutzer 
pieces,  17  pounds  sulphur,  and  226  pounds  matte  assaying  25  to  34  per 
cent.  Ag.  Eesult,  294  pounds  matte. 

No.  IX.  Matte,  16.7  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  66.5  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  No.  VIII  with  300  pounds  six-kreutzer 

*  1  Austrian  cwt.  =  100  pounds  =  56  kilograms  =  123.2  pounds  English  avoirdupois. 
12  M 


178 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


pieces  and  57  pounds  sulphur.  Result,  273  pounds  matte  aud  200  pounds 
alloy,  taken  out  and  granulated. 

Xo.  X.  Matte,  18.7  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  71.9  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  No.  IX  with  310  pounds  six-kreutzer  pieces 
and  08  pounds  sulphur.  Result,  328  pounds  matte. 

Xo.  XI.  Matte,  19.5  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  75.G  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  Xo.  X  with  300  pounds  six-kreutzer  pieces 
and  51  pounds  sulphur.  Result,  187  pounds  matte. 

Xo.  XII.  Matte,  19.S  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  aud  79  per  ceut.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  Xo.  XI  with  230  pounds  six-kreutzer  pieces 
and  13  pounds  sulphur.  Result,  210  pounds  matte. 

Xo.  XIII.  Matte,  25.8  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  83.4  per  cent.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloys  remaining  from  Xo.  XII  with  the  200  pounds  granulated 
alloy  from  Xo.  IX  (assaying  00.5  per  cent.  Ag.)  and  35  pounds  sulphur. 
Result,  219  pounds  matte  and  200  pounds  of  alloy,  taken  out  and  gran¬ 
ulated. 

Xo.  XI V.  Matte,  54.7  per  cent.  Ag.  alloy  and  S9.4  per  ceut.  Ag.,  from 
melting  alloy  remaining  from  Xo.  XIII  with  2U0  pounds  granulated  alloy 
from  Xo.  XI II  (assaying  83.4  per  cent.  Ag.)  and  35  pounds  sulphur. 
Result,  220  pounds  matte  and  553  pounds  silver-copper  alloy,  which  is 
the  final  product. 

The  silver-copper  alloy  from  Xo.  XIV  is  either  melted  in  charges  of 
1,000  pounds,  with  saltpeter,  in  cast-iron  kettles,  and,  after  the  impurities 
have  been  removed,  east  in  molds,  or  copper  is  added  until  it  assays  90 
per  cent.  Ag.  and  10  per  cent.  Cu.,  which  is  the  alloy  used  for  the  Hun- 
garian-Austrian  silver  guilder. 

Matte  assaying  over  14  per  cent.  Ag.  is  remelted  in  the  operation 
following.  But  matte  assaying  less  than  14  per  cent.  Ag.  is  crushed, 
roasted,  and  desilverized  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

421.  This  process  is  adapted  to  the  extraction  of  silver  from  copper 
alloys  where  the  percentage  of  silver  is  so  great  that  it  is  made  desira¬ 
ble  to  obtain  a  greater  part  of  it  in  a  short  time.  The  silver  remaining 
iu  the  copper-matte  is  extracted  by  a  humid  process.  In  the  above 
instance  a  small  part  of  the  matte  was  .sent  to  Tajova,  where  the  modi¬ 
fied  Augustins  method  is  practiced.  The  greater  part,  however,  was  sold 
to  the  Freiberg  metallurgical  works  for  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Herr  Cimeg  stated  to  the  author  that  this  process  had  given  unquali¬ 
fied  satisfaction,  as  conducted  at  the  mint  in  Kremnitz.  The  amount  of 
six-kreutzer  pieces  treated  was  140,040  pounds  iu  19  working-weeks, 
with  a  consumption  of  25,312  pounds  Sicilian  sulphur.  They  assayed  43 
per  ceut.  of  silver  and  57  per  ceut.  of  copper.  77.22  per  cent,  of  the 
silver  contained  in  the  coin  was  extracted  as  an  alloy;  21.38  per  cent, 
remained  in  1,010  cwt.  of  copper-matte.  The  loss  iu  silver  was  1.4  per 
ceut.  The  treatment  of  so  large  a  quantity  of  silver  coin  was  caused  by 
the  Austrian  Hungarian  government  issuing  new  coin  of  a  different 
standard. 


HUNGARIAN  PROCESSES. 


179 


422.  The  Lower  Hungarian  smelting-works  at  Scliemnitz,  Kremnitz, 
Tarnowitz,  Neusolil,  were  represented  by  a  collection  of  their  ores;  in- 

r|  terinediate  and  final  products,  consisting  in  silver,  copper,  and  lead  ores, 
slag  and  matte  from  different  smeltings;  litharge;  apiece  of  cupellation- 
liearth  so  strongly  impregnated  with  litharge  that  it  was  scarcely  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  latter;  lead  ;  and  fine  silver. 

423.  A  systematic  collection  of  ores  and  metallurgical  products  were 
exhibited  from  the  smelting-works  at  Tajova,  illustrating  the  smelting 
and  silver  extraction  as  conducted  at  that  place.  It  consisted  in  copper 
(gelferz)  and  argentiferous  copper-ores,  matte,  black  copper,  refined 
copper,  residue  from  the  silver  extraction,  cement  silver,  and  refined 
silver. 

424.  Metallurgical  processes  of  Lower  Hungary. — When  the 
'  author  was  in  Schemnitz,  in  August,  1873,  collecting  data  for  this  re¬ 
port,  he  was  shown  by  Herrn  Josef  Wagner,  royal  assayer  in  Schemnitz, 
an  unusually  excellent  description  of  the  Lower  Hungarian  smelting  pro¬ 
cesses,  which  is  here  given,  with  some  slight  modifications.  This  com¬ 
munication  appeared  afterward  in  the  Oesterreichisclie  Zeitschrift  fur 
Berg  und  Hiittenwesen  in  September  and  October,  1873. 

In  this  communication  all  metallurgical  processes  are  spoken  of  that 
have  existed  up  to  the  year  1873  in  the  Lower  Hungarian  mining-dis¬ 
tricts;  what  success  they  have  met  with,  and  through  what  changes, 
modifications,  and  new  improvements  the  same  have  passed,  and  what 
may  be  expected  of  them. 

Mining  and  smelting  in  the  Lower  Hungarian  district  probably  had 
its  commencement  in  the  thirteenth  century,  when  a  large  number  of 
miners  emigrated  from  Germany  and  settled  in  those  localities  where 
indications  of  ore-deposits  were  visible.  Mining  has  been  very  suc- 
sessfully  conducted,  but  within  the  last  few  years  the  production  of 
silver,  lead,  and  copper  has  somewhat  decreased. 

425.  The  principal  object  of  all  the  metallurgical  establishments  is 
the  utilization  of  the  auriferous-argentiferous  lead  and  silver  ores  and 
metallurgical  products,  argentiferous  copper-ore,  (tetrahedrite,)  and 
non-argentiferous  copper-ores,  ( gelferze .)  The  Lower  Hungarian  metal, 
lurgical  process  is  consequently  separated  into  two  chief  branches,  viz 

A.  Silver  and  lead  extraction. 

B.  Copper  extraction,  combined  with  the  extraction  of  silver  by  means 
of  the  humid  process. 

426.  For  the  utilization  of  the  above-named  metallurgical  products 
and  ores  amounting  to  180,990  cwt*  =  9,049J  tons,  there  were  up  to  the 
year  1873  the  following  metallurgical  establishments: 

1.  The  Schemnitz  Hiitte,  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  works. 

a.  There  are  two  blast-furnaces  at  the  upper  works,  28  feet  high, 
having  the  shape  of  a  trapezium  viewed  in  horizontal  section  ;  two  ordi¬ 
nary  double-hearth  reverberatory  roasting-furnaces,  of  the  Hungarian 


1  cwt  —  123.2  pounds  English  avoirdupois. 


180 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


pattern,  and  an  establishment  for  the  extraction  of  silver,  according  to 
Ziervogel’s  process,  and  the  extraction  of  gold,  according  to  Plattner’s 
process.  Since  the  year  1804  this  silver  and  gold  extraction  establish¬ 
ment  has  been  out  of  use. 

b.  In  the  lower  works  there  are  two  low  blast-furnaces,  22  feet  high, 
having  the  shape  of  a  trapezium  viewed  in  horizontal  section,  a  cupella- 
tion-furnace,  a  combined  lead  liquation  and  refining  furnace,  a  Pattin- 
son  battery,  consisting  of  two  kettles,  one  higher  than  the  other,  the 
upper  communicating  with  the  lower  by  means  of  an  iron  pipe  attached 
to  the  bottom  of  the  upper,  and  two  double-hearthed  reverberatory 
roastingfurnaces,  (Jortschau/elungsoe/en.)  These  were  completed  in 
1873,  but  had  not  been  used  up  to  the  year  1874.  The  annual  produc¬ 
tion  is  equal  to  8,380.057  mint  pounds  of  silver,  105.470  mint-pounds  of 
gold,  1,430  cwt.  (Vienna)  commercial  lead,  and  1,049  cwt.  of  red  and 
green  commercial  litharge.* 

427.  2.  The  Zsarnoviczer  Iliitte  has  two  high  blast-furnaces  and  two 
low,  all  having  the  shape  of  a  trapezium  viewed  in  horizontal  section, 
four  roastingfurnaces,  two  German  cupellation  furnaces,  and  one  lead 
liquation  and  refining  furnace.  The  annual  production  amounts  to 
8,830(057  mint  pounds  of  silver,  149.871  mint-pounds  of  gold,  1,815  cwt. 
of  lead,  and  2,740  cwt.  of  red  and  green  commercial  litharge. 

428.  8.  The  Xeusohler  Iliitte  has  three  high  and  two  low  blast¬ 
furnaces,  four  roasting  furnaces,  a  cnpellation-furnace,  and  one  lead 
liquation  and  refining  furnace.  The  annual  production  amounts  to 
0,050.029  mint-pounds  of  silver,  150.204  mint-pounds  of  gold,  000  cwt. 
lead,  and  2,332  cwt.  red  and  green  commercial  litharge. 

429.  4.  The  Kremnitzer  Iliitte.  These  work  only  smelt  ore,  and 
have  two  high  blast-furnaces.  The  raw  matte  produced  from  these  two 
furnaces,  amounting  to  22,250  cwt.,  is  desilverized  at  the  Neusohler 
and  partly  at  the  Zsarnoviczer  Iliitte. 

430.  5.  The  Tajovaer  Iliitte,  with  the  incorporated  Iliitte  at  Altge- 
birg,  have  for  their  object  the  utilization  of  the  copper-ores  from  the 
Aer 'aerial  (government)  and  private  mines,  and  the  copper-matte  pro¬ 
duced  at  the  Lower  Hungarian  lead  and  silver  smelting  works.  The 
annual  production  amounts  to  about  900  mint  pounds  of  silver,  and 
2,808  cwt.  of  copper. 

431.  6.  The  Mutual  St.  Michaelstollner  Dillner  Hiitte  has  two  low 
blast-furnaces, two  roasting-furuaces,  a  cupellation-furnace  and  liquation- 
hearth  combined,  with  a  lead-refining  furnace.  This  establishment 
only  works  company  ores  from  St.  Michaelstollner.  The  annual  pro¬ 
duction  amounts  to  1,050  mint-pounds  of  silver,  70  mint-pounds  of  gold, 
and  3,400  cwt.  of  lead. 

All  of  these  smelting-works  beloug  to  the  government,  with  the  ex- 


*All  the  figures  that  occur  in  this  paper  are  the  average  figures  of  three  years,  the 
years  1868, 1859,  aud  1870.  A  Vienna  centner  (cwt.)  =  11  i  zoll  pounds  =  56  kilograms. 


LEAD  AND  SILVER  SMELTING.  »  181 

ceptiou  of  the  Dilluer  Hiitte,  but  in  all  of  them  more  or  less  ores  from 
private  company  mines  are  smelted. 

The  manner  in  which  the  mines  are  re  imbursed  for  their  ores  by  the 
smelting-works  will  be  spoken  of  later. 

432.  A.  Lead  and  silver  smelting.— The  lead  and  silver  smelting- 
process  is  very  nearly  identical  at  all  the  various  works,  as  far  as  tbe 
roasting  of  intermediate  lead  products  is  concerned.  The  following  are 
tbe  principal  steps  of  the  process  : 

I.  The  ore  smelting  for  matte. 

II.  Beichverbleiung,  with  its  preliminary  and  finishing  work. 

III.  Cupellation. 

IY.  Liquation. 

433.  I. —  Ore-smelting  for  matte. — The  poorest  auriferous-argentiferous 
ores  containing  no  lead  are  smelted  for  matte.  They  are  as  follows,  viz: 

a.  Quartzose  ores  containing  less  than  0.070  per  cent.  =20  oz.  8  dwt. 
4.80  gr.  of  auriferous  silver,  but  capable  of  producing  40  to  80  per  cent, 
of  matte. 

b.  Dressed  or  concentrated  silver-ores  containing  0.07  per  cent.  =  20 
oz.  8  dwt.  4.8  gr.  auriferous  silver. 

c.  Undressed  ores  containing  from  0.07  to  0.14  per  cent.  =  20  oz.  8  dwt. 
4.8  gr.  to  40.5  oz.  auriferous  silver. 

d.  Pyritous  ores,  with  or  without  auriferous  silver,  but  capable  of 
producing  at  least  60  per  cent,  of  matte. 

e.  Furnace-dross,  from  same  operation. 

The  object  of  this  manipulation  is  the  slagging  off  of  the  worthless 
gangue  matter,  and  .the  concentration  of  the  metals  in  a  matte.  After 
the  years  1868,  1869,  and  1870,  there  was  smelted  annually,  at  all  the 
smelting-works,  about  56,320  cwt.  of  raw  ore. 

A  smelting-charge  generally  consisted  of  100  cwt.  dressed  and  un¬ 
dressed  ore,  capable  of  producing  45  per  cent,  of  matte ;  4  to  6  cwt.  of 
furnace-dross  from  the  same  operation;  100  to  120  cwt.  slag  from  the 
Eeichverbleiuug,  and  15  to  20  cwt.  limestone. 

The  following  were  the  products  therefrom: 

a.  Eaw  matte,  containing  0.166  to  0.260  per  cent.  =  48  oz.  7  dwt.  to  81 
oz.  13  dwt.  of  auriferous  silver.  This  goes  to  the  Eeichverbleiuug  ; 

l).  Furnace-dross  which  passes  through  the  same  manipulation; 

c.  Slag. 

The  percentage  of  auriferous  silver  was: 

Per  cent. 


In  matte .  97 

In  furnace-dross . 1 

Total . 98 

Loss,  2  per  cent. 


The  amount  put  through  in  twenty-four  hours,  In  one  furnace,  70  or 
90  cwt. 


182  ‘  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

The  consumption  of  fuel  for  every  100  cwt.  of  ore,  dressed  and  un¬ 
dressed,  amounts  to  144  mass,  (one  mass  is  equal  to  6.4  cubic  feet.) 

The  total  cost  of  smelting  100  cwt.  of  ore  amounts  to  : 


Fl.  Kr. 

General  cost  and  cost  of  manipulation . . .  96  90 

Cost  of  fuel .  54  90 

Superintendence .  .  8  90 


Total .  160  70 

The  average  cost  of  smelting  1  cwt.  of  ore  for  matte  amounts  to  90.7 
kreutzer. 

4.54.  II. — Reichverbleiung. — The  following  ores  and  metallurgical  pro¬ 
ducts  are  treated  in  this  manipulation: 

a.  Lead-ores  containing  from  0.03  to  0.1  per  cent.=S  oz.  14  dwt.  19.2 
gr.  to  29  oz.  2  dwt.  of  auriferous  silver,  and  from  40  per  cent,  to  60  per 
cent,  lead; 

b.  Lead-slimes,  containing  from  0.025  to  0.1  percent.=7  oz.  6  dwt.  to 

29  oz.  2  dwt.  of  auriferous  silver,  and  from  20  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent, 
lead ;  • 

v.  Lead-copper  ores  and  rich  pyri tons  slimes  from  the  dressing  of  the 
lead-ores ; 

d.  Ores  and  slimes,  containing  from  0.14  per  ceut.=40  oz.  16  dwt. 
auriferous  silver,  up  to  the  highest  amount; 

c.  Raw  matte  from  the  ore-smelting  for  matte  (I); 

/.  Furnace-products  from  the  same  manipulation,  viz,  lead-matte, 
sweepings,  furnace-fumes,  and  lead-slag ; 

g.  Products  from  the  cupellation  and  liquation  manipulation. 

The  following  chemical  analysis  will  serve  to  show  the  chemical  con¬ 
stitution  of  the  above  ores: 


No. 

Mining  company. 

Si  Oj 

AI.O, 

CaO 

MgO 

Fo 

Zn 

MnO 

Cu 

SILVER-ORES. 

1 

Non  Antoni . 

.  89.  run 

2.707 

1.0045 

0. 158 

1.690 

0. 112 

0.093 

0.091 

2 

Carlsohachter . 

.  00.  190 

0.  470 

3.083 

1.003 

3.928 

0.361 

9.  2”>6 

0.151 

a 

Christina . 

7.712 

4.  390 

1.592 

3.  334 

0.415 

6.682 

0.282 

4 

Siglisberger . 

.  47.  74fi 

8.211 

2.  OKI 

2.  150 

7.318 

2.327 

0.031 

0.  793 

5 

Frnnz-Schachtor . 

.  30.910 

17.011 

10.740 

1.665 

5.  838 

0.  305 

6.  195 

0.  055 

G 

7n  fvlft 

1.214 

7.694 

0.442 

2  123 

LEAD  ORES  AND  SUMES. 

7 

Paeherstollner . 

.  19.370 

2.200 

Trace. 

0.  170 

2.340 

10.  210 

0.170 

1.280 

3 

20  400 

2.  128 

0.  174 

0.  255 

4.  425 

11.  f. 44 

1.  4.50 

9 

Pacherst.  Schlich . 

4.680 

1.280 

0.190 

Trace. 

9.850 

6. 190 

Trace. 

1.290 

LEAD  AND  SILVER  SMELTING. 


183 


Chemical  Analysis — Continued. 


No. 


Mining  company. 


SILVElt-OUES. 


Nen  Antoni . 

Carlschachter  . . . 

Christina . 

Siglisberger . 

Franz-Schachter . 
Schopferstoliner . 


LEAD  OltES  AND  SLIMES. 


Pacherstollner. . . . 
Michaelistrllner. . 
Pacherst.  Schlich. 


Pb 


0.  328 
1. 195 
0.  672 
2.  918 
0.  300 


48.  100 
52.  320 


Au  As 


0.  254 
0.207 
0.  385 
0.  370 
0.  255 
0.539 


0.  040 
0.  048 
0.  050 


Sb 


0.  087 
Trace 
-do  . .. 
.do  ... 
.do  ... 
0. 160 


Trace 
0.  050 


2. 142 

4.  475 
3.  945 
9.  126 

5.  965 
1.  379 


Mg 


0.  300 
o.  315 
"6.’ 345 


Combined  with 
Si  O, 


Ca 


0. 120 

6.  523 
'O.  600 


1.360 
SO, 
1.  360 


Co, 


1.068 

8.  375 

9.  250 

7.  833 

14.  400 
6.  542 


0.  150 


O.  HO 
and 
loss. 


1.084 
1.300 
0.  658 
3.  094 
3.  360 
0. 266 


1.310 

"i.’eoo 


435.  The  “  Reichverbleiung”  consists  in  the  following  manipulations  : 

1/ Roasting,  as  preliminary  manipulation. 

2.  u  Reich verblei”  smelting,  as  chief  manipulation. 

3.  Matte-smelting. 

4.  Matte-matte  smelting,  (Lech-Leclischmelzen,)  final  manipulation. 

436.  1.  Roasting,  a.  Roasting  in  reverberatory  f  urnaces. — The  lead-ores 
to  be  roasted  are  so  mixed  with  richer  pyritous-lead  slimes  and  argen¬ 
tiferous  slimes  that  the  average  percentage  in  lead  will  amount  to 
between  30  and  45  per  cent.  Such  a  roasting-charge  weighs  about 
1,000  cwt.,  and  is  called  the  lead-wasting  dump. 

Analysis  of  toasting- dump  at  the  Dillner  JELiitte  No.  10. 

Si  Os .  17.870 

A12  03 .  1.842 

CaO . . .  2.680 

Mg  O .  0.  320 

Fe . .  15.187 

Zn . .  9.  429 

Cu' . . .  1.099 

Pb .  33.332 

Sb .  0.  042 

S .  16.770 

Au+Ag . . .  0.  029 

The  method  of  roasting  is  different  at  the  various  works.  At  the 

Schemnitzer  Hiitte  slag-roasting  is  in  vogue,  at  the  Zsarnoviczer  &  Neu- 

sohler  Hiitte  dust-roasting,  (roasting  without  agglomerating,)  and  at  the 
Mutual  Dillner  Hiitte  the  agglomeration-roasting  is  made  use  of.  It 
remains  to  be  said  that  by  the  use  of  the  slag-roasting  the  loss  in  lead 
and  the  consumption  of  fuel  are  greater  than  by  the  other  methods,  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  the  advantage  that  it  allows  of  a  better  desul¬ 
phurization  and  preparation  of  the  roast ing-cbarge. 

The  result  of  desulphurization  by  the  different  methods  of  roasting  is 
as  follows : 

Slag-roasting,  (roasting  until  the  charge  is  well  melted,)  2  per  cent. 


184 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

sulphur  remains ;  agglomerating  roasting,  34  per  cent,  sulphur  remains; 
dust-roasting,  (roasting  without  fusing  or  agglomerating,)  5  per  cent, 
sulphur  remains. 

According  to  analysis  by  the  Gewerkschaftlicher  Ceutral-Probir- 
gadens,  the  raw-lead  roasting-heap  (Dilluer  Hiitte)  contains  1G.770  per 
cent.  S. ;  after  preliminary  roasting  it  contains  11.080  per  cent.  S. ; 
after  dead-roasting  it  contains  3.030  per  cent.  S. 

The  roasting  is  conducted  at  all  the  works  in  Hungarian  “  Fortschau- 
felungsofen”  (long  reverberatory  roasting-furnaces)  with  double  hearth. 
About  40  cwt.  of  the  roasting-heap  is  put  through  in  every  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  consumption  of  fuel  per  100  cwt.  is  as  follows: 

In  the  slag-roasting . 2.1  to  34  klafters  of  3  foot  wood. 

In  the  agglomerating  roasting .  2  to  3  klafters  of  3-foot  wood. 

In  the  dust  roasting .  1£  to  2  klafters  of  3-foot  wood. 

The  average  cost  of  roasting  1U0  cwt.  of  charge  by  the  agglomerating 
roasting  method  is — 

Fl.  Kr. 


Cost  of  fuel,  2^  klafters  wood,  at  0  florins  15  kreutzer .  15  18.  75 

Wages,  54  shifts,  at  1  florin  20  kreutzer .  0  60.  00 

Repair  of  tools  for  54  shifts,  at  3|J  kreutzer .  0  19.50 


Total .  21  98.  25 


The  actual  cost  of  roasting,  exclusive  of  superintendence,  is  equal  to 
about  21.9S  kreutzer  per  cwt. 

b.  Roasting  in  free  heaps. — Raw  matte,  lead-matte,  copper-matte,  and 
furnace-dross  are  roasted  in  this  manner. 

The  expenses  per  100  cwt.  are — 

Fl.  Kr. 


For  stamping  100  cwt.,  at  1  kreutzer .  1  0.00 

For  laying  over  100  cwt.,  at  ^  kreutzer .  0  75.  00 

For  fuel,  1  klafter  wood,  at  0  florins  75  kreutzer .  1  12.  00 

For  arranging  t lie  roasting  floor,  one  shift .  0  50.  00 


Total . . .  3  37.  00 


437.  2.  “ Rcieh eerbleisch mehen — This,  the  principal  manipulation  of 
the  silver-smelting  works,  beneficiates  the  richer  silver-ores  and  slimes 
with  roasted  lead  ore,  roasted  raw  matte, cupellation-products,  and  dross. 
The  object  of  this  manipulation  is  theslagging-off  of  the  worthless  gangue 
matter  and  a  concentration  of  the  gold  aud  silver  in  the  lead.  As  is  to  be 
seen  from  the  foregoing  analyses,  the  silicic  acid  is  the  principal  slag-form¬ 
ing  ingredient.  The  character  of  the  ores  is  acid,  that  is  to  say,  there  is  a 
superabundance  of  silicic  acid  and  a  lack  of  bases.  Furthermore,  all 
the  ores,  especially  the  lead-ores,  carry  a  large  percentage  of  zinc.  It 
is  well  known  how  disadvantageous  to  lead-smelting  processes  this 
metal  is.  I7ow,  in  order  uot  to  supply  the  lack  of  bases  with  worthless 
fluxes,  aud  also  to  make  the  zinc  in  smelting  as  little  troublesome  as 


HUNGARIAN  PROCESSES.  185 

• 

possible,  the  ore-charge  is  fluxed  with  the  roasted  matte  that  contains 
a  large  percentage  of  iron  and  some  gold  and  silver  from  the  govern¬ 
ment  works.  This  not  only  supplies  the  place  of  the  failing  bases,  but 
also  acts  as  a  solvent  on  the  zinc.  The  fusibility  of  the  charge  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  roasted  matte  used  as  flux.  From  the  advantages 
gained  by  the  addition  of  roasted  matte,  it  can  be  easily  explained  why 
only  such  a  small  amount  of  slag  is  added  in  working  charges  so  rich  in 
zinc. 

At  the  Mutual  Dillner  Hiitte,  up  to  the  year  1872,  lead-slimes  and 
larger  amounts  of  slag  from  the  same  manipulation  took  the  place  of 
this  matte,  on  account  of  there  not.  being  a  sufficiency  of  the  latter. 
Now,  as  the  percentage  of  zinc  has  greatly  increased  of  late  in  the  lead- 
ores  of  Michaelstolleur,  the  above  flux  was  not  sufficient  to  effect  an 
easy  and-effective  smelting.  It  was  necessary  every  three,  or,  at  the  high¬ 
est,  four  weeks,  to  blow  the  furnaces  out,  on  account  of  furnace-accre¬ 
tions  and  irregular  working,  and,  moreover,  the  productions  never 
amounted  to  more  than  24  cwt.  per  twenty-four  hours.  Tbe  charge 
was  now  so  made  up,  according  to  a  previous  one  of  the  kind,  that 
roasted  lead-matte  formed  a  portion,  and  the  “  Eeichverbleiungs  ”  slag 
was  replaced  by  that  from  the  matte-smelting,  which  contains  a  large 
percentage  of  iron,  and  the  smelting  carried  on  with  a  somewhat  de¬ 
creased  pressure  of  blast.  The  results  were  much  better,  as  compared 
with  the  former.  In  twenty-four  hours  over  51  cwt.  of  pure  ore-charge 
was  jiut  through,  exclusive  of  slag;  the  campaign  lasts  nearly  eight 
weeks;  less  fuel  was  consumed,  and  the  loss  in  metal  was  also  much 
smaller. 

The  zinc,  which  principally  goes  into  the  matte  and  slag,  becomes 
mechanically  entangled  in  the  slag,  oversaturated  as  it  is  with  bases, 
and  is  thus  carried  out  of  the  furnace.  The  high  percentage  of  ziuc 
(about  12  percent.)  found  in  the  slag  is  easily  explained  in  this  manner. 

The  average  composition  of  the  charges  at  the  various  works  for  a 
long  time  was  as  follows  : 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Sekemnitzer. 

Zsarnoviczer. 

Maiqosngjsj 

Dillner. 

Cwt 

46 

54 

32 

3 

38 

8 

50 

Cwt. 

45 

55 

45 

Cwt. 

47 
’  53 
38 

Cwt. 

60 

40 

15 

20 

12 

42 

4 

50 

47 

2 

50 

Additional  slag : 

*54 

'  i 

1 

*  Percentage. 


186 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


In  order  to  cover  the  auriferous  silver,  for  every  mint-pound  of  the 
same  2  to  24  cwt.  of  lead  is  added.  The  products  of  this  manipulation 
are : 

a.  Eicli  lead,  containing  0.4  to  0.0  per  cent.  =  116  oz.  12  dwt.  to  174  oz. 
19  dwt.  silver  and  gold ;  this  goes  to  the  cupellation-fnrnace,  and  has  the 
following  chemical  composition  at  the  Schemuitzer  Hiitte,  No.  11 : 


Cn .  0.148 

Sb .  0.095 

As .  trace. 

Fe .  0.  019 

Zn .  trace. 


AuAg .  0.  467 

Pb .  .  99.  220 

Ilesidue . •.  0.010 


/>.  Load-matte,  containing  from  0.075  to  0.15  per  cent.  =  21  oz.  17  dwt. 
to  43  oz.  15  dwt.  silver  and  gold,  10  per  cent,  to  IS  per  cent,  lead,  and 
0  per  cent,  to  15  per  cent,  copper. 

According  to  chemical  analysis,  the  lead-matte  at  the  Schemnitzer 
Iliitto  is  constituted  as  follows: 


S . 

Fe . 

1’b _ 

Cu . 

Sb . 

An  Ag  . 
Mn  .... 
CaO... 
Mg  O  .. 
Residue 


23.  Ill 
44.  505 
14.806 
10.  856 
0.  S75 
0. 128 
0.  697 
0.  450 
trace. 
0.  700 


c.  Furnace-dross  sweepings  and  furnace-fumes  go  through  the  same 
process  again. 

The  furnace-dross  from  the  Dillncr  Iliitte  is  constituted  as  follows  : 


Analysis  Xo.  13. 

S . 

Pb . 

Fe . 

Zn . 

Cu.  . 

Sb . 

Residue . . 


27.  689 
20.  269 
14.  000 
32.  237 
0.  664 
0.  05s 
6.  000 


d.  Slag  assaying  from  0.003  to  0.006  per  cent.  =  17  dwt.  to  1^  oz.  in 
silver  and  1  per  cent,  to  3  per  cent.  lead. 


HUNGARIAN  PROCESSES. 


187 


Scliemnitzer  Hiitte,  analysis  No.  14. 


Si  03 .  35.372 

Fe  O.  . .  . .  ....  30.710 

CaO .  7.716 

Mg  O  . . .. . . . .  1. 716 

Mil  O .  3.  783 

Zn  O .  4.  633 

PbO . 3.041 

CuO . 0.261 

Al2  03 . . 10.  266 

Ag . 0.  002 

S .  1.  740 


Dillner  Hiitte ,  analysis  No.  15. 

Si03 . . . 

Fe  O . 

Ca  O . . . 

Mg  O . 

MnO . 

ZnO . . . 

PbO . .  . 


•  CuO .  0.338 

A12Os . 5.000 

Ag . .  0.  003 

S .  2.  754 


36.  333 
32.  650 
6. 345 
0.  785 

12.  666 

2. 154 


Iu  the  smelting  of  100  cwt.  of  the  above  charge  the  following  was  the 
production — 


AtNeusohl. 

At  Schomnitz. 

At  Dillner. 

Per  cent. 

27.  68 

8.  02 

1.  55 

Per  cent. 

27.  94 

6.  70 

5.02 

Per  cent. 
26.  05 
9.  25 
6.  00 

37.  25 

39.  66 

41.  30 

Percentage  of  metal : 


Silver. 

Gold. 

Lead. 

Bullion . 

Per  cent. 
96.  79 
5.  69 
0.  74 

Per  cent. 
100.  57 

1.  16 
0.  60 

Percent. 
93.52 
2.  57 
1. 15 

103.  22 

102.  33 

97.  24 

The  smelting  is  conducted  entirely  in  ordinary  high  blast-furnaces, 
28  feet  high,  with  two  tuyeres,  and  in  low  blast-furnaces,  22  feet  high, 
with  two  tuyeres. 

The  furnaces  are  tended  by  a  smelter  and  a  charger,  who  at  the  same 


1  88 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


time  wheels  away  the  slag.  The  amount  put  through  in  twenty-four 
hours,  without  reckoning  the  slag,  varies  between  40  anti  52  cwt.  The 
consumption  of  fuel  was  different  at  the  various  works ;  it  was  as 
follows : 

At  the  Schemuitzer  Iliitte,  for  every  100  cwt.  of  charge,  2S  mass. 

At  the  Dillner  Iliitte,  for  every  100  cwt.  of  charge,  80  mass. 

At  the  Neusoliler  Iliitte,  for  every  100  cwt.  of  charge,  105  mass. 

45S.  Matte-smelting. — This  operation  treats  the  roasted  matte  from  the 
“  L’eichverbleiung,”  silver  ores,  roasted  lead- copper-ores,  cupellation- 
produets,  and  lead  for  fluxing.  The  object  of  this  operation,  besides  the 
concentration  of  the  copper  in  the  matte,  is  the  extraction  of  the 
gold,  silver,  and  lead  from  the  lead-matte. 

The  products  of  this  operation  are: 

a.  Lead,  carrying  0.25  to  0.4  per  cent.  =  72  oz.  IS  dwt.  to  110  oz.  12 
dwt.  auriferous  silver. 

b.  Matte,  containing  from  0.07  to  0.4  per  cent.  =  20  oz.  9  dwt.  to  11G 
oz.  12  dwt.  auriferous  silver,  15  per  cent,  to  28  per  cent,  copper,  and  11 
per  cent,  to  10  per  cent.  lead. 

c.  Furnace  dross,  sweepings,  &c. 

d.  'Slag,  (singulo  silicate)  containing  0.002  to  0.004  per  cent.  =  11  dwt. 
15.8-4  gr.  to  l'oz.  8  dwt.  7.08  gr.  auriferous  silver,  and  1  per  cent,  to  3 
per  cent,  and  0.200  to  0.500  per  cent,  copper. 

The  smelting-charges  were  dissimilar  at  the  different  works.  The 
following  was  the  average  “  make-up ”  for  three  years: 


T.Piul.mntto . 

Silver-ores  . . 

[.pad- popper -pits  . 

I'tipelUition  products _ 

Fliix-M . 

Sweepings  . 

'■  Reich verblelnngs"  slag 
Slag  from  ore-amettiug.. 
Iron . . . 


Xeuaobl.  Dillner. 


100  cwt. 

20  cwt. 

B  cwt. 

It 

52 

e 

50  per  cent 


1. 1  per  cent. 


100 

cwt. 

in 

cwt. 

|  20 

90 

20 

per  cent. 

L20 

per  cent. 

From  50  to  70  cwt.  of  clean  charge  were  put  through  in  twenty -four 
hours. 

The  consumption  of  fuel  was  greatest  at  the  Neusohler  Iliitte;  about 
140  mass  to  every  100  cwt.  of  charge.  At  the  other  works  scarcely 
100  mass  wore  consumed.  The  reasou  of  the  larger  consumption  of 
fuel  at  the  Neusohler  Iliitte,  in  all  its  smelting  operations,  is  principally 
on  account  of  the  bad  quality  of  coal. 

439.  Second  matte-smelting. — The  roasted  matte  from  the  foregoing 
operation  is  treated  by  this  manipulation.  The  object  of  the  operation 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  former.  A  charge  generally  consists  of  100 
cwt.  of  matte  and  12  to  15  cwt.  of  cupellation-products.  As  flux,  from 
50  per  cent,  to  SO  per  cent,  of  slag  from  the  ore-smelting  is  made  use 
of.  Lead  is  also  added  in  order  to  effect  a  perfect  extraction  of  the 
auriferous  silver,  as  in  the  foregoing  operation. 


HUNGARIAN  PROCESSES. 


189 


The  products  of  the  operation  are  : 

a.  Matte-lead,  carrying  0.2  to  0.3  per  cent.  =  5S  oz.  0  dwt.  to  87  oz.  9 
dwt.  auriferous  silver. 

b.  Copper-matte,  carrying  0.04  to  0.08  per  cent.  =  11  oz.  14  dwt.  to  23 
oz.  7  dwt.  auriferous  silver,  40  to  50  per  cent,  copper,  and  4  to  11  per 
cent,  lead.* 

According  to  chemical  analysis,  the  copper-matte  from  Dilluer  Hiitte, 
]Sfo.  16,  contains  the  following  percentage  of  constituents  : 


Si  o3.. 

Fe  . . . . 
Pb.... 
Cu . . .  . 
Sb  .... 
Zn  .... 
An  Ag 
S . 


0.  761 
23.  333 
6.  787 
39.  919 
0.186 
4.013 
0.052 
22.  728 


As . - . - .  trace 

c.  Furnace-dross ,  sweepings,  dec.,  dec. — The  copper-matte  from  all  the 
works  is  sent  to  the  copper  and  silver  extraction  works  in  Tajova,  for 
further  treatment.  As  the  gold  in  the  copper-sweepings  is  not  consid¬ 
ered,  when  the  same  are  dissolved  at  Tajova,  it  therefore  remains  to  be 
noticed  that  the  extraction  of  the  gold  from  the  auriferous-argentifer¬ 
ous  charge  is  almost  perfect  by  the  Reichverbleiung  operation  and  its 
finishing  manipulations.  While  the  amount  of  gold  contained  in  a 
mint-pound  of  auriferous  silver  iu  the  rich  lead  is  equal  to  0.020  to  0.030 
per  cent.,  5  to  8  oz.,  so  is  the  same  in  the  matte-lead  at  the  highest  only 
from  0.005  to  0.007  per  cent.,  equal  to  1  to  2  oz.,  and  in  the  copper-matte 
scarcely  0.0004  mint-pound,  equal  to  2  dwt.,  or  the  amount  of  gold  con¬ 
tained  in  a  cwt.  of  copper-matte  containing  0.05  per  cent.,  equal  to  15 
oz.  auriferous  silver,  is  scarcely  0.00002  mint-pound. 

440.  There  was  treated  in  the  years  1868,  1869,  and  1870,  at  the  three 
governmental  silver-smelting  works,  by  the  operation  of  u  Eeicliver- 
bleiung”  and  its  finishing  manipulations,  the  following  amount  of  ores 
and  metallurgical  products : 


Charge. 

Material. 

Dry  weight. 

Average  amount  of,  contained 
in  same. 

Au  Ag. 

Lead. 

Copper. 

No. 

Cwt. 

Lbs. 

Mint  lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1 

153.  970 

73 

0  279 

O  12 

2 

Lead-ores,  slimes,  and  lead-copper  ores . 

122.  880 

41 

0.  052 

37.55 

0.  61 

3 

Metallurgical  products . 

244.  369 

73 

p.  081 

41.  72 

2.  20 

Total . 

521. 119 

187 

0.412 

79.  27 

2.  93 

*  The  analyses  1, 2,  3,  4,  5, 7,  9, 11, 12,  and  14  were  made  by  the  royal  Hungarian  dis¬ 
trict  analyst,  Carl  Dobrovitz,  and  Nos.  6,  8,  10,  13,  15,  and  16  by  the  author,  Josef 
Wagner. 


190  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  following  was  the  production  of  metal  in  percentage : 


Gold  and 
silver. 

Lead. 

Copper. 

Per  cent. 
104.  86 
4.  $6 

Per  cent. 
97. 58 

Per  cent. 
107.  49 
7.  49 

2. 42 

Consumption  of  fuel  for  total  amount  treated: 

Per  cent,  of  charge. 


Wood,  (3  feet  long,)  G,S13  klafter .  0.013  klafter. 

Charcoal,  548,451  mass .  1.052  mass. 


EXPENSES. 

Ou  total  amount  treated.  On  per  1  cwt.  of  charge. 


Florins.  Kr. 

Kreutzer. 

a.  Cost  of  fuel . 

b.  Cost  of  manipulation  and 

248,209  54 

47.G2 

general  expenses . 

172,342  19 

33.0G 

c.  Superintendence . 

39,358  57 

7.55 

Total . 

459,910  30 

88.23 

If  calculated  per  1  cwt.  of  ore  and  slime,  it  would  be=l  florin  GG.17 
kreutzer. 


At  the  Mutual  St.  Miehaelstollner-Dillner  HUtte  there  is  smelted 
annually  over  20,000  cwt.  of  ore,  &c.  The  total  cost  per  cwt.  of  ore  and 
slime  in  1S72  was  equal  to  1  florin  45  kreutzer. 

441.  III. — Cupellation. — The  auriferous-argentiferous  lead  coming  from 
the  “  Reichverbleiung”  operation  and  its  finishing  manipulations  is  cu¬ 
pelled  ;  also  silver-ores  assaying  higher  than  3  per  cent.=S74  oz.  are  man¬ 
ipulated  by  this  process.  This  operation  is  conducted  in  a  German  cupel-' 
lation -furnace  with  movable  top,  and  which  is  furnished  with  a  Siberian 
litharge-reduction  furnace.  From  200  to  250  cwt.  lead  are  cupelled  at 
a  time.  The  operation  is  so  conducted  that  about  half  the  litharge  pro¬ 
duced  is  immediately  reduced  to  lead  by  means  of  the  reduction-fur¬ 
nace.  The  products  of  this  operation  are: 

a.  Auriferous  blick-silver,  having  a  fineness  of  980  to  992  in  1,000  parts. 

h.  Manipulation  litharge  \ 

c.  “  Abstrich”  £  are  resmelted. 

(1.  Test  ) 

e.  Lead  from  the  reduction  of  litharge  is  liquated  for  commercial  lead. 

/.  Red  and  green  commercial  litharge. 

442.  In  the  years  18GS,  1869,  and  1870  there  was  cupelled  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment  silver-smelting  works  about  143, 6S8  cwt.  of  lead,  containing 
very  nearly  0.500  mint-pound  gold  per  cwt.  of  auriferous  silver. 


CUPELLATION  AND  LIQUATION. 


191 


The  metallic  production  of  auriferous  silver  in  per  cent,  was : 

Per  cent. 


As  blic-silver . . . „ . . . . .  96.25 

In  the  products . . .  4.24 


Total .  100.49 

Consequently  there  was  a  surplus  of .  0.49 


Average  loss  in  lead  amounted  to  about  5  per  cent. 


TOTAL 

EXPENSES. 

Per  mint-pound  of 

silver  produced. 

Florins.  Kr. 

FI.  Kreutzers. 

a. 

Cost  of  fuel . . 

20,712  98 

31.5 

b. 

Cost  of  manipulation 

and 

general  expenses. . . 

42,737  65 

65.5 

c. 

Superintendence . 

8,886  50 

13.5 

Total . 

72,337  13 

1  10.5 

443.  IV.  Liquation. — As  a  part  of  the  very  impure  lead  is  liquated  be¬ 
fore  undergoing  the  operation  of  cupellation,  consequently  this  operation 
can  only  be  considered  as  a  preliminary  manipulation  to  the  cupellation, 
and  the  refining  of  the  litharge-lead  to  commercial  lead  can  only  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  the  actual  liquation  operation.  The  operation  of  liquation,  in¬ 
cluding  the  refining,  is  conducted  in  a  combined  lead  liquation  and  refin¬ 
ing  furnace,  which  was  first  brought  into  use  in  the  year  18G0,  at  the 
Schemnitzer  works,  by  Superintendent  Willibald  Kachelmann.  The 
same  consists  of  two  principal  parts,  i.  e.,  a  reverberatory  and  a  kettle 
furnace,  each  with  its  own  fire-place.  The  kettle  furnace,  which  has  a. 
cast-iron  kettle  capable  of  holding  50  cwt.  of  lead,  stands  close  up  to  and 
under  the  reverberatory  furnace,  which  is  furnished  with  a  spout,  through 
which  the  liquated  lead  flows  into  the  kettle.  The  liquated  lead  is  re¬ 
fined  by  means  of  green  birch-tree  branches,  which  are  immersed  into 
the  lead-bath,  and  held  there  by  means  of  a  special  arrangement. 

The  general  costs  of  liquation  in  per  cent,  of  lead  amounted  to : 


Florin.  Kr. 

a.  Cost  of  fuel .  1  90 

b.  Cost  of  manipulation  and  general  expenses . 6  79 

c.  Superintendence . 1  30 

Total .  9  99 

444.  Total  cost  of  the  lead  and  silver  smelted  during  the  years  1868, 
1869,  and  1870 : 

Florin.  Kr. 

I.  Cost  of  the  ore-smelting . 153,626  96 

II.  Cost  of  the  Reichverbleiung  and  finishing  manipu¬ 
lations  . . . . .  459,  910  30 


192 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


Florin.  Kr. 

III.  Cost  of  the  cupellation . .  72,337  13 

IV.  Cost  of  the  liquation .  2,924  99 


Total . CSS,  799  38 


The  loss  in  lead  amounted  to  8,438  cwt.  47  lbs.,  or  5.5  per  cent,  of  the 
production;  the  same  represents  a  value,  according  to  the  tariff,  of 
107,158  florin,  77.9  kreutzer. 

Cost  of  production  : 

a.  For  silver- ores  and  slimes. 

1.  There  was  smelted: 


Operation. 

Ores  anil  slimes. 

Auriferious  silver. 

Assay. 

Amount. 

Mint-pounds. 

Cict.  1  Lbs. 
102,784  1  94 

153,970  j  73 

0.  071 
0.  271 

10.  008 
41,831 

850 

833 

“  Xieiuh' vorbleiung  ”  operation . 

Cofct  thereof: 

Florin.  Kr. 

Ore-smelting . 153,020  90 

lleichverbleiung,  and  finishing  manipulation,  per  cwt. 

106.17  kreutzer . 255,  G99  41 

Cupellation  according  to  the  contents  in  silver .  00,071  03 

Loss  in  lead  by  cupellation .  95,803  28 


Total . 571,  SOI  28 


The  complete  manipulation  of  a  cwt.  of  silver-ore  or  slime,  containing 
0.170  mint-pound  =  19  oz.  10  dwt.  4.S0  gr.  auriferous  silver,  costs  1  florin 
97  kreutzer. 

b.  For  lead  and  lead-copper  ores  and  slimes.* 

1.  There  was  smelted  : 


Ores  anil  slimes. 

Average  contents. 

Contents. 

An  and  Ag 

Pb 

Gold. 

Silver. 

Lead. 

122.330  cwt.  41  pounds . 

0.  052 

37 

Mint-pound «. 
6,  389 

Mint-pounds. 

855 

Cirt. 

46,  142 

Pound s. 
61 

Cost  of  smelting  the  above  : 

Florin.  Kr. 

Cost  of  smelting  per  cwt.  100.17  kreutzer . 204,210  80 

Cost  of  cupellation  according  to  the  amount  of  silver .  7,005  50 


*  The  loss  iii  lead  resulting  from  smelting  and  liquation,  and  which  was  subtracted 
from  the  metallic  contents  in  the  redemption  of  the  dross,  is  not  considered  in  the 
above  statement  of  expenses. 


STATISTICS  OF  PKODUCTION.  193 

Florins.  Kr. 

Loss  of  lead  ia  cupellation  according  to  the  amount  of 

silver .  11,355  50 

Cost  of  liquation .  2, 924  99 


Total . . . 226,156  79 


The  complete  manipulation  of  a  cwt.  of  the  charge,  containing  on  an 
average  0.052  mint-pounds  —  15  oz.  3  dwt.  6.24  gr.  auriferous  silver,  and 
37  per  cent,  lead,  costs  1  florin  84  kreutzer. 

Ic.  For  auriferous  silver  produced. 

There  was  produced  63,152.9S6  mint-pounds  auriferous  silver,  contain¬ 
ing  0.0192  mint-pound  gold  =  5  oz.  11  dwt.  20.31  gr. 


Cost  of  production : 

Florin.  Kr. 

Total  cost  ore-smelting . 153,  626  96 

Total  cost  of  Eeichverbleiung  of  the  silver-ores . 255,  699  41 

Total  cost  of  cupellation . .  72,337  13 

Loss  in  lead  by  cupellation . . 107, 158  77 


Total . 58S,  822  27 


The  production  of  a  mint-pound  of  auriferous  silver  (0.0192  mint-pound 
gold  and  0.9808  mint-pound  silver)  having  a  value  of  57  florin  52  kreut¬ 
zer,  costs  9  florin  32  kreutzer. 

d.  For  liquated  lead  and  commercial  litharge. 

Only  such  lead  as  was  actually  refined  at  the  silver-smelting  works,  as 
liquated  lead,  and  such  litharge  as  was  produced  during  the  operation 
of  cupellation,  is  here  taken  into  account.  The  production  is  regu¬ 
lated  according  to  the  demand;  if,  for  example,  the  demand  for  the  same 
increases,  more  is  consequently  produced. 

1.  About  33,493  cwt.  of  liquated  lead  and  commercial  litharge  was 
produced.  The  costs  thereof  were  : 


Florin.  Kr. 

For  smelting  the  lead-ore . 204, 210  89 

For  liquation .  2,  924  99 


207, 135  88 

The  production  of  a  cwt.  of  liquated  lead  or  litharge,  costs  6  florins 
18  kreutzer,  and  is  worth  14  florins. 

Besides  the  production  of  blick-silver,  lead,  and  litharge,  there  was 
also  produced  at  the  three  government  silver-smelting  works,  in  addition 
to  the  above,  4,641  cwt.  77  lbs.  of  copper-matte,  carryiug  on  an  average 
44  per  cent,  copper,  and  0.094  mint-pound  =27  oz.  8  dwt.  2.88  gr.  silver, 
which  represents  a  value,  according  to  the  tariff,  of  119,693  florins  36 
kreutzer. 

They  have  also  to  share  a  part  of  the  above  costs  of  production. 
If  these  are  brought  into  the  account,  the  cost  of  producing  a  mint- 
13  M 


194 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


pound  of  auriferous  silver  aud  a  hundred-weight  of  liquated  lead  and 
litharge  is  somewhat  less.* 

445.  B.  Copper-smelting. — The  following  ores  and  products  are  util¬ 
ized  by  this  manipulation : 

a.  Argentiferous  copper-ore  containing,  on  an  average,  12  per  cent, 
copper  and  0.040  mint-pound  silver  =  12  oz. 

b.  Nou-argeutiferous  copper-ore  ( gelferz )  containing  18  per  cent,  copper 
and  upward. 

c.  Precipitated  copper  from  the  mine-waters. 

d.  Mint-cement,  copper,  aud  copper-sweepings. 

e.  Copper-matte,  from  the  silver-smelting  works,  containing  40  per 
cent,  copper  aud  upward,  4.11  per  cent,  lead  aud  0.0S0  mint-pound  = 
23  oz.  0  dwt.  12.40  gr.  silver. 

The  argentiferous,  as  well  as  the  non-argentiferous,  ores  aud  products 
are  worked  separately.  There  are  two  siuelting-works  running.  The 
Altgebirg  has  the  preliminary  work  and  production  of  copper. 

44G.  The  following  are  the  different  manipulations  : 

I.  Smelting  for  argentiferous  matte. 

If.  Smelting  of  the  roasted  argentiferous  matte,  ( Rostdurch - 
stechen.) 

III.  Smelting  of  the  roasted  lead-products. 

IV.  Extraction  of  silver  from  black  copper. 

V.  lveduction  of  the  dross  and  sweepings. 

Yl.  Smelting  of  the  furnace-dross,  resulting  from  the  smelting  of  the 
non-argentiferous  copper-ores,  ( gclbfabzugselimdzen .) 

VII.  Befining. 

*  In  the  yenr  1858,  at  the  Scheinuitzor  lliitte,  the  combined  methods  of  silver-extrac¬ 
tion,  according  to  Ziervogel,  and  gold-extraction,  according  to  I’lattner,  were  adopted 
for  the  extraction  of  silver  and  gold  from  the  matte. 

The  manipulations  in  this  process  are  as  follows  : 

a.  Smelting  of  the  poor  argentiferous  pyritous  ores  for  matte. 

h.  Crushing  the  matte. 

c.  Roasting  the  finely  crushed  matte.  The  object  of  this  operation  was  to  transform 
tho  argent  sulphide  contained  in  the  matte  into  argent  sulphate. 

d.  Dissolving  the  silver  out  of  the  roasted  powder  with  hot  water  and  the  precipita¬ 
tion  of  the  same  with  copper. 

c.  Precipitation  of  the  copper  in  solution  from  which  the  silver  has  been  extracted 
by  means  of  old  iron. 

/.  Chlorination  of  the  residue  from  the  silver-extraction  in  order  to  transform  the 
gold  into  gold  chloride. 

g.  Dissolving  the  gold  chloride  formed  in  hot  water  and  precipitation  of  same  by 
means  of  an  iron-vitriol  solution. 

The  residues  from  this  extraction  process  are  used  as  a  basic-flux  in  the  smelting 
operations. 

It  cost,  in  1862,  36  florins  to  extract  a  mint-pound  of  auriferous  silver  according  to 
this  process. 

Although  the  ores  treated  by  this  process  have  never  contained  more  than  0.09  per 
cent.  =  26  oz.  5  dwt.  auriferous  silver,  still  the  results  could  not  be  compared  with 
those  obtained  with  the  “  Eeichverbleinng”  operation;  consequently,  in  the  year  1864,. 
the  above  process  of  extraction  was  done  away  with. 


HUNGARIAN  COPPER-SMELTING. 


195 


447.  I.  Smelting  for  argentiferous  matte. — Argentiferous  copper-ores 
and  unroasted  furnace-dross  from  the  same  operation  are  utilized  by  this 
manipulation.  The  following  is  the  average  “make-up”  of  a  smelting- 
charge  for  the  years  1868,  1869,  and  1870 : 

Per  cent. 

Argentiferous  copper-ore .  97.33  i _ 

Unroasted  furnace-dross .  2.67  J  percen 

Limestone .  80.00 

Slag  resulting  from  the  smelting  of  roasted 
matte .  59.00 


The  smelting  was  conducted  in  two  blast-furnaces,  28  feet  high,  with 
two  tuyeres.  This  manipulation  has  for  its  object  the  concentration  of 
all  the  copper  and  silver  into  a  matte.  The  products  of  this  manipula¬ 
tion  and  their  amount  in  percentage  from  the  above  charge  were  as 
follows : 

1.  Raw  matte,  24.69  per  cent.,  cari'ying  34.68  per  cent,  copper  and 
0.156  mint-pound  =  45  oz.  6  dwt.  13.92  gr.  silver. 

2.  Antimonial  speiss,  amounting  to  0.89  per  cent.,  and  containing  25.08 
per  cent,  copper  and  0.204  mint-pound  =  59  oz.  9  dwt.  7.68  gr.  silver. 

3.  Eaw  furnace-dross,  2.70  per  cent.,  containing  4  per  cent,  copper 
and  0.010  mint-pound  =  2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.80  gr.  silver. 

There  was  no  loss  in  metal  of  any  kind.  The  quantity  put  through 
each  furnace  in  twenty-four  hours  was  78  cwt.  of  ore  and  dross.  The 
consumption  of  fuel  per  100  cwt.  amounted  to  166  mass,  or  1,075  cubic 
feet. 

The  raw  matte  is  roasted  twelve  times  in  free  heaps.  The  consump¬ 
tion  of  wood  was  equal  to  7.72  cubic  feet  per  hundred-weight  of  matte. 

448.  II.  Smelting  of  the  roasted  argentiferous  matte ,  ( Bostdurchstechen .) 
— Besides  the  roasted  matte,  roasted  copper-oberlech,  (matte,)  dross, 
unroasted  speiss,  (on  account  of  the  easier  breaking  up  of  the  black 
copper,)  and  siliceous  argentiferous  copper-ores  are  treated  in  this 
manipulation. 

The  average  smelting-charge,  in  per  cent.,  for  three  years,  was  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 

Cwt. 


Boasted  matte . 
Oberlech  matte 
Furnace-dross  . 

Speiss . 

Ore . 


68.  80 
12.  44 
3.  70 
2.  30 
12.  76 


Total .  100.  00 

The  smelting  was  conducted  in  low  blast-furnaces,  having  two  tuyeres ; 
50  to  80  per  cent,  slag  from  the  matte-smelting  was  added  to  the  above 
charge.  The  products  from  this  manipulation  in  treating  the  above 
charge  were  as  follows : 


196  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Per  cent,  of 
the  production. 


1.  Black  copper . . .  38.84 

2.  Oberleck . . .  12.30 

3.  Dross .  3.  70 


The  oberlech  ami  dross,  after  having  been  roasted,  pass  through  the 
same  operation  again,  while  the  black  copper,  containing  80  to  85  per 
cent,  copper  and  0.250  to  0.25G  mint-pound  =  74  oz.  13  dwt.  13.92  gr. 
silver,  is  sent  to  the  silver-extraction. 

There  was  put  through  in  twenty-four  hours  7G  cwt.  of  charge,  and 
the  consumption  of  fuel  per  100  cwt.  of  same  amounted  to  S0.11  mass, 
or  517.71  cubic  feet. 

449.  III.  Smelting  of  the  roasted  lead-products ,  ( Rostdurchstechcnblei - 
scher  Geschicke.) — The  copper-matte  from  the  silver-smelting  works,  and 
also  the  silicious-argentiferous  copper-ores,  are  treated  in  this  operation. 
This  operation  is  incidental  with  the  former  roasting-operatiou.  The 
following  are  the  products  of  the  operation  : 

1.  Black  copper,  sent  to  the  black-copper  extraction-furnace. 

2.  Oberlech  i  ,.  . 

pass  through  the  same  operation. 

3.  Dross  )  1  e  1 

450.  1  V.  Extraction  of  black  copper. — By  this  operation  black  copper, 
free  from  lead,  and  that  also  which  contains  lead,  are  treated  together, 
in  a  certain  proportion  to  each  other;  also,  cement-copper,  oxide  of  cop¬ 
per,  liquated  copper,  rich  dross,  &c.  The  following  are  the  various 
operations : 

1.  Preliminary  operations,  consisting  in — 

a.  Breaking  of  the  black  copper  into  pieces,  which  is  partly  accom. 
plished  in  the  operation  of  smelting  for  matte. 

b.  Crushing  and  stamping  the  black  copper  and  assortment  of  the 
black-copper  ernshings. 

c.  Chloridizing-roasting  of  the  black  copper-crushings  by  means  of 
salt ;  a  difference  is  also  made  in  this  operation  between  the  preliminary 
roasting  and  good  roasting,  as  the  length  of  the  operation  depends  upon 
the  amount  of  salt  used,  and  this  again  upon  the  percentage  of  copper 
and  silver  contained  in  the  charge.  The  operation  generally  lasts  ten 
hours  when  10  per  cent,  of  salt  is  used  for  chloridizing  a  charge  con¬ 
taining  0.250  mint-pound  =  72  oz.  17  dwt.  14.40  gr.  silver.  The  sue. 
cess  of  the  extraction  greatly  depends  upon  the  perfection  of  the 
roasting. 

d.  Screening  and  sortiug  of  the  roasted  black-copper  crushings.  The 
lumps  of  incompletely  roasted  matte,  after  having  been  separated  from 
the  well  roasted,  are  ground  to  powder  and  then  roasted  over  again. 

2.  Extraction  of  the  well  roasted  black-copper  crushings. 

a.  Lixiviation  of  the  roasted  powder  with  cold  solution  of  salt ;  the 
products  are :  Bich  solution,  out  of  which  the  silver  is  precipitated ; 
poor  solution,  from  which  the  copper  is  precipitated. 


HUNGARIAN  COPPER-SMELTING. 


197 


b.  Washing  of  the  extracted  powder  with  hot  water  5  the  wash-water 
is  carried  to  the  solution  out  of  which  the  copper  is  to  be  precipitated. 
It  takes  on  an  average  fifteen  hours  to  lixiviate  a  charge  of  400  to  500 
pounds.  The  wasted  residue  is  tested  for  silver ;  if  it  contains  0.000 
mint-pound  =  2  oz.  12  dwt.  11.52  gr.  silver,  or  less,  the  same  is  given 
over  to  the  copper-manipulation ;  if  it  contains  over  0.009  mint-pound 
—  2  oz.  12  dwt.  11.52  gr.  silver,  it  is  dumped  on  a  warm  place,  wdiere  the 
process  of  chlorination  continues  of  itself,  and  after  some  time  it  is 
again  lixiviated. 

c.  Precipitation  of  the  silver  from  the  rich  solution  by  means  of  copper 
granules.  The  cement-silver  produced  in  this  manner  is  wrnshed  out 
with  hot  water,  pressed,  dried,  and  melted  in  a  graphite  crucible,  with 
a  slight  addition  of  borax  and  potash.  The  melted  silver  is  poured  into 
molds,  and  sent  to  the  mint  in  Kremnitz. 

d.  Precipitation  of  the  copper  from  the  desilverized  rich  solution,  poor 
solution,  and  wash-water  with  iron.  The  cement-copper,  produced  in 
this  manner,  and  which  always  contains  some  silver,  again  passes 
through  the  process  of  extraction. 

In  1868,  1869,  and  1870  there  was  treated,  inclusive  of  the  interme¬ 
diate  products  obtained  by  the  process,  9,267  cwt.  51  lbs.  ore,  carrying 
7,103  cwt.  60  pounds  copper  and  2,908.718  mint-pounds  silver.  The  pro¬ 
duction  v’as:  metallic  silver,  2,620.829  mint-pounds;  by-products  and 
residues,  221.092  mint-pounds;  with  7,102  cwt.  76  lbs.  copper.  Total 
7,102  cwt.  76  lbs.  copper  and  2,841,921  mint-pounds  silver. 

Loss  in  copper  was  equal  to  0.01  per  cent.,  in  silver  2.27  per  cent.  = 
661  oz.  14  dwt.  4.80  gr. 

451.  V.  Reduction  of  residues. — This  operation  treats  the  extraction- 
residues,  copper-dross,  unroasted  ugelf  oberlechf  (copper-matte,) refining- 
dross,  cement-powder  and  products  from  the  “  Neusohler  Kupferhammerf 
The  object  of  this  operation  is  the  reduction  of  the  residues  from  the 
extraction-operation  and  the  desulphurization  of  the  matte.  This  is 
effected  at  a  red  heat,  by  means  of  the  mutual  reaction  of  the  oxides  upon 
the  sulphides,  whereby  sulphurous  acid  is  formed  and  disengaged.  This 
manipulation  is  conducted  in  a  u spleissofenf  (refining-furnace.)  The 
following  are  the  products  of  this  operation  : 

*  1.  Eeduction-copper,  which  is  refined. 

2.  Reduction-dross,  v 

3.  Reduction-matte,  >  go  to  the  dross-smelting. 

4.  Reduction  “abstrich,”) 

452.  VI.  “ Gelfabzugsclimelzenf  smelting  of  non-argentiferous  dross. — 
The  reduction  dross,  matte,  and  abstrich,  refining-dross,  refiuiug- 
abstrich,  and  hearth,  copper-scales,  furnace-dross,  and  non-argentiferous 
ores  are  treated  in  this  manipulation.  This  operation  is  similar  to  the 
other,  the  only  difference  is,  that  it  is  conducted  in  low  blast-furnaces. 
The  following  are  its  products : 

1.  Gelf-dross  copper,  which  is  refined. 


198 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


2.  Gelf-ilross  matte,  goes  to  the  residue-redaction. 

3.  Gelf  dross  furnace  dross,  to  pass  through  the  same  operation  again. 

453.  YII.  Refining. — Ron-argentiferous  copper,  reduction-copper,  “  ma- 
traer”  copper,  and  copper-scales  are  treated  in  this  operation.  The  ope¬ 
ration  is  conducted  in  an  ordinary  refining-furnace,  using  wood  as  fuel. 
The  products  of  this  operation  are  : 

1.  Refined  copper,  which  is  taken  to  the  copper-mill  in  Xeusohl. 

2.  Granulated  copper,  used  for  precipitating  the  silver  in  the  rich 
solution. 

3.  Refining-dross,  \ 

4.  Refining-hearth,  ^  taken  to  the  dross  smelting. 

5.  Crucible-dross,  ) 

454.  Total  costs  of  the  copper-smelting  during  the  years  1SGS,  1SG9, 
and  1S70: 

Altgebirg. 

I.  For  smelting  for  argentiferous  matte . \ 

II.  For  resmelting  of  roasted  argentiferous  matte) 

Tajova. 

III.  Smelting  of  roasted  lead-ore . 

IV.  Extraction  of  black  copper . 

V.  Reduction  of  residues . . . 

VI.  Smelting  of  non-argentiferous  dross . 

VII.  Refining . 


Total . .  132,746  20J 

The  costs  of  I,  TI,  III,  V,  VI,  and  VII  belong  to  the  copper-produc¬ 
tion,  IV  to  the  silver-production.  Production  of  refined  copper,  8, GOO 
cwt.  77:f  lbs.;  production  of  silver,  2,620,892  mint-pounds. 

The  expense,  therefore,  for  the  production  of  a  hundred-weight  of  re¬ 
fined  copper,  worth  GO  florins,  12  florins  03  kreutzer.  The  production 
of  a  mint-pound  of  silver,  worth  45  florins,  11  florins  14  kreutzer. 

455.  C.  Re  imbursement  of  ores  and  slimes  from  the  mines  by 
the  Lower  Hungarian  Government  Smelting  Works. — At  the 
present  time  there  are  two  regulation-tariffs  for  the  purchase  of  ores, 
slimes,  &c. 

I.  For  gold,  silver*  lead,  and  lead-copper  ores. 

II.  For  argentiferous  and  non-argentiferous  copper-ores. 

In  planning  the  tariff,  the  actual  costs  of  metallurgical  treatment  from 
the  previous  year  were  taken  for  its  basis,  at  the  same  time  taking  into 
consideration  the  increased  price  of  fuel  and  wages,  which  has  taken 
place  since  that  time. 

For  the  planning  of  the  present  regulation-tariff,  that  is,  for  the  pres¬ 
ent  year,  1873,  the  results  of  manipulation  for  the  years  1S68, 18G9,  and 
1870  were  taken  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  construct. 


FI.  Kr. 
GG,  082  544 


5, 5S1  874 
29,202  76 
11,803  85 
8,  41G  82 
1 1 , G58  354 


HUNGARIAN  TARIFF  FOR  SMELTING.  199 

The  Vienna  centner  (hundred- weight) =112  zoll-pounds,  serves  as  the 
weight  unit  in  the  purchase  of  all  ores. 

Purchasable  ore;  all  ores  in  which  the  metallic  value,  capable  of  ex¬ 
traction,  is  not  completely  covered  by  the  “metal-calo”  and  the  gold 
reduction  given  below. 

The  purchase-price  of  tlie  gold  is  fixed  at  697  florins  50  kreutzer,  “  O. 
W.,”  in  gold  per  mint-pound ;  for  silver,  45  florins.  The  price  paid  for 
the  copper  and  lead  depends  upon  the  market  price.  At  present  12 
florins  75  kreutzer  is  paid  for  lead,  (paper  money,)  and  for  copper  49 
florins  per  cwt. 

The  assay-sample  for  ores  and  slimes  is  generally  taken  from  100  cwt. 
Their  metallic  contents  are  then  determined,  the  various  assay-results 
averaged ;  then  the  worth  of  the  ore,  &c.,  is  calculated  from  the  aver¬ 
age  assay-result,  and  paid  for  according  to  existing  and  known  regula¬ 
tions. 


456.  a.  Assay  equalization-tariff. 


200  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  187:1. 


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HUNGARIAN  TARIFF  FOR  SMELTING. 


201 


Assay  tariff. 


Assay. 


Examination. 


1.  Golil-assay :  . 

а.  Argentiferous  dross  containing  from  0.  000  toO.  030  mint-pounds  An.  Ag. . 
Argentiferous  dross  containing  from  0.  030  to  0.  0G0  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag. . . 
Argentiferous  dross  containing  from  0.  0G0  to  0. 100  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag. . . 
Argentiferous  dross  containing  from  0. 100  to  0.  200  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag.  . . 
Argentiferous  dross  containing  from  0.  200  to  highest  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag. . 

б.  Lead-dross  containing  from  0.  000  to  0.  030  mint-pounds  Air.  Ag . 

Lead-dross  containing  from  0.  030  to  0.  060  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag . 

Lead-dross  containing  from  0.  060  to  0.  100  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag . 

Lead-dross  containing  from  0. 100  to  0.  200  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag . 

Lead-dross  containing  from  0.  200  to  highest  mint-pounds  Au.  Ag . 

2.  Silver-assay  of  ores,  slimes,  mattes,  &c . 

3.  Lead-assay  of  ores,  slimes,  mattes,  &c . 

4.  Copper-assay  of  ores,  slimes,  mattes,  &c . 

5.  Silver-assay  of  lead-metal . 

6.  Matte-assay  of  ores,  slimes,  mattes,  &c . 

7.  Silver-assay  of  blick-silser . 


FIs. 

14 

9 

6 

4 

3 

12 

8 

6 

4 
3 


Kr. 

07 

12 

60 

63 

26 

40 
31 
74 
56 

41 
31 
43 
66 

7 

23 

14 


Purchase. 

FIs. 

Kr. 

28 

14 

18 

24 

13 

20 

9 

26 

6 

52 

24 

80 

16 

62 

.  13 

48 

9 

12 

6 

82 

93 

1 

29 

1 

98 

21 

69 

42 

457.  MeMllic  deduction. — 1.  Gold  and  silver. — There  is  no  allowance 
made  for  loss  in  gold  and  silver  in  the  assay  of  ores  and  slimes.  In  the 
assay  of  anriferous-argentiferous  copper-dross,  poor  in  lead,  and  dross 
containing  copper,  gold,  and  silver,  also  mint-sweepings  and  sweepings 
from  other  establishments,  and,  lastly,  rich  lead,  2  per  cent,  is  subtracted 
from  the  amount  of  gold  and  silver  found  in  assay. 

458.  2.  Lead-contents. — In  determining  the  lead-deduction  for  the  dif¬ 
ferent  lead-ores,  the  quantity  of  slag  which  they  would  produce  was 
taken  into  consideration ;  for  pyritous  lead-slimes  a  small  “  lead-calo  ” 
is  put  in,  as  well  as  for  silicious  lead-ores  having  the  same  metallic  con¬ 
tents. 

In  the  year  1873  there  was  put  in  the  purchase-tariff  for  lead-percent¬ 
age  in  the  lead-dross,  the  following  deductions,  irrespective  of  the  aurif¬ 
erous  silver-contents : 


Lead  contents  in  a  Vienna  centner. 

10-19 

20-29 

30-39 

40-49 

50-59 

60-liigb- 

est. 

Lead  deduction  in  percentage. 

Of  lead-ores  and  lead-copper  ores . 

Of  lead-slimes  and  lead -copper  slimes . 

22 

15 

19 

13 

16 

11 

13 

9 

10 

7 

7 

6 

459.  Smelting  expenses.— -In  determining  the  smelting-cost  of  ores, 
slimes,  sweepings,  &c.,  containing  different  amounts  of  the  metals,  the 
amount  of  slag  producible  from  them  was  also  taken  into  consideration, 
and  in  the  year  1873  the  following  smelting-costs  were  put  in  : 


202 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

(a)  Of  silver-ores,  $c. 


Gold  and  silver  contents. 


Having  a  matte  contents  per  hundred-weight  in 
pounds. 


0-19  20-29  30-39 1 10-19 

50-59 

00-61 

65-69 

70-00 


Cost  in  kreutzer  of  a  Vienna  centner  for  smelting. 


("From 

0.001 

to 

0.100. 

251 

217 

183 

119 

85 

48 

21 

*+32 

Containing 

no  ziac  or  anti- 

I  From 

0.100 

to 

0.200 

251 

221 

194 

161 

101 

69 

11 

*+  8 

mouy. 

1  From 

0.200 

to 

0.300 

261 

231 

207 

180 

123 

90 

66 

1 18 

( From 

0.300 

to 

CO  .. 

267 

213 

219 

195 

111 

109 

87 

1 13 

|  From 

0.001 

to 

0.100 

278 

211 

210 

176 

112 

75 

18 

*+  6 

Containing 

antimony . 

)  From 
j  From 

0.100 

0.200 

to 

to 

0.200. 

0.300. 

278 

278 

218 

251 

218 

221 

188 

197 

12S 

110 

93 

107 

68 

83 

118 

136 

l  From 

0.300 

to 

CO  .. 

279 

235 

231 

207 

153 

121 

99 

155 

f  From 

0.001 

to 

0.100. 

291 

257 

223 

189 

125 

88 

61 

*+  7 

n  .  .  , 

]  From 

0.100 

to 

0.200. 

291 

261 

231 

201 

HI 

106 

81 

1 13 

0.200 

to 

0.300. 

291 

261 

237 

210 

1761 

120 

96 

119 

( From 

0.300 

to 

CO  .. 

292 

268 

211 

220 

166 

136 

112 

1 68 

*  Premium. 


♦  Figures. 


(b)  Of  lead-ores,  fc. 


Contents  in  gold  and  silver. 


Silicions  lead-ores  and  lead-cop¬ 
per  ores. 


Pyritons  lead-slimes  and  load-cop¬ 
per  slimes. 


(■Containing  no  An.  Ag. 
1  From  O.i'Ol  to  0.100.  .. 

From  0.100  to  0.200... 
I  From  0.200  to  0.300... 

(  From  0.300  to  CO . 

f  Containing  no  An.  Ag. 
I  From  0.001  to  0.100... 
I  From  0.100  to  0.200. .. 
I  From  0.200  to  0.300... 
(From  0.300  to 0. co  ... 


Lead  contents  per  hundred-weight. 


10-19 

20-29 

30-39 

10-19 

50-59 

60-00 

Numbers  for  each  hundred-weight 
kreutzer. 


193 

121 

355 

286 

217 

118 

507 

138 

369 

290 

131 

162 

535 

166 

397 

328 

259 

190 

564 

195 

126 

357 

288 

219 

592 

523 

151 

:<h5 

316 

217 

227 

200 

173 

116 

119 

92 

211 

211 

187 

160 

133 

106 

269 

212 

215 

188 

161 

131 

29* 

271 

211 

217 

190 

163 

326 

299 

272 

215 

218 

191 

5 

a 


10 

21 

7)2 

81 

109 


Auriferous-argentiferous  copper-dross,  poor  in  lead,  is  considered 
equal  to  silver-dross  when  it  contains  at  least  5  to  9  per  cent,  lead  and 
1  per  cent,  copper.  Copper-dross,  however,  when  containing  10  per 
cent,  and  over  of  lead  per  cwt.,  costs  the  same  as  lead-dross  for  smelt¬ 
ing.  Besides  this,  the  auriferous-argentiferous  copper-dross  carrying 
lead  and  auriferous-argentiferous  dross  containing  copper  must  pay  for 
extraction  4  kreutzer  per  pound  of  refined  copper,  and  for  production 
of  copper  24  kreutzer  per  pound  of  refined  copper. 

460.  e.  Cost  of  superintendence  of  smelting-operations. — For  the  costs 
of  superintendence  5  per  cent,  is  deducted  from  the  cost  of  smeltiug. 

461.  f.  Cost  of  administration. — Two  per  cent,  is  also  deducted  for 
these  costs.  The  deductions  iu  a,  e,  and  /  are  payable  in  paper  money. 

462.  g.  Interest  on  the  purchasing-capital. — From  the  calculated  free- 
gokl  contents  of  the  products  which  contain  over  0.200  mint-pound,  2 
per  cent,  is  deducted ;  wheu  they  contain  less  than  this  amount,  3  per 
cent,  is  deducted.  From  the  gold,  the  percentage  deducted  is  in  gold; 


EXPENSES  OF  SMELTING. 


203 


and  from  silver,  in  silver  money;  but  for  copper  and  lead,  the  deduc¬ 
tion  is  payable  in  paper  money. 

463.  h.  Duty  for  gold-extraction. — For  every  mint-pound  of  auriferous 
silver  there  is  a  tax  of  1  florin,  gold. 

464.  i.  Mint-charges. — One-half  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  gold  and 
1  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  silver  is  deducted  for  coining. 

465.  Example. — Purchased  100  cwt.  (dry  weight)  of  auriferous  slimes, 
carrying  on  an  average  0.300  mint-pound  =  87  oz.  8  dwt.  14  gr.  aurifer¬ 
ous  silver,  the  same  containing  0.013  gold  per  mint-pound  (=3  oz.  15 
dwt.  16.32  gr.  gold  per  ton  of  2,000  pounds)  of  silver  and  with  50  per 
cent,  matte. 

Metallic  contents  in  mint-pounds. 


FI.  Kr. 

Silver,  29.610  per  mint-pound,  45  florins  value . . .  1,  332  45 

Gold,  0.390  per  mint-pound,  697.50  florins  value .  272  02.  5 


DEDUCTIONS. 

Assay-tax : 

Gold-assay .  6  52 

Silver-assay .  62 

Matte-assay .  69 


Smelting-costs  per  hundred-weight  with  a  matte  contents  of 

50  pounds,  1  florin  41  kreutzer  per  100  hundred-weight . 

Cost  of  administration,  5  per  cent  of  the  smelting-costs . 

Chief  superintendship  costs,  2  per  cent . 

Gold-extraction  tax,  1  florin  per  mint-pound  auriferous  silver.. 


Mint-tax  of  value  of  gold,  J  per  cent .  1  36 

Mint-tax  of  value  of  silver,  1  per  cent .  13  32 


FI.  Kr.  FI.  Kt. 


1,  604  47.  5 


7  83 

141 

7  05 

2  82 
30  .1 


14  68 


Total  deduction 


203  38 


Remaining  metallic  value .  1,401  09.5 

Therefrom  2  per  cent .  28  02 

Remaining  balance  in  money .  1,  373  07.  5 


The  total  free  value  of  a  Yienna  centner  containing  the  above  amount 
of  auriferous  silver  is,  therefore,  13  florins  73  kreutzer,  or,  per  zoll-cent- 
ner,  12  florins  26  kreutzer. 

466.  II.  Purchase-regulations  for  argentiferous  and  non- 

ARGENTIFEROUS  COPPER-ORES  AND  OTHER  COPPER  PRODUCTS. 

Eedemption,  assay,  averaging  of  assay  results,  and  payment  are  per¬ 
formed  according  to  the  known  regulations. 

Purchasable,  every  amount  of  copper  product  from  which  the  pro¬ 
ducible  metallic  contents  is  not  covered  by  the  money  deduction  as 
given  below. 


a.  An  assay-tax  is  deducted  from  every  load  purchased. 

Examination.  Purchase. 
Kreutzer.  FI.  Kr. 

1.  Copper-assay .  52  1  56 

2.  Silver-assay .  33  99 

b.  The  equalization  of  the  assay  is  done  in  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  silver-lead  tariff. 


204 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

c.  Metallic  deduction. 

1.  Copper-deduction. 

The  result  obtained  by  fire-assay  of  the  ores,  slimes,  and  metallurgical 
products  remains  unchanged;  that  is,  there  is  no  deduction  made  for 
the  loss  in  copper  in  the  assay,  but  from  the  industrial  and  mint  pro¬ 
ducts  and  sweepings,  1  per  cent,  copper  is  put  in. 

2.  Silver-deduction. 

The  deduction  for  the  manipulation  of  silver  is,  when  containing  less 
than  24  pounds  copper,  9  per  cent. ;  when  containing  from  24  to  09 
pounds  copper,  7  per  cent. ;  when  containing  from  70  to  oo  pounds  cop¬ 
per,  3  per  cent. 

Sweepings,  mint,  and  industrial  products,  must  deduct  for  “  silver- 
calo.”  When  containing  less  than  24  pounds  copper,  10  per  cent. ;  when 
containing  from  24  to  09  pounds  copper,  8  per  cent. ;  when  containing 
from  70  to  oo  pounds  copper,  4  per  cent. 

d.  There  is  demanded  for  costs  of  smelting  products: 

1.  Cost  of  copper  production  from  every  hundred-weight  ore,  &c., 
containing  less  than  24  pounds  of  copper,  2  florins  3G  kreutzer  ;  con¬ 
taining  from  24  to  09  pounds,  2  florins  22  kreutzer  ;  containing  from  70 
to  compounds,  1  florin  30  kreutzer. 

2.  Cost  of  desilverization  for  every  pound  of  copper  is  4  kreutzer. 

3.  For  administration  of  smelting- works  there  is  a  deduction  of  17  per 
cent,  of  the  smelting  costs. 

4.  Chief-superintendeutship,  a  deduction  of  4  per  cent.,  as  above. 

e.  For  coining  there  must  be  paid  in  silver  coin  1  per  cent,  of  the 
amount  of  silver  produced. 

f.  Interest  for  delay  on  the  purchasing-capital  =  3  per  cent. 

The  net  profit  of  the  silver  and  copper  smelting- works  is  divided  among 
the  sellers  according  to  the  amounts  sold  by  each  and  also  according  to 
the  determined  metallic  value  of  the  smelted  products.  This  division 
is  made  annually  after  the  calculations  have  been  proved  to  be  correct, 
by  appointed  commissioners.  If  there  should  be  a  loss,  however,  the 
same  is  charged  to  the  sellers  in  the  next  year  in  proportion  to  the 
smelting  costs. 

D.  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  UI’ON  THE  LOWER  HUNGARIAN  MET¬ 
ALLURGICAL  PROCESSES  AND  FURTHER  COMPARISON  OF  THE  TAR¬ 
IFFS  FOR  THE  PURCHASE  OF  ORES  AND  METALLURGICAL  PRODUCTS 

AT  THE  GOVERNMENTAL  SMELTING-WORKS  IN  THE  UPPER  HARZ 

AND  FREIBERG,  WITH  THE  PURCHASE-TARIFF  IN  VOGUE  AT  SCHEM- 

NITZ. 

407.  If  one  follows  the  Lower  Hungarian  smelting  processes  since  the 
year  1852  up  to  1873,  it  will  be  perceived  that  from  year  to  year  im¬ 
provements  have  been  made,  especially  in  the  smelting  manipulations. 
Iu  1SG2,  for  example,  the  production  in  twenty-four  hours  by  the  “Keich- 
verbleiung,’  process  was  scarcely  20  cwt,  while  at  the  present  time  the 


TARIFFS  FOR  PURCHASE  OF  ORES. 


205 


same  reaches  50  Vienna  cwt.  =  56Zoll-cwt.attheSchemnitzerand  Dillner 
Hiitte,  and  with  diminished  consumption  of  fuel,  as  compared  with  for¬ 
mer  years.  Also  with  the  cupellation  operation  there  is  no  fault  to  be 
found,  the  lead  loss  being  only  5  per  cent.,  whereas  at  other  works  the 
same  lies  between  7  and  10  per  cent. 

The  mining-accounts  give  us  proof  of  the  advancement  made  in  the 
Lower  Hungarian  metallurgical  processes,  for  examples  : 

In  the  year  1852,  the  Johann-Uepomuker  Gewerkschaft  sold  206  mint- 
pounds  of  auriferous  silver,  having  the  calculated  value,  According  to 
the  ore-tariff,  of  65,165  florins  31  kreutzer,  or,  per  mint-pound,  of  35 
florins  18  kreutzer.  In  the  year  1872,  the  same  mining  company  sold  ore 
of  the  same  assay-value,  and  containing  633,231  mint-pounds  auriferous 
silver,  and  received  for  the  same,  according  to  the  ore-tariff,  the  sum  of 
27,671  florins  89  kreutzer,  or,  per  mint-pound,  43  florins  69  kreutzer.  If 
now  the  lawful  tax  of  the  year  1852,  of  3  florins  50  kreutzer  per  mint- 
pound  auriferous  silver,  be  deducted^  we  have  a  difference  (43.69  —  350)  — 
(35.18)  =  5  florins  per  mint-pound  auriferous  silver  in  favor  of  the  ore- 
tariff  of  the  year  1872,  which  can  only  be  explained  by  the  diminished 
smelting  and  administration  costs.  This  can  also  be  shown  in  the 
trades  made  by  the  other  mining-companies. 

On  the  other  hand,  from  year  to  year,  the  price  of  wages  and  fuel  have 
been  continually  on  the  increase ;  in  1852  a  roaster  received,  per  shift, 
42  kreutzer,  a  smelter  -50  kreutzer.  In  1872  a  roaster  received,  per 
shift,  70  kreutzer,  a  smelter  80  kreutzer.  Fuel,  per  “mass, ”=6.4  cubic 
feet,  cost,  in  1852,  35  kreutzer.  Fuel  per  mass,  1872,  cost  80  kreutzer. 
When  all  this  is  taken  into  consideration,  one  will  clearly  perceive 
that  the  metallurgical  operations  have  made  great  progress  in  improve¬ 
ments. 

468.  In  order  to  have  a  clear  idea  of  how  the  Lower  Hungarian  smelting 
costs  compare  with  those  of  other  metallurgical  establishments,  the 
author  will  take  the  smelting- works  of  the  Upper  Harz  and  Freiberg  as 
examples,  which  stand,  as  is  well  known,  in  the  first  rank  in  Germany, 
by  their  perfect  preliminary  treatment  of  their  products,  accompanied 
■with  the  profitable  production  of  all  the— to  the  smelting  operations — 
disadvantageous  ingredients,  such  as  sulphur,  arsenic,  zinc,  &c.,  and  by 
their  treatment  of  immense  quantities. 

In  the  “  Berliner  Zeitschrift  fur  das  Berg-Hiitten  und  Salinenwesenf 
which  published  in  1872  the  new  ore-tariffs  of  the  Upper  Harz,  Freiberg, 
and  the  Mansfeldischeu  Gewerkschaft  in  Eiselben,  it  reads  in  Circular  2 
of  June  1,  1871:  “It  is  the  intention  of  the  undersigned  smelting-ad¬ 
ministrations  to  give  the  greatest  possible  enco  uragement  to  the  import 
ation  of  foreign  ores  to  German  harbors,  for  the  interests  of  German 
industry;  and  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  this  object,  the  prices  stated 
in  the  following  tariff  for  ores  have  been  placed  at  such  a  high  figure 
that  only  the  interest  upon  the  working  capital  and  the  costs  of  manipu¬ 
lation  are  covered  with  any  certainty,”  &c. 


20S 


VIENNA  INTEEN ATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

As  tbe  Schemuitzer  ore-tariff  for  1873  was  constructed  on  tlie  same 
principle,  the  author,  in  order  to  solve  the  above  question,  makes  a  com¬ 
parison  here  of  both  tariffs. 


I. — Table  for  silver-ores. 

[Kremnitz  auriferous  slimes. J 


Contents  per  Vienna  Contents  per 
centner.  j  centner. 


Zoll- 


Payment  according  to  tlio  ore-1 


Auriferous  silver. 

.2  .2 

<3  ? 

.5  u  E 

e-  £  tt 

'c.rz 

'So  II 
■£<■3 '■a 
gas 

2  5  5 
c 
< 

• 

S 

S 

3 

o 

* 

a 

u 

o 

> 

ao 

0B 

9 

9 

•*5  w 

a  w  ® 

-  .  9 

9 
<D  U 

rz  > 

c  o  U 
9*5  s 

5  3  a 

~  c  o 

< i  ~ 

Scliemnitz,  Lower  Hun¬ 
gary. 

FI 

u 

•s 

O  X  _ 

=  •22  . 
,.0  =  0 
s 

H 

Greater  or  smaller 
price  in  compar¬ 
ison  with  the 
Upper  Harz  and 
Freiberg  tariff. 

V.  centner. 

Z.  centner. 

Z.  centner. 

Mint  lbs. 

Mini  lbs. 

Mint  lbs. 

Mint  lbs. 

FI 

Kr. 

FI. 

Kr. 

FI. 

Kr. 

FI. 

Kr. 

32 

28.  5 

0.010 

0.200 

70 

0.007 

0.0017 

1 

39 

1 

24.5 

1 

12 

+ 

— 

41 

-f 

32 

28.  5 

0. 030 

0.  100 

70 

0.024 

0.0026 

2 

87 

2 

56 

1 

88 

+ 

— 

96.5 

/ 

-f 

32 

5 

0.  070 

0.  060 

70 

0.  054 

0.0037 

6 

43 

5 

'  64 

3 

66 

+ 

2 

26.5 

0. 100 

0.013 

0 

0. 058 

0.00 11 

»> 

30 

O 

06 

3 

45 

— 

1 

39 

0.  100 

0.  013 

30 

0.  088 

0.0011 

o 

92 

O 

61 

3 

45 

— 

— 

84 

0.  100 

0.  013 

50 

0.  088 

0.0011 

3 

86 

3 

45 

3 

45 

0 

0 

00 

0. 100 

0.  013 

00 

0.  088 

0.0011 

4 

48 

4 

00 

3 

43 

+ 

55 

+  6 

-f  7 

0. 100 

0.013 

70 

0.083 

0.0011 

4 

94 

4 

42 

3 

45 

+ 

1 

04 

0.  150 

0.  013 

0 

0.  132 

0.0017 

4 

93 

4 

40 

5 

49 

— 

1 

09 

0.  150 

0.013 

30 

0.  132 

0.0017 

5 

45 

4 

66 

5 

49 

— 

— 

63 

0.  150 

0.013 

50 

0.  132 

0.  0017 

6 

38 

5 

69 

5 

49 

+ 

— 

20 

0.  150 

0.013 

60 

0.  132 

0.0017 

6 

75 

6 

02 

5 

49 

+ 

— 

53 

-f  8 

+  7 

0.  150 

0.013 

70 

0.  132 

0.  0017 

7 

46 

6 

65 

5 

49 

+  • 

1 

23 

0.  200 

0.  013 

0 

0.  176 

0.  OOC1 

7 

38 

6 

58 

8 

26 

— 

1 

66 

0.200 

0.013 

30 

0.  176 

0.  0021 

7 

84 

7 

00 

8 

26 

— 

1 

26 

0.  200 

0.013 

50 

0.  176 

0.0021 

e 

82 

7 

87 

8 

26 

— 

— 

39 

0.  200 

0.013 

60 

0.  176 

0.  0021 

9 

19 

8 

21 

8 

26 

— 

— 

05 

0.  200 

0.013 

70 

0.  176 

0.  0021 

10 

02 

8 

94 

8 

26 

+ 

— 

68 

0. 500 

0.013 

0 

0.440 

0.  0058 

22 

60 

20 

18 

20 

41 

— 

— 

23 

0.  500 

0.013 

30 

0.  440 

0.  0058 

23 

11 

20 

63 

20 

41 

— 

— 

22 

0.  500 

0.013 

50 

0.  440 

0.  (1058 

23 

92 

21 

35 

20 

41 

+ 

— 

94 

0.  500 

0.  013 

60 

0.  440 

0.  0058 

24 

25 

21 

65 

20 

41 

— 

1 

24 

0.  500 

0.  013 

70 

0.  440 

0.  0058 

24 

95 

22 

27 

20 

41 

+ 

1 

86 

0.  800 

0.013 

0 

0-  "05 

0.  0002 

37 

89 

33 

63 

33 

52 

+ 

— 

31 

0.  800 

0.013 

50 

0. 705 

0.  0092 

39 

21 

35 

00 

33 

52 

+ 

1 

48 

0.  800 

0.013 

70 

o.  70S 

0.  0092 

40 

23 

35 

89 

33 

52 

+ 

2 

37 

1.  000 

0.013 

0 

0.881 

0.0116 

43 

08 

42 

92 

42 

25 

+ 

— 

67 

1.  000 

0.  013 

50 

0.881 

0.0116 

49 

39 

44 

10 

42 

25 

+ 

1 

85 

1.000 

0.013 

70 

0.881 

0.0116 

50 

43 

45 

02 

42 

25 

+ 

2 

77 

1.  500 

0.013 

0 

1.  321 

0.0174 

73 

56 

65 

67 

64 

50 

+ 

1 

17 

1.  500 

0.  013 

50 

1.  321 

0.0174 

74 

87 

66 

83 

64 

50 

+ 

2 

33 

1.  500 

0.013 

70 

1.321 

0.  0174 

75 

90 

67 

76 

64 

50 

+ 

3 

26 

2.000 

0.013 

0 

1.760 

0.  0232 

09 

03 

88 

42 

86 

85 

+ 

1 

57 

2.  000 

0.013 

50 

1.760 

0.  0232 

100 

35 

69 

59 

86 

85 

+ 

2 

74 

2.000 

0.013 

70 

1.  760 

0.0232 

101 

37 

90 

51 

86 

85 

+ 

3 

66 

Note. — According  to  the  V pper  and  Freiberg  tariffs,  gold  and  silvpr  ores  arc  only  payable  when  total 
payments  per  Zoll-centner  amount  to  at  least  -2  thaler  =  3  florins  O.  W.  =  $1.42  gold. 


TARIFFS  FOR  PURCHASE  OF  ORES. 


207 


II. — Table  for  lead-ores* 


A.—QUARTZOSE,  LEAD-ORESE. 


Contents  in  a  Vienna 
ceDtner. 

Contents  in  a  Zoll-cent¬ 
ner. 

Payment  according  to  the  tariff  of — 

Greater  or  less  price  in 

comparison  with  the 

Upper  Harz  and  Frei¬ 

berg  tariff. 

Auriferous  silver. 

Contents  of  gold  in 
a  mint-pound  of 
auriferous  silver. 
(Mint-pound,  500 
grams.) 

Lead-contents,  (Vi¬ 
enna  pound.) 

Auriferous  silver. 

Contents  of  gold  in 

a  mint-pound  of 

anriferous  silver. 

(Mint-pound  500 

grams.) 

Lead-contents.  (Vi¬ 

enna  pound.) 

Schemnitz,  Lower  Hun¬ 
gary. 

Fiscal  works 

of  the  Up¬ 

per  Harz, 
Freiberg, 

&c. 

V.  centner. 

Zoll-cent¬ 

ner. 

Zoll-cent¬ 

ner. 

Mint  lbs. 

Mint  lbs. 

Mintlbs . 

Mint  lbs. 

FI. 

Er. 

Fl. 

Er. 

Fl. 

Er. 

Fl.  kr. 

0.  040 

0.015 

30 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

30 

1 

17 

1 

4 

2 

20 

-  1  16 

0.  040 

0.  015 

40 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

40 

3 

8 

2 

77 

2 

90 

-  13 

0.  040 

0.  015 

50 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

50 

5 

5 

4 

51 

3 

60 

-  91 

0.  040 

0.015 

60 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

60 

7 

10 

6 

16 

4 

30 

+  1  86 

* Tn  table  I  and  II  the  net  value  per  “  Zoll-centner”  is  reckoned  from  5  to  10  kreutzer  higher  in  every 
lot,  according  to  the  Upper  Harz  and  Freiberg  tariffs,  than  is  actually  given  in  payment.  This  sur¬ 
plus  was  kept  in  for  reason  of  the  silver-contents,  the  author  not  knowing  whether  the  same  is  paid 
for,  and  if  so  how  high. 

B.— PYRITOUS  LEAD-ORES. 


0.  040 

0.  015 

30 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

30 

3 

24 

2 

90 

2 

20 

+ 

70 

0.  040 

0.  015 

40 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

40 

4 

73 

4 

22 

2 

90 

+ 

1 

32 

0.  040 

0.  015 

50 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

50 

6 

25 

5 

58 

3 

60 

+ 

1 

98 

0.  040 

0.015 

60 

0.  035 

0.  0005 

60 

7 

54 

6 

73 

4 

30 

+ 

2 

43 

0.  030 

0.  040 

20 

0.  025 

0.  0010 

20 

1 

77 

1 

58 

1 

43 

+ 

15 

0.  030 

0.  040 

40 

0.  025 

0.  0010 

40 

4 

68 

4 

18 

2 

97 

+ 

1 

21 

0.  030 

0.040 

60 

0.  025 

0.  0010 

60 

7 

71 

6 

89 

4 

38 

+ 

2 

51 

0.  040 

0.  060 

20 

0.  033 

0.  0021 

20 

2 

95 

2 

63 

2 

25 

+ 

38 

0.  040 

0.  060 

40 

0.  033 

0.  0021 

40 

5 

86 

5 

24 

3 

78 

+ 

1 

45 

0.  040 

0.  060 

60 

0.  033 

0.  0021 

60 

7 

89 

7 

4 

5 

14 

+ 

1 

90 

0.  050 

0.  080 

20 

0.041 

0.  0035 

20 

4 

38 

3 

91 

3 

37 

+ 

54 

0.  050 

0.080 

40 

0.041 

0.  0035 

40 

7 

36 

6 

57 

4 

90 

.+ 

1 

67 

0.  050 

0.  080 

60 

0.  041 

0.  0035 

60 

10 

32 

9 

22 

6 

31 

+ 

2 

91 

0.100 

0.100 

20 

0.  080 

0.  0089 

20 

10 

1 

8 

94 

8 

33 

+ 

61 

0. 100 

0. 100 

40 

0.  080 

0.  0089 

40 

12 

92 

11 

53 

9 

86 

+ 

1 

67 

0. 100 

0. 100 

60 

0.  080 

0.  0089 

60 

15 

95 

14 

24 

11 

29 

+ 

3 

00 

Note.— According  to  the  Upper  Harz  and  Freiberg  tariffs,  lead-ores  are  only  bought  when  their 
value  amounts  to  2  thaler  =  3  florins  O.  W.  =  $1.42  per  hundred-weight. 


As  can  be  seen  by  the  comparison,  the  payment  of  auriferous  silver 
and  lead-ores  is,  in  general,  better  according  to  the  Schemnitz  tariff 
than  the  Freiberg  tariff,  &c.,  from  which  we  can  draw  the  conclusion 
that  the  smelting-costs  are,  on  an  average,  lower  at  the  Lower  Hunga¬ 
rian  works  than  at  Freiberg  or  in  the  Upper  Harz,  when  judged  from 
the  tariff's. 

469.  E.  Changes  in  the  Lower  Hungarian  metallurgical  pro¬ 
cesses. — Though  the  Lower  Hungarian  metallurgical  works,  up  to  the 
year  1873,  have  good  results  to  show  in  comparison  with  other  works  of 
similar  character,  still  the  continually-increasing  price  of  fuel,  especially 
of  charcoal  and  wood,  and  the  large  administration-costs  of  the  separate 
works,  made  a  complete  change  in  the  metallurgical  process  absolutely 
necessary.  Above  everything  else,  it  was  determined  to  consolidate 
all  the  lead  and  silver  smelting-works  into  one,  and  the  Schemnitzer 
Hiitte,  being  the  most  central,  was  chosen  for  that  purpose. 

The  Ueusohler  Hiitte  was  given  up  at  the  beginning  of  this  year,  and 
the  Zsarnowiczer  Hiitte  is  to  be  given  up  toward  the  close  of  same. 


208 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


The  smelting-operations  will  be  so  conducted  that  large  amounts  can 
be  smelted  at  once,  and  so  treated  by  preliminary  processes  that  the  in¬ 
gredients  contained  in  the  ores  that  are  of  disadvantage  to  the  smelt¬ 
ing-operations,  such  as  sulphur  and  zinc,  will  be  turned  to  profit.  The 
Freiberg  smelting-works  were  chosen  as  a  model  in  the  erection  of  the 
works. 

The  Fortschaufelungs-Rostofen  (long  reverberatory  roasting-furnaces) 
have  been  in  operation  since  March,  1873.  The  length  of  the  hearth  is 
52  feet  by  8  feet  wide,  and  they  give  very  satisfactory  results.  During 
the  first  roasting  experiments  in  these  furnaces  wood  was  used  as  fuel; 
afterward  bituminous  coal  was  made  use  of  for  the  continual  work. 

The  smelting  will  bo  conducted  in  round  blast-furnaces  of  the  Filz 
pattern  with  eight  tuyeres ;  the  one  already  erected  has  a  small  “sumpf.” 
The  gases  escape  by  a  canal  in  the  side  of  the  furnace,  through  a 
chimney  30  feet  high.  Coke  will  be  used  as  fuel  in  the  new  furnace. 

The  experiments  to  be  made  upon  the  production  of  zinc  will  first  be 
made  with  the  blendie-pyritous  slimes;  the  same  will  be  roasted,  and, 
by  lixiviating  with  water,  zinc-vitriol  will  be  produced. 

As  all  the  Schemnitz  lead-ores  carry  more  or  less  zinc,  the  mines  are 
to  be  compelled,  in  dressing  their  ores,  to  separate  them  into  those  rich 
and  poor  in  zinc.  In  order  that  such  a  separation,  which  is  of  great  im¬ 
portance  to  the  smelting-manipulations,  shall  be  carried  into  effect,  the 
smelting-works  are  to  determine  upon  what  amount  of  zinc  contained 
in  an  ore  shall  receive  payment  therefor,  and  how  the  smelting-costs  of 
the  ores  rich  in  zinc  arc  to  compare  with  those  poor  in  that  metal. 

Up  to  tho  present  time  there  has  been  no  difference  made  in  the  tariff 
upon  tho  smelting  costs  of  ores  containing  an  equal  percentage  of 
lead,  whether  the  same  carry  10  per  cent,  or  30  per  cent,  of  zinc. 

At  the  St.  Michaelistollner  mine  almost  perfectly  pure  zinc  blende 
was  obtained  in  dressing  the  blendic  lead-ores. 

According  to  analysis  made  by  the  author,  the  same  contained  : 


Si  03 
Fe  .. 
CaO 

rb.. 


4.  050 
2.  025 
1.000 
1.330 


Cu _ 

Zn _ 

Au.  Ag 


0. 150 
59.  399 
0.  008 


S .  30.  533 

The  construction  of  a  sulphuric-acid  manufactory  could  not  be  under¬ 
taken,  as  the  financial  “ministerium”  has  not  as  yet  granted  the  nec¬ 
essary  money.  It  is  desirable  that  this  want  should  be  made  known  as 
soon  as  possible,  for  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  government,  as  well  as 
the  private  mines,  and  would  also  be  of  advantage  to  the  smelting-works, 
that  a  source  of  revenue  should  be  made  of  the  manufacture  of  the  sul¬ 
phur  contained  iu  the  ores  into  sulphuric  acid. 


SURVEY  OF  METALLURGICAL  PROCESSES. 


200 


From  the  ores  at  our  disposal,  there  could  be  produced  over  GO. 000 
cwt.  of  sulphuric  acid  yearly. 

By  means  of  smelting  large  amounts  of  ore  and  the  use  of  coke  and 
bituminous  coal,  the  smelting  costs  will  fall  much  behind  those  of  former 
times. 

There  is,  therefore,  a  possibility,  in  consequence  of  the  diminished 
administration  and  smelting  costs,  and,  further,  by  the  turning  to  account 
of  the  sulphur  and  zinc,  that  the  ore-tariff  can  be  made  of  such  advan¬ 
tage  on  the  part  of  the  miniug  interests,  that  even  products,  which  at 
present  must  first  be  concentrated  by  wet-dressing,  in  order  to  reach 
the  demanded  percentage  of  metal,  can  be  sold  with  profit. 

As  now  the  railroad,  which  was  built  by  “ Montan- Aerar,”  runs  di¬ 
rectly  to  the  smelting-works,  it  will  be  possible  for  distant  mines  of 
Hungary,  and  even  foreign 'mines,  to  send  and  sell  their  ores  to  the 
Chemnitz  works,  especially  as  the  works,  according  to  section  22  of  the 
purchase  tariff,  have  no  use  of  the  same,  the  net  profits  of  the  works  for 
each  year  being  divided  among  the  sellers  of  ore  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  delivered  by  each.  Metallurgical  products,  such  as  argentifer¬ 
ous  matte,  &c.,  are  purchased  according  to  the  same  rules  and  regula¬ 
tions. 

470.  Survey  of  the  metallurgical  processes  A  and  B. — A. 
At  the  lead  and  silver  smelting-worlcs  Schemuitzer,  Zsarnoviczer, 
Kemnitzer,  hTeusholer,  and  the  Mutual  Dilluer  Hiitte. 

Mining  products :  a.  Auriferous-argentiferous-pyritous  slimes  ;  b.  auri¬ 
ferous-argentiferous  slimes  ;  c.  Gold  and  silver  ores,  raw-ores,  enriching- 
ores,  and  lump-ore;  d.  Auriferous-argentiferous  lead-ores  and  slimes;  e. 
Auriferous-argentiferous  lead-copper-ores  and  pyritous  slimes. 

Products:  /.Cupels;  #.  dross-slimes ;  h.  different  industrial  products. 

Fluxing  material :  i.  Flux -pyrites,  limestone,  iron,  and  slag  from  its 
own  manipulation. 

I.  SMELTING  FOR  MATTE. 

Smelted:  a.  Pyritous  6.  Silver-  c.  Raw  g.  Sweepings;  i.  Flux,  py-  2.  Furnace- 


slimes. 

slimes.  ores. 

rites. 

dross. 

Produced : 

1.  Raw  matte.  : 

2.  Furnace-dross. 

II.  MANIPULATIONS  OF  “  REICH VERBLEIUNG.” 

1.  Preliminary  operations. 

A. — Roasting  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  A. — Roasting  in  heaps, 

b.  Silver-  d.  Lead-ores  e.  Copper-ores  and  1.  Raw  7.  Lead-  10.  Matte-  8.  Sweep- 

slimes.  and  slimes.  pyritous  slimes.  matte.  matte.  matte.  iugs. 

4.  Roasted  lead,  roastiug  charge.  5.  Fumes.  Roasted  products  as  above. 

2. — Chief  manipulations. 

B. — “  Reichverblei”  smelting. 

4.  Roasted  lead,  1.  Raw  c.  Enrich-  17.  Litharge.  18.  Test  and  7.  Lead-  8.  Dross- 
roasting  charge,  matte,  iug  ores.  “  abstrich.”  matte. 

b.  Rich  lead.  7.  Lead-matte.  8.  Furnace-dross. 


14  M 


210 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 
3. — Finishing  manipulations. 


C. — Matte-smel  ting. 


D. — Matte-resmelting. 


7.  Roasted  lead-matte;  e.  Copper-ore;  17. 
Litharge;  18.  Test  “  abstrich ;  ”  19.  Fur¬ 
nace-dross  ;  23.  Carcass,  (  “  Kienstocke.”) 

9.  Matte-lead;  10.  Matte-matte;  11.  Fur¬ 
nace-accretions,  sweepings. 

III.— CUPELLATION. 


10.  Matte,  roasted  matte;  17.  Litharge; 
18.  Test  “  abstrich  15.  Furuace- 
dross. 

13.  Matte-matte  lead  ;  14.  Copper-matte; 

11.  Furuace-dross,  sweepings. 

IV.— LIQUATION. 


C.  Rich  lead ;  9.  Matte-lead ;  13.  Matte-  19.  Lead  from  litharge, 
matte  lead  ;  c.  luirtp-ore. 

17.  Manipulation-litharge  ;  18.  Test  “ ab-  20.  Commercial  lead;  23.  “  Kienstocke." 
strich ; ”  19.  Litharge-lead;  20.  Bliek-sil- 
ver ;  21.  Red  and  green  commercial  lith¬ 
arge. 

AT  THE  COPPER-SMELTING  WORKS. 

Smelt ing  ivories  :  Altgebirg  and  Tajowa. 

Mining  products :  Argentiferous  copper-ores,  noil-argentiferous  copper- 
ores,  mine  cement  slimes. 

Other  products  :  Mint-cement  copper,  copper-scales,  copper-matte  from 
silver-smelting  works,  “Matreier”  cement-copper. 

Fluxing  and  other  material:  Limestone,  salt,  slag,  salt-solution,  hot 
water,  iron,  and  copper. 


I. — Smelting  of  argentiferous  matte.  II. — Resmklting  of  argentiferous 

MATTE. 


a.  Argentiferous  copper-ore;  3.  Raw 
sweepings. 


1.  Raw-matte.  2.  Speiss.  3.  Raw  sweep¬ 
ings. 

Ill. — Resmelting  of  f 


Roasted  raw-matte.  5.  “  Obcr”  matte. 
6.  Dross.  2.  Unliquated  speiss.  a.  Ar¬ 
gentiferous  copper-ores. 

4.  Black  copper.  5.  “  Ober”  matte. 
6.  Dross. 

LASTED  LEAD  PRODUCTS. 


Roasted ;  b.  Matte  from  silver-  2.  Speiss.  ; 
works. 

7.  Black  copper. 

IV. — Extraction  of  sn.1 

A. — Roasting  with  salt. 

47.  Black  copper,  d,  20.  Cement-copper. 

1 1.  Roasted  kernels. 

10.  Roasted  black  copper-powder.  11.  Ker¬ 
nels. 

C. —  Washing  with  hot  water. 

15.  Extraction  residues. 


.  “  Obcr "  matte.  9.  Dross,  a.  Argentiferous 

copper-ores. 

8.  Ober  matte.  9.  Dross. 

er  from  black  corrER. 

B.  —  Lixiciation  with  cold  solution  of  salt. 

10.  Roasted  black  copper-powder. 

14.  Rich  residues. 

Rich  solution,  poor  solution,  rich  residues, 
extraction  residues. 

D. — Precipitation  with  copper. 

12.  Rich  solution.  30.  Granulated  cop¬ 
per. 


16.  Wash- water.  17.  Residues. 


18.  Extra  silver.  30.  Granulated  copper. 
19.  Copper  solution. 


SURVEY  OF  METALLURGICAL  PROCESSES. 


211 


E.-  -Precipitation  of  copper  with  iron. 

19.  Copper  solution.  13.  Poor  solution.  16.  Wasb-water. 


20.  Cement-copper.  21 
V.— Reduction  of  residues. 

17.  Residues.  26.  Dross-copper.  27.  Un¬ 
liquated  non-argentiferous  matte. 
c.  Mine-cement  slimes.  31.  Refining 
dross,  e.  Copper  scales. 


22.  Redaction  copper.  23.  Dross.  24. 
Matte.  25.  “Abstrich.” 


.  Manipulation  solution. 

VI. — Smelting  of  non-argentiferous 

DROSS. 

23.  Dross.  24.  Matte.  25.  “Abstricli.’’  e. 
Copper  scales.  28.  Sweepings  from 
copper  hammer,  b.  Non-argentiferous 
copper-ore.  31.  Dross.  32.  Test- 
bottom. 

33.  Crucible  dross.  26.  Dross  copper.  27. 
Non-argentiferous  matte.  28.  Fur¬ 
nace-dross. 


VII. — Refining. 


26.  Dross-copper.  22.  Reduction-copper,  g,  M.  cement-copper,  e.  Copper  scales. 
29.  Refined  copper.  30.  Kernel  copper.  31.  Dross.  32.  Hearth.  33.  Crucible  dross. 

471.  Upper  Hungary. — The  Upper  Hungarian  u  Wald  Biirgerschaft 
Schmelzand  Amalgamir  werke”  and  the  Phoenix  Hiitte  were  represented 
by  a  complete  collection  of  their  ores,  intermediate  and  final  products, 
which  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  different  manipulations :  copper-ore, 
carrying  mercury  and  silver,  (tetrahedrite,)  argentiferous  quartzose,  and 
gelferze,  and  non-argentiferous  copper-ores. 

From  the  silver ,  copper,  and  quicksilver  process. 

Matte,  roasted  matte,  oberlech  speiss,  slag  from  ore  and  matte  smelt¬ 
ing,  antimonial  speiss,  black  and  granulated  copper,  silver  amalgam, 
cement-silver,  silver  bricks,  and  mercury. 

From  the  copper  process. 

Matte,  roasted  matte,  upper  matte,  slag  from  ore,  matte,  and  black 
copper-smelting ;  refined  copper  and  manufactured  articles,  kettles, 
tuyeres,  &c. 

472.  These  two  works,  and  also  a  third,  the  “Georgshiitte,”  belong  to 
the  private  companies  who  own  the  mines  in  the  Schmollnitz  district. 
Non-argentiferous  copper-ores,  exclusively,  are  reduced  at  the  Phoenix 
Smelting- W orks ;  but  all  kinds  of  copper-ores  are  treated  at  the  other  two 
works.  The  processes  are  at  all  three  works  the  same,  where  ores  of  a 
corresponding  nature  are  treated. 

The  argentiferous  ores  contain  from  0.06  to  0.07  per  cent.  =  17  oz.  9 
dwt.  19  gr.  to  20  oz.  8  dwt.  9  gr.  silver,  and  10  per  cent,  copper.  The 
non-argentiferous  copper-ores  from  4.5  to  5  per  cent,  copper.  The  utili¬ 
zation  of  the  ores  carrying  copper,  silver,  aud  quicksilver  is  performed 
in  three  principal  operations. 

473.  a.  The  quicksilver-distillation.*  This  is  conducted  in  round 

*  Free  use  is  here  made  of  a  portion  of  the  work  entitled  “  Beschreibung  einiger 
wichtigerer  MetaUbergbaue  in  Oberungarn,”  by  Gustav  Fuller. 


212 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


bias,  which  are  about  20  feet  in  diameter,  and  surrounded  with  a  low 
stone  wall ;  a  shaft  made  of  pieces  of  wood  is  erected  iu  the  middle  and 
tilled  with  charcoal.  This  is  used  to  light  the  fuel,  and,  after  the  fire  is 
started,  to  preserve  a  draught  during  the  continuation  of  the  roasting. 
’When  the  bins  are  to  be  charged,  a  thin  layer  of  finely-crushed  ore  is 
spread  on  the  bottom  ;  upon  this  wood  is  first  placed,  and  then  a  small 
quantity  of  charcoal.  The  ore,  that  has  already  served  for  a  covering 
and  condonsing-medium,  is  laid  about  0  inches  thick  upon  the  fuel. 
The  richer  and  larger  pieces  of  ore  are  then  charged,  and  the  poorer 
come  on  top.  The  upper  part  of  the  heap  is  kept  cool  by  throwing  fresh 
quantities  of  ore  on  the  places  that  become  warm.  When  the  ore  has 
been  roasted  and  cooled,  which  operation  lasts  about  three  to  four  weeks, 
the  quicksilver  is  found  condensed  and  scattered  throughout  the  upper 
layers.  It  is  obtained  by  repeated  washing  in  sieves  and  purified  by 
distillation. 

47  t.  I>.  The  residue  from  the  quicksilver  is  smelted  in  shaft  furnaces 
lb  feet  high.  The  charge  is  50  cwt.  residue  from  amalgamation,  50cwt. 
unroasted  non  argentiferous  copper-ore,  5  cwt.  pyritous  ore,  20  cwt. 
quartz,  10  cwt.  slag  from  matte  smelting,  and  520  cubic  feet  charcoal. 

The  products  are  matte,  speiss,  and  slag.  The  speiss  contains  0.2  per 
cent.  =  53  oz.  fi  dwt.  silver,  and  23  per  cent,  copper.  The  silver  is  ex¬ 
tracted  by  amalgamation,  and  the  residue  is  smelted  for  speiss,  which 
is  sold,  and  copper-matte,  from  which  an  inferior  grade  of  copper  is  pro¬ 
duced.  The  matte  is  crushed  and  roasted  iu  free  heaps  about  twelve  to 
thirteen  times.  The  roasted  matte  is  smelted  for  black  copper  iu  shaft- 
furnaces  1 1  feet  high.  The  charge  is  composed  of:  100  cwt.  roasted  matte, 
15  to  20  cwt.  quartz,  and  550  cubic  feet  charcoal. 

The  black-copper,  containing  0.35  per  cent.  =  102  oz.  silver,  and  82 
per  cent,,  copper,  runs,  when  tapped,  into  a  water-basin,  and  is  granu¬ 
lated.  It  is  then  roasted,  and  the  silver  extracted  by  amalgamation. 

The  matte  from  the  black-copper  smelting,  assaying  0.07  to  0.175  per 
cent.  =  20  oz.  S  dwt.  to  50  oz.  10  dwt.,  and  50  to  GO  per  cent,  copper,  is 
added  to  the  raw  matte  after  the  fourth  roasting,  and  is  smelted  with 
that  for  black-copper,  &c.  The  slag  is  smelted  with  roasted  argentifer¬ 
ous  copper-ore. 

475.  c.  The  non  argentiferous  ore  is  roasted  and  smelted  with  slag 
and  quartz.  The  resulting  matte  is  roasted,  and  then  smelted  in  a 
shaft-furnace,  with  the  following  charge  :  100  percent,  roasted  matte,  312 
percent,  amalgamation  residue,  50  percent,  quartz.  The  consumption  of 
charcoal  is  470  cubic  feet  to  14S  cwt.  of  charge.  The  result  is  slag, 
matte,  and  raw  copper.  The  matte  is  roasted  with  the  matte  from  ore- 
smelting.  The  slag  smelted  with  non-argentiferous  roasted  ore,  and  the 
raw  copper  is  refined,  producing  commercial  copper. 

47G.  These  three  smelting-works  have  twelve  shaft-furnaces,  five 
reverberatory  furnaces,  two  small  Hungarian  reverberatory  furnaces, 
with  two  hearths  and  amalgamatiou-apparatus.  The  annual  produc- 


SURVEY  OF  METALLURGICAL  PROCESSES. 


213 


tion  has  greatly  decreased  in  the  last  few  years.  It  was,  in  1871,  cop¬ 
per,  491,000  kilograms;  silver,  1,023  kilograms;  quicksilver,  17,040 
kilograms. 

477.  Transylvania. — Zalathna. — There  was  au  interesting  display 
of  statistical  charts,  ores,  and  products  from  the  smelting-works  at 
Zalathna,  among  which  were  the  following :  Silver,  gold,  and  lead 
ores;  copper-matte,  black-copper,  slag,  cement-sil vex’,  gold,  and  silver. 
A  piece  of  cupellation-hearth,  on  which  lead  containing  gold  and  silver 
had  been  cupelled,  was  exhibited.  In  this  there  were  several  cavities,  in 
which  were  large  and  small  buttons,  having  the  color  of  almost  pure 
gold. 

478.  The  smelting-works  at  Csertester  and  at  Zalathna  were  ei'ected 
in  1740  to  1750,  and  are  both  worked  by  the  government.  They  have 
two  large,  four  small,  and  two  low  shaft-furnaces ;  two  cupellation- 
furnaces;  two  copper-refining  furnaces;  and  au  amalgamation-apparatus. 

479.  A  new  process  has  lately  been  introduced  at  Zalathna,  by  which 
it  is  stated  a  great  saving  in  the  treatment  of  the  ores  will  be  effected. 
The  ores*  containing  gold  and  tellurium  are  first  roasted,  and  then 
smelted,  whereby  a  raw  matte  is  obtained.  The  matte  is  granulated 
and  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  heated  by  steam.  The 
residue,  containing  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  gold,  is  smelted  with  lead- 
flux,  and  the  silver-lead  produced  is  cupelled.  Oi’es  rich  in  tellurium 
and  also  the  fumes  from  the  preceding  roasting  are  first  treated  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid. 
Tellurium  is  precipitated  with  metallic  zinc.  It  is  then  washed  and 
dried,  when  it  is  melted  in  a  porcelain  crucible.  The  tellurium  contains 
antimony,  arsenic,  copper,  and  lead.  From  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
pounds  of  ore  two  pounds  of  tellurium  ai'e  produced. 

480.  These  works  produce  annually  :  Gold,  288.95  kilograms  ;  silver, 
019.92  kilograms  ;  copper,  19,992  kilograms. 

481.  There  were  also  a  collection  of  ores  and  a  few  metallurgical  pro¬ 
ducts  and  drawings  exhibited  from  the  “  Sicbruburger  Kupfergewerk- 
schaft.”  The  copper  ore  is  reduced  by  roasting,  smelting  for  matte; 
and  then,  after  roasting,  smelting  for  black  copper;  which  is  refined, 
either  producing  rosette  copper  or  copper  ingots.  The  works  own  four 
large  shaft-furnaces  and  one  refining-furnace.  The  amount  of  copper 
produced  annually  is  valued  at  120,000  to  IGO',000  florins. 

4S2.  Nagy  Banya. — A  large  and  systematic  collection  of  geological 
charts  and  specimens  of  rock  and  minerals  were  exhibited  by  the  United 
Smelting-Works  of  Nagy  Banya.  The  three  principal  works  are : 

Yerespatek,  represented  by  gold  and  tellurium  ores  and  products  of 
amalgamation,  which  process  is  practiced  for  the  extraction  of  gold. 
The  value  of  the  annual  production  of  gold,  and  tellurium  averages 
35,750  florins. 

*  Tlie  description  of  this  process  is  from  the  official  report  of  the  “  Central  commisson 
des  defttschen  Reiches,”  and  thus  appeared  in  the  Berg-  und  Hiittenmannische  Zeitung,  1874, 

p.  181. 


214 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


The  Felso  Banya  Copper- Works  displayed  several  samples  of  manu¬ 
factured  copper  articles. 

The  Feruezely  Silver,  Gold,  and  Lead  Works  exhibited  charts  of  pro¬ 
duction,  ores,  product  of  the  humid  silver-extraction  process,  litharge, 
and  soft  lead. 

483.  The  process  of  extracting  gold  and  silver  from  roasted  ore  was 
introduced  by  Kiss  in  1S59.  It  consists  in  a  preliminary  chloridizing 
roasting,  after  which  the  copper  chloride  is  extracted  with  cold  water 
and  the  chlorides  of  silver  and  gold  with  Ca  O  S20>.  Copper  is  precipi¬ 
tated  by  iron,  the  gold  and  silver  with  calcium  sulphide. 

484.  Zinc-desilverization  was  introduced  in  Fernezely  in  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  1873,  these  being  the  second  works  in  the  Austriau-Hungariau 
Empire  at  which  this  process  is  practiced. 

The  average  annual  production  of  the  works  at  Fernezely,  Verespa- 
tek,  and  Felso  Banya  is  :  gold,  435.5  kilograms  ;  silver,  G,S13  kilograms  ; 
copper,  93,570  kilograms;  lead,  740,050  kilograms. 

485.  Galicia. — The  zinc-metal  industry  of  Galicia  was  represented 
by  the  reduction-works  of  A.  M.  O.  Potockie  Siersza,  near  Krackau, 
who  exhibited  zinc-ores,  calamine  and  blende,  cadmium,  raw  and  refined 
zinc;-  also  a  model  of  a  zinc  distillation-furnace,  with  a  gas-generating 
furnace  attached. 


CHAPTER  X. 


KUSSIAN  EXHIBITS. 

Exhibit  of  smelting-works  at  Nijni-Tagnil ;  Ores  treated,  furnaces  employed, 

fuel;  Kefining  the  black  copper;  Exhibits  of  Bogolorsk,  Jongor,  Yerkh- 

Issetsk,  Kedaberg,  Paulina  Zinc-Works. 

486.  The  display  of  mineral  and  metallurgical  products  was  small, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  transportation,  but  the  articles  exhibited  were 
interesting,  and  the  quality  did  justice  to  Russia’s  well-earned  reputa¬ 
tion. 

487.  The  copper- works  of  Prince  Paul  Demidoff,  located  at  Nijni- 
Tagnil,  in  the  Verkhatourie  district,  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  were  repre¬ 
sented  by  an  incomplete  collection  of  copper  ores  and  products.  The 
ores  were  composed  of  copper  and  iron  pyrites  and  copper  carbonates. 
The  products  were  slag  from  ore-smelting,  matte,  black  and  refined 
copper  ;  the  latter  was  of  a  light-rose  color,  and  had  a  remarkably  dis¬ 
tinct  crystalline  structure. 

488.  The  copper- works  at  Nijni-Tagnil,*  founded  in  1725,  are  the  most 
important  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  produce  almost  40  per  cent,  of 
Russia’s  total  production  of  refined  copper,  and  65  per  cent,  of  the  total 
production  of  sheet-copper.  The  richest  ores  treated  are  the  Siberian, 
containing  as  high  as  16  per  cent,  copper,  the  ores  from  the  Altai  9  per 
cent.,  the  Ural  ores  4  per  cent.,  and  the  ores  from  the  Kasan  district 
with  seldom  2  per  cent,  copper.  They  are,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
easily  reducible. 

489.  When  smelting  arsenical  ores,  a  small  quantity  of  black  copper 
is  produced,  the  object'  of  which  is  to  concentrate  the  arsenic  in  the 
black  copper,  in  order  to  obtaiu  a  purer  matte.  Smelting  is  conducted 
partly  in  the  old  Swedish  furnaces,  partly  in  furnaces  which  are  semi¬ 
circular  in  horizontal  section,  and  having  generally  ten  tuyeres,  but 
principally  in  Rachette  furnaces  with  blast  heated  to  about  100°  C. 
They  have  been  modified  by  Skindar,  who  gave  them  an  oval  shape  in 
horizontal  section.  The  latter  furnaces  make  campaigns  of  several 
months,  and  give  general  satisfaction. 

490.  Formerly  100  pounds  of  charcoal  were  calculated  to  carry  400 
pounds  of  charge  in  smelting  ore ;  at  present  100  pounds  of  charcoal 
carries  414  to  420  pounds  charge  in  the  ore-smelting,  and  437.5  to  450.5 
pounds  charge  in  the  matte-smelting.  The  percentage  of  copper  in  the 
slag  from  ore-smelting  is  also  more  favorable ;  formerly  it  was  0.25  to  50 


*  The  description  of  copper-smelting  is  from  “  Eussland’s  Montan  Industrie and 
Einer  Bereisuiuj  der  vorziiglichsten  Hiittemverken  des  Urals  im  Jahre,  1870,  hy  P.  V.  Turner. 


216 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  lfc73. 


per  cent.,  but  it  is  now  only  0.25  to  30  per  cent.  If  we  compare  tbe 
quantity  of  fuel  consumed  in  smelting  copper  at  other  places  with  that 
in  Nijni-Tagnil,  we  will  perceive  that  very  successful  results  have  been 
obtained  at  the  latter  place.  In  Atridaberg,  in  Sweden,  100  pounds  of 
charcoal  carry  312  pounds  charge.  In  England,  where  the  operation  is 
performed  in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  with  bituminous  coal  as  fuel,  100 
pounds  of  coal  is  calculated  to  smelt  223  pounds  charge,  producing  slag 
with  0.50  per  cent,  copper.  Although  it  is  impossible  to  compare  ex¬ 
actly  the  effect  of  charcoal  and  bituminous  coal,  it  is  an  important  fact, 
that  the  slag-dumps  at  Nijni-Taguil  contain  only  about  half  as  much 
copper  as  those  in  Wales. 

491.  The  black  copper  is  refined  partly  in  refining-hearths  and  partly 
in  English  reverberatory  furnaces.  A  comparison  of  the  two  shows 
tbe  latter  method  to  be  the  more  advantageous  both  in  regard  to  a  sav¬ 
ing  in  fuel  and  metal.  In  tbe  refining-hearth  11  cubic  feet  (English)  of  ore 
and  6  cubic  feet  charcoal  are  consumed  in  the  production  of  100  pounds 
refined  copper,  with  a  loss  of  16.5  percent.;  while  tbe  consumption  of 
fuel  per  100  pounds  refined  copper  in  tbe  English  furnaces  is  5.1  to  5.3 
cubic  feet  of  split  wood,  and  the  loss  of  copper  is  13.9  to  15.4  per  cent. 

492/  Tbe  copper-works  at  2s  ijni-Tagnil  produced,  in  1S72,  1,501,026.44 
kilograms  of  refined  copper.  In  addition  to  tbe  above  the  following 
small  displays  of  copper  products  from  the  Ural  Mountains  were  made: 

493.  The  copper-works  of  Bugolovsk  in  the  district  of  Verkhatourie, 
government  of  Perm,  were  represented  by  samples  of  ores,  matte,  and 
refined  copper.  These  works  produce  annually  196,560  kilograms  of 
refined  copper. 

494.  The  works  at  Jongoo,  in  the  government  of  Perm,  exhibited 
copper  pyrites,  malachite,  and  refined  copper.  They  were  founded  iu 
1757.  Tbeir  annual  production  is  163, S00  kilograms  of  refined  copper. 

495.  Mine,  de  Stanboek-Fernor  exhibited  copper  pyrites  and  mala¬ 
chite  from  her  copper-works  at  Verkb-Issetsk,  in  the  government  of 
Perm.  Tbe  works  were  founded  in  1773,  and  produced  annually  278,460 
kilograms  of  refined  copper. 

496.  Tbe  copper-works  at  Kadaberg,  in  the  Caucasian  Mountains, 
were  represented  by  a  few  metallurgical  products,  viz,  slag,  matte,  and 
refined  copper. 

497.  The  Paulina  Zinc- Works,  owned  by  M.  G.  de  Kramsta,  located  iu 
the  government  of  Piatrkow,  iu  the  Bendian  district,  Poland,  made  a 
very  interesting  exhibit  of  drawings,  showing  tbe  situation  of  the  zinc- 
works  and  tbe  plans  according  to  which  they  were  erected  ;  tbe  f  urnaces 
were  also  described  by  elaborate  drawings.  They  ai’e  muffle-furnaces, 
with  gas-generating  furnaces  attached.  The  ores  were  blende,  calamine, 
galena,  anti  cerusite.  Tbe  lead-ores  are  sent  to  Prussia  for  reduction, 
tbe  zinc-ores  alone  beiug  reduced  at  these  works.  The  production  of 
zinc  in  1S71  was  1,342,707.88  kilograms.  This  amount  exceeds  one-half 
of  Russia's  total  zinc  production.  These  zinc-works  have  been  in  opera¬ 
tion  since  tbe  commencement  of  the  present  century. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


TURKISH  EXHIBITS. 

Exhibits  of  Turkey;  Condition  of  jietal  industry;  Smelting  process. 

498.  There  was  only  a  small  exhibit  of  metallic  minerals  from  Turkey , 
and  even  then  it  was  with  difficulty  that  the  names  of  the  owners  or  the 
localities  whence  they  came  could  be  ascertained.  Noticeable  were  ga¬ 
lena  ores  from  the  district  of  Kourouk  and  Salonique,  in  Turkey  in  Asia; 
lead  from  the  department  of  the  Dardanelles;  copper-ores  from  the  de¬ 
partments  of  Aleppo  and  Sivas;  copper  from  the  department  of  Diar- 
bekir,  exhibited  by  M.  Theodori. 

499.  We  are  informed  that  the  mineral  resources  of  Turkey  are  very  ex¬ 
tensive,  but  however  that  may  be,  it  is  still  true  that  this,  as  well  as 
many  other  branches  of  industry  in  that  country,  is  still  in  its  infancy. 
We  shall  here  make  use  of  a  report  made  by  Herr  W.  Fishback,  a 
German  engineer,  who  is  employed  by  the  Ottoman  government.  It 
appeared  in  the  u  Berg- und  Hiittenmannische  Zeitung”  in  1873,  p.  109. 
Lead  and  silver  were  extracted  in  Turkey  by  the  ancients ;  they  worked 
the  outcroppings,  and  sank  shafts  down  to  the  water-level  only,  for, 
strange  as  it  may  seem,  they  had  not  learned  the  use  of  adits.  The 
richest  lead  and  silver  mines  are  in  Cratova,  near  the  river  Egriderb, 
near  Nevrokop  and  Serres,  in  Macedonia,  near  Ghumiischane,  Bulgar- 
maden,  Cosaii  in  Syria,  and  in  Asia.  Copper  was  extracted  many  cen¬ 
turies  ago  in  Asia.  It  is  found  in  several  localities.  Herr  Fishback 
discovered,  in  1872,  on  the  surface,  an  unusually  rich  occurrence  of  cop¬ 
per-ore,  (copper  glance,)  but  does  not  inform  us  as  to  its  extent. 

The  ore-veins  (argentiferous  galena)  ruu  from  north  to  south  ;  they 
have  a  regular  dip  and  a  permanent  thickuess.  The  ores  are  only  sep¬ 
arated  imperfectly  from  the  associated  minerals  by  hand.  Small  quan¬ 
tities  of  iron  pyrites  sometimes  accompany  the  galena,  and  very  seldom 
blende.  The  ore  is  but  partially  roasted  iu  large  heaps  surrounded  by 
walls. 

500.  The  smelting  is  conducted  in  low  shaft-furnaces,  with  a  low  pres¬ 
sure  of  blast.  Charcoal  serves  as  fuel.  The  manner  and  relative  pro¬ 
portion  of  charging  ore,  flux,  and  fuel,  is  improvised  by  the  workmen, 
who  lack  all  experience.  Silver-lead  has  been  cupelled  until  recently  in 
flat-bottomed  open  hearths,  made  of  wood-ashes.  The  heat  was  pro- 


218 


VIENNA  INTEKNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


<luced  by  throwing  burning  tranks  of  trees  on  the  lead.  But  it  must  at 
present  be  sent  to  the  mint  at  Constantinople  for  desilverization. 

The  bad  condition  of  the  furnaces,  together  with  the  very  uncertain 
order  in  which  ore,  flux,  and  fuel  are  charged,  lead  to  great  metallic 
losses  through  volatilization,  slagging,  and  the  formation  of  salaman¬ 
ders.  The  mining  and  smelting  operations  in  Asiatic  Turkey  have  been 
lately  pushed  with  energy,  and  we  may  expect  at  least  a  large  increase 
in  the  production  of  bullion. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


GRECIAN  EXHIBITS. 

Exhibits  of  Greek  Commission  Central  ;  From  Attica  ;  Results  of  ancient 

METALLURGICAL  OPERATIONS;  OPERATIONS  OF  THE  FRENCII-ItALIAN  COMPANY  ; 

Lead  earth — Theories  on  undeveloped  metallic  resources  ;  Result  of  re¬ 
cent  PROSPECTING. 

501.  The  “Greek  Commission  Central”  displayed  an  unsystematic  col¬ 
lection  of  ores,  and  failed  to  name  the  localities  where  they  were  found. 
I  observed,  as  the  metallic  minerals,  (excluding  iron,)  copper  pyrites, 
copper  carbonate,  galena,  and  cerusite. 

502.  Attica  was  the  only  Greek  district  represented  at  the  Exposition 
by  lead-ores  and  lead.  The  Greek  Metallurgical  Stock  Company  of  At¬ 
tica  exhibited  a  collection  of  minerals,  among  which  were  lead  and 
copper. 

The  metallurgical  company,  “  Antiparos,”  of  Attica,  exhibited  galena 
and  silver-lead.  Silver-lead  from  Attica  was  also  exhibited  by  M.  A. 
Kordellas. 

503.  The  origin  and  former  success  of  mining  and  smelting  in  Greece 
is  a  matter  of  political  as  well  as  of  mining  history.  It  was  from  the 
argentiferous  lead-ores  occurring  in  Laurion  that  the  ancient  Greeks 
derived  their  principal  revenue.  There  were  at  one  time  as  many  as 
20,000  slaves  employed  in  the  mines  and  smelting-works*  in  that  place. 
The  imperfect  dressing  and  smelting  methods  of  the  ancients,  together 
with  the  large  percentage  of  blende  contained  in  the  ores,  were  the 
causes  of  the  richness  of  the  immense  slag-dumps  and  large  amount  of 
tailings  which  have  lately  been  the  occasion  of  so  much  dispute  between 
a  French  and  Italian  smelting  company  and  the  Greek  government- 
Herr  Fiedler,  a  German  mining  engineer,  was  commissioned  by  the 
Greek  government  in  1837-’39  to  inspect  and  report  upon  the  mineral 
resources  of  Greece.  Upon  the  completion  of  his  travels,  he  published 
a  work — “  Heine  durch  alle  Theile  des  Kdnigreiclis  Grieclienland ,”  Dres¬ 
den,  1840 — in  which  he  spoke  very  unfavorably  concerning  the  prospects 
of  recommencing  lead-mining  operations  and  the  extraction  of  lead  from 
the  remains  of  the  ancient  mining  and  smelting  operations  in  Laurion. 
This  probably  induced  the  Greek  government  to  make  a  contract  with 
a  French-Italian  company,  conceding  to  them  the  right  of  extracting 

*  Free  use  is  here  made  of  a  portion  of  a  communication  by  Herr  Baldauf  to  the 
Berg-  vnd  HiittenmanniscJie  Zeitung,  1871,  Nos.  37  and  38. 


220 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


silver  ami  lead  from  the  intermediate  products  of  the  aucieut  smelting- 
operations.  The  Greek  government  now  claims  that  the  contract  only 
included  the  old  slags.  The  royalty  paid  by  the  company  was  $4.24 
currency  per  ton  of  lead  produced.  This  would  make  the  indemnity 
for  10,000  tons,  the  amount  extracted  in  1S70,  equal  to  $31,460  currency. 
Although  these  slags,  or  at  least  a  part  of  them,  were  resmelted  a  few 
centuries  after  the  period  of  the  successful  working  of  the  mines,  they 
still  contain  considerable  quantities  of  silver  and  lead.  They  average 
from  0  to  13  per  cent,  of  lead.  0.004  per  cent.  =  1  oz.  3  dwt.  7.68  gr.  sil¬ 
ver,  6  to  10  per  cent,  zinc,  and  4  to  G  percent,  of  antimony.  The  amount 
of  slag  remaining  has  been  estimated  at  1,200,000  tons. 

504.  The  above-named  French-Italian  company  erected,  at  a  large 
outlay,  in  1865,  extensive  smelting-works  at  Engastyria,  located  on  the 
east  coast  of  Attica,  a  place  where  smelting-works,  in  all  probability, 
formerly  existed.  From  the  works  streets  have  been  built  in  all  direc¬ 
tions  to  the  old  slag-dumps.  The  slag  is  first  freed  from  the  stones,  and 
then  transported  to  the  works  in  two-wheeled  wagons. 

In  1870,  fifteen  low  (Htdbhohorfen)  Castilian  cylindrie  furnaces  were 
built,  and  ten  to  twelve  kept  constantly  in  operation.  They  are  con¬ 
structed  with  mica-scliist,  afid  have  three  tuyeres.  The  diameter  of  blast- 
nozzle  is  1 1  centimeters,  and  the  pressure  of  blast  is  8  to  12  centimeters, 
water-column.  The  slag  is  smelted  with  16  to  17  per  cent,  coke  and  a 
large  quantity  of  lime.  Forty  tons  of  silver-lead,  assaying  0.04  percent. 
=11  oz.  13  dwt.  4.S  gr.  silver-ore,  produced  daily.  From  75  to  SS  per 
cent,  of  the  6  to  13  percent,  leal  contained  in  the  slag  is  extracted; 
the  remainder  is  either  caught  in  the  condensation-chambers,  or  goes 
in  the  slag,  in  which  case  it  is  lost.  The  silver-lead  is  refined  in  large 
reverberatory-furnaces,  is  marked  and  exported  to  England  for 

desilverization. 

505.  The  so-called  ••  lead  earth."  designated  by  the  ancients  “£///?«• 
XdS-s”  was  the  subject  of  protracted  controversy  between  the  Greek 
government  and  the  foreign  smelting  company.  The  question  in  dispute 
was  whether  the  “lead-earth’1  was  extracted  from  the  mines  by  the 
ancients  only  in  order  to  gain  room  for  further  working  the  ore-depos¬ 
its,  and  after  having  been  extracted,  not  considered  worth  reducing,  or 
if  it  was  only  the  residue  of  an  imperfectly  conducted  dressing  method. 
A  fact  that  argues  against  the  latter  theory  is,  that  the  larger  heaps 
of  “  lead-earth"  are  found  where  it  is  hardly  possible  that  a  sufficiently 
large  quantity  of  water  was  to  be  had  for  dressing  purposes.  Thesmaller 
heaps  are  found  in  old  shafts.  Here  it  is  possible  that  the  rain  has 
caused  a  small  washing  process  to  take  place.  Professor  Fritzsche,  of 
the  Royal  Saxon  School  of  Mines,  has  made  a  determination  of  this  “  lead- 
earth,"  and  found  it  to  be  composed  of  the  following  minerals:  Lead-sul¬ 
phate,  principally  causing  and  governing  the  lead-contents ;  galena,  very 
little;  copper  pyrites :  a  mineral  resembling  malachite;  yellow  blende : 
quartz:  white  mica:  iron  sesquioxide.  containg  sulphuric  acid,  and  other 


GRECIAN  METALLURGY. 


221 


earthy  minerals.  The  composition  of  this  “  lead-earth”  and  its  large 
percentage  of  quartz  points  to  the  conclusion  that  it  once  constituted 
the  mica-slate,  forming  the  slicken- sides  of  the  ore-deposit ;  further,  that 
the  metallic  minerals  were  contained  in  the  mica-slate  as  impregnations. 
The  theory  is  a  very  plausible  one,  that  these  ores  were  not  considered 
worth  further  treatment  upon  extraction  from  the  mines,  and  were, 
therefore,  thrown  from  the  mines.  Exposure  to  the  weather  caused 
chemical  changes  in  many  cases,  a  stratification,  and  a  universal  physi¬ 
cal  change,  until  it  assumed  the  nature  of  fine,  easily-powdered  earth. 
The  commission  appointed  by  the  Greek  government  to  examine  and 
report  upon  this  disputed  point  was  composed  entirely  of  non-profes¬ 
sional  men,  and  the  supposition  is  not  an  unnatural  one  that  the  dis¬ 
covered  fact  that  the  total  amount  of  “  lead-earth  ”  in  this  and  other 
districts  amounted  to  6,700,000  tons,  assaying  from  1.5  to  11  per  cent, 
lead,  presenting  a  general  average  of  4.4  per  ceut.  lead  and  0.011  per 
cent.  =  3  oz.  4  dwt.  silver,  had  more  weight  in  influencing  the  decision 
of  the  easily-excitable  Greeks,  than  any  scientific  points  which  they  did 
not  understand.  According  to  their  calculation,  which  is  undoubtedly 
too  low,  when  the  condition  of  the  u  lead-earth”  is  considered,  the  loss 
would  only  be  5  per  ceut.  in  dressing,  and  2  per  cent,  in  reduction  of 
the  whole  amount  of  lead;  cousequeutly,  the  gain  would  be $25,022,450 
currency.  From  this  it  is  at  least  apparent  that  the  value  of  the 
“  lead-earth”  far  surpasses  that  of  the  slag,  which  will  only  give  about 
$5,790,000  currency  clear  profit. 

506.  In  regard  to  the  unworked  and  undiscovered  metallic  resources 
of  Greece,  different  opinions  have  been  expressed.  It  is,  however,  pos¬ 
sible  that  there  are  many  important  lead-deposits  still  unknown.  An 
argument  for  this  supposition  is,  that  nearly  all  the  Greek  islands  pos¬ 
sess  the  same  geological  formation  as  that  in  Laurion,  which  is  that  of 
metamorphic  schists,  with  iuterstratified  deposits  of  crystalline  limestone. 
Lead-deposits  have  been  discovered  on  the  islands  Zea,  Makronisi,  and 
especially  promising  veins  on  Antiparos,  where  the  surrounding  rock 
is  micaceous  slate.  They  have  a  strike  of  about  70°  to  80°,  and  a  very 
steep  pitch  to  the  south.  The  veins  are  composed  chiefly  of  galena  and 
quartz,  and  contain  from  35  to  65  per  ceut.  lead,  and  0.015  to  0.03  =  4 
oz.  7  dwt.  8  gr.  to  8  oz.  14  dwt.  19.2  gr.  silver.  In  Karistos,  in  the  south¬ 
ern  part  of  Euboa,  the  island  was  believed  by  the  ancients  to  be  rich 
in  metals.  There  are  also  veins  in  micaceous  slate,  bearing  galena, 
quartz,  and  iron  pyrites.  The  vein  mass  assays  15  to  40  per  cent,  lead, 
and  0.01  to  0.025  per  cent.  =2  oz.  18  dwt.  4.8  gr.  to  5  oz.  7  dwt.  17.2 
gr.  silver.  Old  lead-matte,  found  in  this  locality,  assayed  50  per  cent, 
lead  and  2  per  cent,  copper.  Copper  has  been  discovered  on  this  island, 
but  no  efforts  have  as  yet  been  made  to  mine  it. 

507.  By  recent  prospecting  there  have  been  very  promising  masses  of 
galena  discovered  on  the  island  of  Seraphos.  They  are  accompanied 


222 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


by  “lead-earth,”  similar  to  that  in  Lauriou;  the  latter  contains  4.5  per 
cent,  lead  and  5  oz.  1G  dwt.  14  gr.  silver. 

Paying  deposits  of  copper  have  been  discovered  near  Lamia,  (Zeitnui,) 
in  the  northern  part  of  Greece.  But  as  the  owner  of  the  property 
has  no  capital  to  prosecute  mining  operations,  and  foreign  capitalists 
are  loth  to  invest,  as  the  district  borders  upon  Turkey,  whence  robber 
bands  make  periodical  raids,  these  deposits  remain  in  an  undeveloped 
condition. 


M A  N  S  K I  It  L  D  C  O  P  PE  K  -  P  U  It  N  A  C  E . 


Fig.  I.— Vertical  section. 


Fig.  If. — Hoiizontal  section  at  tuyeres. 


Hasenclever  Helbig’s  boasting-furnace  at  Stolberg. 


Fig.  III. — Vertical  section  on  line  H  K. 


Fig.  IV.— Section  on  line  E  F  G. 


Fig.  V. — Horizontal  section  onLMNO, 


Fig.  VI. — Section  on  line  P  Q  E. 


I  t  _ l  1  '  l  i  I  - - L - ! _ L 

WO' 50  0  1  ; l  J  4-  S'  r  7  £  2 

Scale  of  Figs.  Ill  to  V. 


Vertical  section  on  line  A.  B  Fig.  VII. 


Vertical  section  on  line  C  D  Fig.  VIII. 


Fig.  VII. — Battery  fcr  mechanical  pattinsonizing. 


I 


New  Cupellation  Furnace. —Pribram,  1872. 


f 


STATISTICS  OF  PRODUCTION, 


X 

h— I 

Q 

£5 

W 

Pp 


APPENDIX  B. 


Regulations  for  tiie  purchase  of  Saxon  ores  at  the  works 

of  the  Royal  General  Smelting  Administration,  from 
“Quarterly  Cru-cis,”  l$G$. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  “Quarterly  Crucis,*  1SGS,  the  following 
regulations,  coming  from  the  Royal  General  Smelting  Administration, 
will  apply,  until  further  notice,  for  the  purchase  of  Saxon  silver,  lead, 
copper,  zinc,  sulphur,  and  arsenical  ores. 

§  1.— General  remarks. 

The  purchase  of  silver,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  sulphur,  and  arsenical  ores 
is  conducted  according  to  the  tariffs  given  for  each  metal  delivered 
franco  at  the  works. 

§  2.— Condition  of  the  ores  in  general. 

The-ores  must  be  delivered  at  the  works  in  such  a  condition  that  they 
may  be  weighed  with  accuracy,  and  allow  of  the  taking  of  a  reliable 
average  assay  sample;  they  must,  therefore,  be  as  free  from  mechan¬ 
ically-combined  water  as  possible.  Consequently,  ores  that  are  in  a 
slimy  condition  w  ill  not  be  received. 

§  3.— Uniformity  and  fineness  of  the  ores  to  he  delivered. 

Tt  will  be  demanded  of  all  ores  delivered,  that  they  be  carefully  mixed 
and  possess  such  a  size  of  grain  that  not  more  than  15  per  cent,  remains 
back,  when  sieved  on  a  sieve  having  57G  meshes  to  the  square  inch. 
Ores  which  do  not  come  up  to  this  standard  will  be  sent  back  to  the 
mine,  or,  as  far  as  is  possible,  be  crushed  at  the  works  and  charged  to 
the  mine.  Undressed  or  partially-crushed  ores  and  lump-ore,  the  lumps 
of  which  are  not  larger  than  walnuts,  will  only  be  accepted  when  a 
special  agreement  has  been  made. 

§  4. — Disposition  of  the  ores  at  the  smelting-works. 

All  persons  wishing  to  sell  ore  should  inform  the  head  manager,  ( obcr - 
liuttenvorsteher,)  who  will  give  all  the  necessary  information  relatiug 
thereto,  and  inform  the  seller  to  which  smelting-works  the  ore  should  be 
sent.  In  this  case,  however,  as  far  as  the  business  arrangements  of  the 
smelting-works  will  allow,  the  situation  of  the  mine  will  be  takeu  into 
consideration,  in  order  to  spare  the  latter  as  much  as  possible  on  trans- 


SAXON  REGULATIONS  FOR  PURCHASES. 


225 


portation  costs.  When  the  ore  arrives  at  the  works,  the  assignment 
from  the  head  manager  must  be  handed  over  to  the  weigher,  ( waagemeis - 
ter,)  also  the  assay-ticket  pertaining  to  the  delivery-assay,  (§  10,)  made 
out  by  the  mine- warden,  ( bergwardein .) 

§  5. — Presence  of  the  deliverer  at  the  weighing  of  the  ore. 

The  seller  must  be  present  when  the  ore  is  weighed  at  the  works,  or 
be  represented  by  his  agent.  When  particularly  demanded  by  the 
deliverer,  the  weigher  is  obliged  to  give  the  former  a  written  statement 
of  the  wet  and  dry  weight  of  the  ore,  after  the  same  has  been  weighed 
and  the  moisture  been  calculated,  and  the  weigher  has  uo  right  to  demand 
or  take  payment  for  the  same.  Then  the  mine  agent  takes  the  assay 
samples  into  his  possession  for  the  mine-warden,  which  have  been  taken 
from  the  ore  in  his  presence  and  packed  in  boxes  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  (see  §11,)  and  must  take  them  in  the  afternoon  of  the  same 
day  to  the  city  assay  laboratory  and  deliver  them  to  the  mine-warden- 

§  6. — Time  of  delivery. 

Ore  is  received  at  the  works  every  day  during  the  week,  excepting 
Sundays  and  holidays,  and  with  the  exception  of  Wednesday  after¬ 
noons,  commencing  at  12  o’clock.  Ores  arriving  at  the  works  on  Sun¬ 
days  will  be  reckoned  to  the  delivery  of  the  following  week. 

The  determination  of  the  metallic  contents  of  the  ores  through  the 
purchase  and  “  determination  ”  assays,  takes  place  after  every  weekly 
delivery ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  settlement  with  the  deliverers  of  ore 
only  in  periods  of  two  to  three  weeks,  the  close  of  which  is  always  on 
Wednesday  noons,  12  o’clock,  of  the  first,  third,  fifth,  seventh,  ninth, 
and  eleventh  weeks  of  each  quarter. 

The  deliveries  of  ore  taking  place  on  Thursday  of  the  eleventh  week 
as  well  as  those  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  weeks,  belong  to  the 
first  period  of  the  next  quarter,  which  accordingly  has  its  commence¬ 
ment  early  Thursday  morning  of  the  eleventh  week. 

If  lump-ore  is  delivered  according  to  §3,  the  close  of  the  time  of  de¬ 
livery  has  been  fixed  on  Saturday  noon  of  every  week ;  that  is,  four 
days  before  the  close  of  the  current  period  of  delivery ;  it  is  here  taken 
into  consideration  that  the  preparation  of  the  assay  sample  and  also 
the  determination  of  the  metallic  contents  of  such  ores  demand  more 
time,  and  a  whole  week  is  therefore  allowed  for  this  work. 

§  7. — Commencement  of  right  of  possession  of  the  general 

SMELTING  ADMINISTRATION  TO  DELIVERED  ORES. 

As  soon  as  the  quantity  of  ore  to  be  delivered  has  been  brought  to 
the  works,  weighed  and  dumped,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  reached,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  possible  eventually  to  examine  it  again,  (§  20,)  the 
mine  has  lost  the  right  of  access  to  the  same,  but,  notwithstanding,  it  is 
15  M 


226 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION.  1873. 


not  yet  the  property  of  the  smelting- works,  but  is  at  first  to  be  con¬ 
sidered  only  as  a  deposit,  for  which  the  administration  of  the  smelting- 
works  (Iliittenadminntration)  is  responsible. 

The  delivered  ore  first  becomes  the  property  of  the  works  when  there 
are  no  differences  in  the  assay  results,  (§  19,)  or  when  such  differences 
have  been  settled  according  to  19  and  liO. 

v  «s. — Unit  of  weight  and  its  divisions  in  the  weighing  and 

DETERMINATION  OF  MOISTURE  IN  THE  ORES. 

The  ore  is  weighed  on  scales  having  arms  of  equal  length,  in  amounts 
of  2  cwt.,  (centnern.)  The  zollcentuer,  =  .19  kilograms,  is  the  unit 
of  weight  and  is  divided  decimally  into  100  pounds,  aud  the  pro¬ 
duct  into  100  pfnndtheils.  The  weight  of  the  assay  weight  (the 
moisture  hundred  weight,  or  centner)  made  use  of  for  determining  the 
amount  of  moisture  in  the  ores  —  7.1  grams  =  11  pfundtheile.  It  is 
also  divided  into  100  parts. 

§  9.— Weight  limits  in  weighing  the  ores  and  determination 

OF  MOISTURE. 

/ 

The  amounts  of  ore  delivered  are  weighed  to  within  10  pounds  when 
containing  from  1  to 50  pfundtheile*  silver;  over  50  to  100  pfundtheile 
to  within  1  pound;  over  500  to  5,000  pfundtheile  to  within  0.1  pound; 
over  5,000  pfundtheile  to  0.02  pound.  Ores  carrying  no  silver,  lead, 
copper,  zinc,  sulphur,  and  arsenic  are  weighed  out  to  within  ten  pounds. 

It  is  not  allowed  to  deliver  more  than  50  cwt.  of  ore  at  a  time  when 
the  same  carries  10  pfuudtheile  or  more  silver ;  in  consideration  of  the 
uniformity  of  the  assay-sample,  larger  amounts  must  be  divided  into 
amounts  of  this  weight. 

Ores  carrying  less  than  10  pfuudtheile  silver  should,  on  the  other 
hand,  be  delivered  in  amouuts  of  100  cwt.  If  such  ores  are  delivered 
in  smaller  amounts  than  100  cwt.,  the  mine  from  which  it  came  must 
expect  a  bill  of  assay-costs  according  to  §  19.  The  superintendent 
( lliitteumcislcr)  has  the  power,  however,  to  allow  the  delivery  of  smaller 
or  larger  amounts  than  above  stated. 

The  amount  of  moisture  contained  in  the  ore  will  be  determined  to 
within  0.5  per  cent,  without  any  consideration  of  its  metallic  contents  or 
character;  but,  in  the  calculation  of  the  wet-weight,  smaller  weight 
amounts  than  given  in  the  commencement  of  this  paragraph  will  be 
left  out  of  consideration. 

§  10. — Delivery  of  the  weight-statement  by  the  weigher. 

During  the  weighing  of  every  amount  of  delivered  ore  at  the  works, 
an  average  assay-sample  of  several  pounds  will  be  taken  in  the  follow- 

'  One  pfundtheile  is  equal  to  0.01  per  cent. ;  0.01  per  cent.  =  2  oz.  18  cwt.  I.’?  gr.  per 
tou  of  2,000  pounds. 


SAXON  REGULATIONS  FOR  PURCHASES. 


227 


ing  manner :  From  every  2  cwt.  of  the  ore  J  to  J  pound  will  be  taken  out 
from  the  middle  by  means  of  a  half-hollow  cylinder,  to  which  there  is  a 
handle  attached.  The  quantity  taken  out  with  this  instrument  is  then 
scattered  over  two  sample-troughs,  A  and  B,  which  rest  near  each  other, 
and  this  is  continued  until  the  whole  amount  of  ore  delivered  has  been 
weighed. 

With  lump-ore,  the  assay-sample  is  either  selected  according  to  the 
cross-method,  ( Kreuzprobe ,)  or  in  such  a  mauuer  that  about  10  per  cent, 
of  the  heap  is  taken  out,  crushed,  and  then  a  diminished  sample  taken 
from  the  same. 

From  the  sample  on  the  assay-trough  A,  the  weigher  immediately  de¬ 
termines  the  amount  of  moisture. 

The  u  assay-pulverizer  ”  then  takes  from  different  parts  of  the  same 
sample-trough  A,  by  means  of  an  assay-spoon,  the  amount  of  ore  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  making  of  the  purchase-assay  by  the  warden  of  the  smelt¬ 
ing-works,  and  prepares  it  in  the  following  manner  : 

The  sample  is  first  carefully  dried  upon  a  heated  piece  of  sheet-iron, 
then  the  dried  sample  is  pulverized,  in  an  iron  mortar,  so  flue  that  it  will 
all  pass  through  the  covered  sieve. 

The  finely-pulverized  assay-sample  is  then  well  mixed  in  the  mortar; 
it  is  then  passed  several  times  through  a  wire  sieve  iu  order  to  effect  a 
complete  mixing,  and  is  then  shaken  into  a  small  trough,  afcer  which  it 
is  placed  on  top  of  the  other  two,  A  and  B. 

If  the  ore  carries  small  amounts  of  native  silver,  or  silver-glance, 
(see  §  12,)  the  moisture  must  be  determined  before  the  assay-sample  is 
prepared.  In  pulverizing  the  same,  the  little  scales  of  native  silver,  or 
silver-glance,  which  do  not  pass  through  the  sieve,  must  be  carefully 
collected  and  placed  in  a  separate  trough,  and  after  the  weigher  has 
determined  the  weight  of  the  pulverized  ore,  as  well  as  that  of  the  me¬ 
tallic  scales,  both  of  the  small  troughs  are  to  be  placed  -with  their 
respective  statements  of  weight  on  top  of  the  other  two  troughs,  A  and  B. 
The  contents  of  the  second  trough,  B,  is  kept  for  the  determination-assay. 

When  the  delivery  of  the  day  has  closed,  the  weigh-master,  in  the 
presence  of  the  mine-agent,  takes  out  a  half  pound  of  ore  for  the  pur¬ 
chase-assays,  to  be  made  by  the  mine-warden,  from  the  same  sample- 
trough,  A,  out  of  which  the  samples  for  the  moisture-assays  were  taken, 
and  all  corresponding  to  the  several  loads  deposited;  they  are  then 
packed  in  boxes,  not  dried  an<J  unprepared.  The  boxes  must  be  re¬ 
turned  to  the  weigh-master  carefully  cleaned.  The  boxes  are  num¬ 
bered  with  the  corresponding  numbers  of  the  loads  iu  the  weigh-book 
and  on  the  assay-sample  boards.  A  ticket  must  be  placed  in  the  boxes, 
upon  which  is  written  the  name  of  the  mine  from  which  the  ore  was 
delivered,  the  dry  weight,  and  the  quality  of  the  load,  all  corresponding 
to  the  same  on  the  sample-board ;  also  the  metallic  contents  according 
to  the  delivery-assay.  The  sample-boxes,  with  the  statements,  are  to 
be  handed  to  the  person  or  persons  who  have  been  commissioned  to 


228 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


carry  them  to  the  mine-warden  at  the  city-assay  laboratory,  and  must 
be  delivered  to  him  on  the  same  day.  The  preparation  of  the  assay- 
samples  in  the  mine-warden’s  laboratory  must  be  conducted,  for  the 
sake  of  conformity,  in  the  same  manner  as  given  above,  especially  with 
such  ores  as  carry  native  silver  and  silver- glance. 

§  11. — The  assay-samples  sent  to  the  mine-warden’s  laboratory,  as  well 
as  the  metallic  buttons  produced  from  the  same,  remain  in  the  possession 
of  the  laboratory  without  charge. 

§  12. — Determination  of  the  metallic  contents  in  delivered 

ORES  CARRYING  NATIVE  SILVER  OR  SILVER-GLANCE. 

Ores  that  contain  native  silver  and  silver-glance  in  large  amounts,  and 
consequently  do  not  allow  of  the  good  pulverization,  preparation,  and 
selection  of  a  reliable  average  assay-sample,  must  therefore,  before  be¬ 
ing  delivered  at  the  smelting-works,  be  stamped  and  sieved  at  the  mine, 
separated  into  linely-crushed  ore,  silver,  and  silver-glance,  and  sepa¬ 
rately  delivered  at  the  works.  While  by  the  delivery  of  the  linely- 
crushed  and  mixed  part,  the  assay -sample  is  taken  and  prepared  as 
described  in  §  11,  the  silver  and  silver-glance  ore  must  be  melted  at  the 
works  in  the  presence  of  the  mine-agent,  ami  the  silver  contents  deter¬ 
mined  by  means  of  the  granulation-assay,  accompanied  at  the  same  time 
with  a  determination  of  the  metallic  contents  in  the  by-products. 

No  assay-sample  of  silver  and  silver-glance  ores  delivered  at  the 
works  is  sent  to  the  mine-warden. 

13. — Method  of  assaying  and  oversight  of  the  manipulation. 

The  wardens,  in  making  the  assays,  must  follow  the  methods  and 
rules  made  by  the  administration  of  the  smelting- works,  and  avoid  all 
arbitrary  digressions  from  the  same,  and,  moreover,  conform  to  the  reg¬ 
ulations  from  the  administration  of  the  smelting-works,  regarding  the 
superintendence  and  oversight  of  the  assaying,  as  carried  out  by  the 
designated  officers. 

§  14. — The  unit  of  weight  and  its  subdivisions  used  in  the 

assaying  of  ores. 

The  weight  of  the  assay  hundred-weight,  used  in  determining  the 
metallic  contents  of  ores,  is  fixed  at  3. 7.5  grams  =  0.75  pfundtheil.  Its 
division  is  decimal,  namely,  into  100  pounds,  and  the  pound  into  100 
pfundtheile. 

^  13. — Statement  of  the  metallic  contents  of  an  ore. 

The  metallic  contents  of  an  ore  are  only  stated  within  certain  fixed 
limits. 

a.  With  ores  carrying  the  smallest  amount  of  silver  acceptable  at  the 
works,  that  is  1  pfundtheil  and  up  to  25  pfundtheile,  their  metallic  con- 


SAXON  KEGULATIONS  FOR  PURCHASES. 


229 


tents  will  be  given  on  to  within  0.5  pfundtheil;  with  ores  carrying  more 
than  25  pfundtheile  and  up  to  200  pfundtheile,  the  results  will  be  given 
on  to  within  1  pfundtheil ;  and  ores  assaying  higher  than  200  pfund¬ 
theile,  the  assay -result  will  be  given  on  to  within  2  pfundtheile. 

b.  With  lead,  sulphur,  and  arsenical  ores,  the  assay-results  will  be 
given  on  to  within  5  per  cent,  for  all  grades  of  ore ;  with  lead,  however, 
contained  in  ore  delivered  at  the  works,  as  blendic  ores,  to  within  1  per 
cent. 

c.  With  copper  and  zinc,  to  within  1  per  cent,  by  all  grades  of  ore 

§  10. — The  delivery-assay. 

Such  assays  as  are  made  at  the  mine-warden’s  laboratory  of  the  ores 
prepared  at  the  mines  for  delivery  at  the  smelting- works,  by  order  of 
the  mine-superintendent,  in  order  to  declare  their  assay-value  when  de¬ 
livered  at  the  smelting-works,  are  called  the  delivery -assays.  The  same 
give,  at  the  same  mine,  the  metals  and  metalloids  the  purchase-assay 
(§  17)  has  to  determine,  and  thus  stating  how  many  assay-samples  it  is 
necessary  to  prepare.  In  selectiug  the  assay-sample  for  the  delivery- 
assay,  on  behalf  of  the  mine,  proper  care  should  be  taken,  so  that  no 
great  difference  may  arise  between  it  and  the  purchase-assay. 

§  17. — Purchase-assays. 

Purchase-assays  are  those  which  are  made  from  the  samples  taken 
according  to  §  11  during  the  weighing  of  the  delivered  ore  at  the  smelt¬ 
ing-works.  For  making  the  same,  the  sample  in  the  small  trough,  A,  is 
made  use  of,  (§  11.)  The  purchase-assay  determines  the  amount  of  all 
purchasable  metals  and  metalloids  contained  in  the  ore,  following  the 
directions  of  the  statement  from  the  mine  of  what  metals  and  metalloids 
are  present  in  the  same ;  also,  to  determine  the  amount  of  lead  in  all 
blendic  ores,  and  the  amount  of  zinc  contained  in  all  blendic,  silver, 
lead,  copper,  sulphur,  and  arsenical  ores.  The  purchase-assay  must  be 
made  under  the  supervision  of  two  controlling  assayers,  the  warden  of 
the  smelting-works  and  the  mine-warden.  Each  has  his  own  separate 
laboratory,  the  warden  of  the  smelting-works  at  that  place,  and  the 
mine-warden  in  the  city  of  Freiberg. 

Accordingly,  as  the  silver-ores  are  of  low  or  high  grade,  the  assays 
will  be  made  in  duplicate  or  up  to  eight  times.*  The  average  must  be 
taken  of  all  the  separately-weighed  buttons.  Each  of  the  assayers,  in 
determining  the  amount  of  silver  in  ores,  must  make  two  assays  with 
ores  containing  from  1  to  40  pfundtheile  per  cwt.;  three  assays  with 
ores  containing  from  41  to  80  pfundtheile  per  cwt. ;  four  assays  with 
ores  containing  from  81  to  150  pfundtheile  per  cwt.;  six  assays  with 
ores  containing  from  151  to  300  pfundtheile  per  cwt.;  eight  assays 
wffth  ores  containing  more  than  302  pfundtheile  per  cwt. 

*  The  scorification-assay  is  entirely  used  in  determining  the  amount  of  silver  in  all 
ores. 


230 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


§  18.— Presentation  of  assay-statement  by  the  mine- warden 

AND  WARDEN  OF  THE  SMELTING-WORKS. 

After  the  dose  of  every  weekly  delivery,  on  Saturdays,  at  12  o’clock, 
each  of  the  controlling  wardens  must  deliver,  at  the  Hiitteuraiter  Bu¬ 
reau,”  a  full  statement  of  the  assay-results  as  found  by  actual  tests.  Tlier* 
the  two  statements  are  compared  as  regards  the  stated  weights  and 
contents.  In  these  statements  must  be  written  the  name  of  the  mine 
from  which  the  ore  came;  the  number  of  loads  and  their  respective  dry 
weights;  the  quality  and  the  determined  amounts  of  silver,  lead,  cop¬ 
per,  zinc,  sulphur,  and  arsenic,  in  the  exact  order,  as  given  in  the  state¬ 
ment  of  the  weigh-master.  The  mine-warden  must  also  notify  the  mine- 
superintendent  of  his  assay-results  in  the  same  order  as  stated  in  the 
weigh-book.  In  the  delivery  of  native  silver  and  silver-glance,  theamount 
of  the  contents  in  silver  determined  from  the  smelting,  (§  19,)  must  also 
be  put  down  by  the  warden  of  the  smelting-works  as  corresponding  to 
the  load. 

§  19.— Determinative  assay. 

If,there  be  a  difference  in  comparing  the  assay-statements  of  the 
mine-warden  (§  18)  and  that  of  the  warden  of  the  smelting-works  of  the 
ores  delivered  of  only  0.5  pfundtheil  (0.005  per  cent  =  1  oz.  It  dwt.  3.84 
gr.  per  ton)  silver,  the  result  of  the  warden  of  the  smelting-works  will 
be  taken  for  computing  their  contents  and  the  amount  to  he  paid  for 
this  metal,  (§  22;)  by  a  difference  or  one  pfundtheil  (0.01  per  cent.  =  2 
oz.  18  dwt.  4.80  gr.)  per  ton  of  2,000  pounds)  or  more  of  silver,  or  by  dif¬ 
ferences  in  lead,  copper,  sulphur,  or  arsenic,  a  determination  assay  must 
be  made  of  the  special  ore-load  at  the  “  Hiitteuraiter  expedition.” 

A  determinative  assay  of  the  zinc  in  zinc-ores  will  only  be  made  when 
of  the  two  purchase-assay  results  the  one  is  over  and  the  other  under 
the  limit,  for  which  there  is  a  special  tariff  for  zinc  in  the  zinc-blendic 
ores,  also  a  reduction  in  the  amount  paid  for  the  zinc  in  blendic  ores. 
The  zinc-blendic  determinative  assay  for  lead  is  also  only  made  when  the 
results  of  the  purchase  assays  are  the  one  over  and  the  other  under  5 
per  cent. 

The  results  of  the  determinative  assay  must  be  entered  in  the  assay- 
book,  with  the  difference  determined  ;  the  ore-load  must  also  be  marked 
with  the  difference. 

The  mine-superintendents,  as  well  as  the  officers  of  the  smelting- works, 
have  the  right  to  demand  that  a  determinative  assay  be  made,  when  an 
assay  made  by  them  from  a  sample  taken  from  the  ore-load  disagrees 
with  the  purchase-assay  so  far  that  it  seems  to  them  it  caunpt  possibly 
be  correct.  Such  demands  for  determinative  assays  must  be  handed  in 
by  the  above-named  officers  in  the  form  of  a  written  statement,  (state 
ment  of  assay-differences,)  at  the  “Hiittenraiter -expedition,"  before  12 
o'clock  on  Saturday,  after  the  close  of  the  weekly  ore-delivery.  A  state¬ 
ment  of  this  character  must  contain  the  name  of  the  sin  el  ting -works  at 


SAXON  REGULATIONS  FOR  PURCHASES. 


231 


wliicli  the  ore  was  delivered,  the  date  of  delivery,  the  name  of  the  mine 
from  which  it  came,  the  number  of  the  load,  (as  numbered  in  the  weigh- 
journal,)  of  which  the  determinative  assay  is  demanded  ;  also  the  dry 
weight  of  same,  the  quality,  and  the  metallic  contents,  according  to  the 
delivery  and  purchase  assays. 

After  the  officers  of  the  mine  and  smelting-works  have  made  known 
the  demand  for  a  determinative  assay  and  marked  the  respective  ore- 
loads,  the  judge-assay er  receives  from  the  “Hiittenraiter,”  on  Saturday 
evenings  of  every  week,  the  assay-certificates  of  the  mine- warden,  which 
contain  all  the  ore-loads  of  the  delivery-period  of  which  he  has  to  make 
determinative  assays.  The  determinative  assays  are  then  to  be  made 
by  the  warden  in  the  laboratory  of  the  smelting- works. 

The  assay-sample  in  the  lower  sample-trough  B,  from  which  no  assay 
has  been  made,  is  used  for  making  the  determinative  assay.  It  is  taken 
by  the  man  who  pulverizes  the  assay-samples,  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  warden,  and  carefully  prepared  according  to  §  11.  Four  days 
are  allowed  for  making  all  the  determinative  assays  that  may  be  de¬ 
manded  at  both  smelting-works  of  a  weekly  delivery.  The  days  are 
from  Monday  to  Thursday  at  the  latest. 

The  results  obtained  from  the  determinative  assays  must  be  entered 
by  the  warden  on  the  assay  statement  of  the  mine- warden  and  immedi¬ 
ately  sent  to  the  “  Hiittenraiter -expedition,”  where  it  is  open  to  inves¬ 
tigation  of  the  parties  concerned  until  Friday,  12  o’clock,  of  the  same 
week.  At  the  same  time  the  results  must  be  entered  upon  the  state¬ 
ment  of  assay-differences,  sent  in  by  the  mine  and  smelting-works  officers, 
and,  with  the  other  statement,  sent  to  the  u  Hiittenraiter-expedition,” 
from  whence  it  can  be  taken  away  by  the  mine  or  smelting-works  parties, 
and  if  the  result  differs  much  between  the  delivery  or  load  assays, 
another  determinative  assay  may  be  demanded,  (§  20.) 

When,  however,  the  mine-superintendent  demands  a  determinative 
assay,  in  spite  of  agreement  between  the  purchase-assays  of  the  warden 
of  the  mine  and  smelting-works,  within  the  limits  given  in  the  first  part 
Of  this  paragraph,  and  the  correctness  of  the  purchase-assay  should  be 
confirmed  by  the  same,  the  mine  must  pay  for  every  such  determinative 
assay — for  silver,  5  ueugroschen  ;  for  lead,  10  neugroschen  ;  for  copper, 
15  neugroschen  ;  for  zinc,  15  ueugroschen  ;  for  sulphur,  15  neugroschen  ; 
for  arsenic,  15  neugroschen — to  the  smelting- works  at  which  the  ore  was 
delivered,  and  the  bill  for  the  same  will  be  handed  in  at  the  close  of 
every  three  months. 

§  20.— Repetition  of  the  method  of  delivery. 

If  there  be  a  too  great  a  difference  between  the  delivery-assay  and 
the  results  of  the  determinative  assay  demanded  by  the  mine,  or  be¬ 
tween  the  load-assay  and  the  results  of  the  determinative  assay  de¬ 
manded  by  the  smelting-works,  then,  in  the  first  case,  it  is  allowable 
for  the  mine  to  demand  of  the  repetition  of  the  method  of  delivery  ;  in 


232 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


the  second  case,  the  smelting-works  may  demand  the  same.  Moreover, 
even  wlien  no  demand  has  been  made  for  a  determinative  assay,  either 
party  may  demand  of  tbe  repetition  of  the  method  of  delivery  when  the 
difference  between  the  results  of  the  determinative  assay  is  greater  than 
the  result  of  one  of  the  purchase-assays  over  the  other. 

In  repeating  the  method  of  delivery,  the  entire  manipulation  of  se¬ 
lecting  the  assay-sample  is  repeated,  by  weighing  the  entire  ore  load 
over  again,  and  selecting  of  the  assay-sample,  as  already  described,  after 
the  ore  has  been  well  mixed,  if  deemed  necessary,  and  carted  to  the 
scales. 

Each  of  the  controlling  wardens  must  carry  out  the  assays  according 
to  §  17,  and  enter  the  results  obtained  in  their  order  in  the  assay-state¬ 
ment  book.  The  weigh-master  designates  the  ore-load  as  weighed  the 
second  time. 

The  demand  for  the  repetition  of  the  method  of  delivery  on  behalf  of 
the  mine  or  smelting-works  should  be  made  in  the  week  in  which  the 
determinative  assay  of  the  ore-load  was  made,  and  at  the  latest  on  Fri¬ 
day  at  12  o’clock,  so  that  the  lliittenraiter  v  may  arrange  that  the  ore- 
load  njay  be  omitted  from  the  delivery-period  of  the  proscut  week. 

When  a  demand  is  made  on  behalf  of  the  smelting  works  for  the  repetition 
of  the  method  of  deli  very,  the  mine-superintendent  concerned  must  be  in¬ 
formed  of  the  same  by  the  “  lliittenraiter,” or  if  the  mine  superintendent 
should  live  too  faraway  from  Freiberg,  theagent  of  the  mine  in  the  city, 
who  is  authorized  to  attend  to  the  selling  of  the  ore  for  said  mine,  must 
be  informed.  If  this  controlling  manipulation  be  demanded  on  behalf 
of  t lie  mine,  the  same  has  to  pay  the  accompanying  costs,  which  are  as 
follows,  per  load  :  2  thaler  for  a  load  of  -100  centnern,  (cwt.)  (hundred¬ 
weight;)  2A  thaler  for  a  load  of  over  400  to  500  centnern,  and  3  thaler 
for  a  load  of  over  500  to  000  centnern,  all  in  wet  weight.  Both  parties 
must  be  ruled  by  the  results  of  this  repeated  manipulation,  unless  the 
two  purchase-assays  made  from  the  new  assay-samples  should  show  a 
material  difference  in  their  results;  if  this  should  be  the  case  with  rich 
ores,  it  is  probable  that  it  comes  from  the  ore  not  being  well  mixed.  In 
this  case  the  smelting-works  have  the  privilege  of  refusing  the  load  un¬ 
til  it  has  been  properly  prepared  for  delivery. 


§  21. — DEPUTYSIIir  OF  TIIE  JUDGE-ASSAYER. 

If  the  judge-assayer  should  be  unable  to  make  the  determinative  as¬ 
says  himself,  on  account  of  sickness,  or  for  some  other  good  reason,  they 
are  made  by  some  officer  of  the  smelting-works,  who  is  experienced  in 
assaying,  and  who  must  follow  the  instructions  of  the  judge-assayer  after 
having  been  detailed  by  the  smelting-administration  for  this  duty. 


§  22. — Computation  of  the  ore  prices. 

The  computation  of  the  metallic  contents  of  the  ores  is  carried  out, 
according  to  the  results  of  the  purchase-assays  and  determinative 


SAXON  REGULATIONS  FOR  PURCHASES. 


233 


assays,  at  the  u  Hiittenraiter-expedition  ”  without  any  secrecy.  The 
price  to  be  paid  for  the  same  is  also  computed. 

The  computation  of  the  metallic  contents  for  every  calculable  metal 
is  carried  out  by  multiplying  the  dry  weight  of  the  ore-load  with  assay- 
results;  for  silver,  according  to  the  dry  weight  as  determined  according 
to  §  9 ;  but  for  lead,  copper,  zinc,  sulphur,  and  arsenic,  only  to  within 
10  pounds. 

The  metallic  contents  per  load  are  rounded  off;  with  silver,  to  within 
0.5  pfundtheil,  (0.005  per  cent.=l  oz.  9  dwt.  3.84  gr. ;)  with  lead,  zinc, 
sulphur,  and  arsenic,  to  within  0.5  per  cent.;  and  with  copper,  to  within 
0.1  per  cent. 

The  computation  of  the  price  of  the  several  loads  is  carried  out  by 
multiplying  the  tariff-price  of  the  different  metals  by  the  metallic  con¬ 
tents  of  the  ore-load. 

When  the  tariff,  however,  gives  the  prices  per  unit  of  weight  of  the 
ore,  the  amount  to  be  paid  is  calculated  by  multiplying  the  price  in  the 
tariff-list,  corresponding  to  the  assay  of  the  ore,  by  the  dry  weight  of 
the  same. 

In  case  where  the  silver  contents  have  been  determined  by  smelting 
all  the  ore,  the  tariff-price  will  be  computed  by  calculating  the  average 
contents  from  the  dry  weight  and  assay-results.  The  doubly-calculated 
weight,  metallic  contents,  and  price  to  be  paid  for  the  ore  will  be  en¬ 
tered  in  a  statement  and  sent  to  the  mines  interested,  at  the  latest  on 
Wednesday  of  the  third,  fifth,  seventh,  ninth,  eleventh  week  of  each 
quarter.  It  is  payable  at  the  treasury  of  the  general  smelting  admin¬ 
istration. 

The  “  Hiittenraiter  ”  must  also  give  to  every  mine  a  statement  of  the 
amount  of  ore  delivered  at  the  works  by  each,  and  it  must  contain  the 
weight  of  each  load,  their  metallic  contents  and  assay,  and  price  for 
every  two  or  three  weeks’  delivery.  This  statement,  when  handed  in 
at  the  treasury  of  the  general  smelting  administration  by  the  mine- 
superintendent,  will  be  accepted,  and  the  amount  stated  in  the  same  as 
the  calculated  price  of  the  ore  according  to  tariff,  will  be  paid. 

INFLUENCE  OF  THE  MARKET-PRICE  AS  REGARDS  THE  PAYMENT  OF 
LEAD  AND  COPPER  IN  THE  ORES. 

(«.,)  The  normal  price  of  lead  is  taken  at  5  thaler  per  centner  (hun¬ 
dred-weight)  of  the  lead  sold  contained  in  lead  products ;  and, 

(b.)  For  copper,  3IJ  thaler  per  centner  of  copper  contained  in  the 
copper- vitriol  sold. 

If  the  actual  net  proceeds  from  selling  the  lead  in  lead  products  by 
the  smelting-works  should  be  more  or  less  in  the  course  of  a  year,  after 
deduction  of  the  necessary  costs  of  trading,  than  the  net  proceeds  for 
the  amount  of  lead  sold  according  to  the  normal  price  stated  in  the  first 
case,  the  mine  shall  receive  the  half  of  the  amount  thus  gained,  and  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  lead  delivered  by  the  same  as  u  a  lead- 


234 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 

delivery  premium.”  In  tlie  second  case,  however,  the  mine  must  share 
the  half  of  the  occurring  loss  as  “  a  lead-payment  restitution,”  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  amount  of  lead  contained  in  ore  delivered.  The  same 
rule  holds  good  for  the  copper  sold  as  copper-vitriol. 

The  calculation  of  the  amount  of  premium  or  loss  for  lead  and  copper 
is  carried  out  by  the  “Hiittenraiter,”  who  not  only  has  to  make  public, 
in  the  form  of  an  extract,  the  amount  of  money  in  the  treasury  of  the 
general  smelting  administration,  aud  to  give  the  miues  a  receipt  for  the 
amount  of  ore  delivered  at  the  smelting-works  on  the  eleventh  and 
twelfth  week  of  the  “  Quartals  Lucial,”  but  must  also  inform  the  mines 
interested  of  the  manner  in  which  the  premium  was  calculated  at  the 
close  of  each  year,  by  exhibiting  the  calculations.  The  general  smelt¬ 
ing  administration  must  determine  the  price  to  be  paid  for  the  metals 
beforehand  for  every  year,  at  tho  end  of  the  same  ;  lessor  gain  will  be 
equally  divided  according  to  amount  paid. 

Freiberg,  March  lii,  1868. 

“  Das  Itoniglieho  Oberhiittenamt.” 


F.  M.  Ill  I. K. 


ixdex 


Arsenical  products  manufactured  at  Freiberg 
Copper-extraction  : 

Altenau . 

Brixlegg  Smelting-Works . 

Bafreltorp  Stock  Company . 

Lower  Hungary . 

Mansfeld  Copper-Works . 

Oker  Smelting- Works . 

Russia . 

Copper-vitriol  manufacture: 

Altenau . . . 

Freiberg . 

Oker  Smelting-Works . 

Development  of  metal  industry  : 

Austrian-Hungarian  Empire  . . 

France . 

Germany . 

Greece . . . 

Italy . . 

Spain . 

Turkey  . 

Description  of  works : 

Freiberg  Smelting  Company . 

Brixlegg  Smelting-Works . . 

Freiberg  Smelting-Works . 

Greece . 

Kafreltorp  Stock  Company . 

Lower  Hungary . J . 

Norway . 

Zalathna . 

Zinc  Mining  Company*de  la  Vieille . 

Exhibits : 

Austrian-Hungarian  Empire . 


Belgium . 

France  . 

Germany . 68, 72, 73,  74, 228, 299, 299* 

Greece . 

Italy . 

Norway . 

Russia . 

Spain . . 

Sweden . 

Turkey  . 

United  States . 


Article.  Page. 

.  121-131  51 

. 243-260  106 

.  385  165 

. .  56-60  23 

.  445-470  194 

.  320  135 

.  300-305  127 

.  489-491  215 

.  262-266  113 

. .  208-217  86 

.  306-308  130 

. . 369,  375-377,  424,  425  157 

.  23  9 

. . 69-71,78-81,229-237,333  30 

. 503-507  219 

. .  30,35  13 

. .  17,18  7 

.  499  217 

. .  394  168 

.  382  164 

. . •. .  225  96 

.  504  220 

. .  53  23 

. .  426,431  179 

.  63, 66  26 

. .  478  213 

.  46  19 

.  370,  373,  378,  380,  388,  389,  393,  399,  157 

400,  402,  404, 408, 409,  413,  419, 422,  170 

423,471,477,481,482,485  179 

. 41,44,45  17 

.  19-22  9 

,  314,  321,  332,  335,  344,  351,  356,  362  30 

.  501,  502  219 

. 31-34,37-38  13 

. . 64,65,67  26 

. 486,487,493-497  215 

. 12-16  7 

. 50,52,54,55  22 

.  498  217 

.  1-9, 11  3 


236 


INDEX 


Furnaces : 

Bleiberg  Smelting  Company . 

Brixlegg  Smelting- Works . 

Comparison  of  Belgian  and  English  reverberatory 

Cnpellation,  Pribram  Smelting- Works . 

llasenclever  and  Ilelbig’s . 

Kuscbel  and  Hinterhuber’s . „ . 

Lundiu’s . . . 

Mansfeld  Copper-Works . 

Miiblbaeb  Smelting- Works . 

Boasting  and  smelting,  Biusfeldbammer . 

Shaft- roasting,  Freiberg . 

Siemen’s  rogenorativo . 

Smelting,  Ems  Smelting-Works . 

Tarnowitz . 


Lead-refining : 

Franco .  24-21*  11 

Freiberg . 153-156,  l GO-174  66 

Lead-smelting : 

Brixlegg  Smelting- Works .  386  165 

Claustlml .  238-242  104 

Jujius  lliltte .  311,312  132 

Ores  : 

Anstrian-1 1 ungnrian  Empire .  383,  472  164 

Germany . 75, 76  99,  l"  •.  316,  3 14, 357  33 

Norway . 62  26 

Russia .  488  215 

Sweden .  47, 46  21 

Paint,  yellow,  manufacture  at  Lautenthal .  294  125 

Quicksilver-distillation,  Upper  Hungary .  473  211 

Regulations  for  the  purchase  of  ofes  at  Royal  Saxon  Smelting- 

Works  . . .  Appendix  B.  224 

Roasting  and  smelting  process: 

Holzappel .  354  151 

Mechernicher  Smelting- Works .  358  152 

Stolberg  Stock  Company . 246  107 

Roasting  ores : 

Ems  Smelting- Works .  364  155 

Freiberg . - .  101-107  42 

Separation  of  silver  from  copper,  Royal  Hungarian  mint .  420,421  177 

Silver-extraction  : 

Andreasberg . 267,272  115 

Lower  Hungary . 432-440  161 

Mansfeld  Copper- Works .  317,318  134 

Stolberg  Stock  Company .  348,349  149 

Silver-refiuing,  Freiberg .  175-179  74 

Smelting  processes  : 

Bleyberg .  42  17 

Carinthia .  397  169 

Freiberg .  136-150, 187-207  58 

Italy .  38  14 

Miiblbaeb  Smelting- Works .  390  166 


Art. 

Page. 

396 

169 

381 

164 

43 

18 

374 

156 

345 

147 

414,415 

173 

49 

21 

315 

133 

166 

352 

150 

82-97 

35 

353 

151 

265 

114 

323. 325* 

130 

INDEX. 


237 


Art. 

Smelting  processes — Continued. 

Styria . - .  410 

Tarnowitz .  324,  325 

Turkey .  500 

Statistics  of  production  : 

Andreasberg . . 272 

Bleiberg  Smelting  Company .  398 

Brixlegg  Smelting- Works .  387 

Bulgaria .  418 

Copper-vitriol,  Freiberg .  218 

Egger  Smelting-Works . - .  399 

Ems  Smelting-Works .  3G8 

Freiberg  Metallurgical  Works .  227 

Italy .  39 

Julius  Hiitte .  313 

Kopparlberg  Copper-Works .  51 

Krain .  416 

Lautentlial .  296 

Lower  Hungary .  440,  442,  444 

Mecbernicber  Smelting-Works .  361 

Metals  from  Matte,  Freiberg .  219 

Nagy-Barya .  484 

Pribram  Smelting-Works .  378 

Principal  countries  of  the  world . Appendix  A. 

Rhine-Nassau  Smelting  Company .  355 

Russia .  492-497 

Saxon  mines .  226 

Silver,  Sweden . . .  61 

Smaller  Carinthiau  Smeltiug-Works .  403 

Stolberg  Stock  Company .  350 

Styria . 412 

Sulphuric  acid  and  copper-vitriol,  Oker,  Smelting- Works .  308 

Wald  Biigersehaft  Smelting-Works .  476 

Zalatkna .  480 


Sulphuric-acid  manufacture : 

Freiberg .  108-120 

Kafreltorps  Stock  Company .  58 

Mansfeld  Copper-Works .  319 

Oker  Smeltiug-Works . 306-308 

Villach  lead .  395 

White-lead  manufacture,  Puutscharl  Works . 405-407 

Zinc-desilverization  : 

Ems  Smelting-Works .  367 

Germania  Smelting  and  Refining  Works .  10 

Herbst  &  Company .  336-343 

Lautenthal .  275-290, 297-298 

Mechernicher  Smelting-Works .  359,  360 

Stolberg  Stock  Company .  347 

Styria . 411 

Tarnowitz .  326-331 

Zinc,  metallic,  production  at  Freiberg . 135 

Zinc-vitriol  manufacture,  Julius  Hiitte .  310 


Page. 


172 

137 

217 


118 

170 

165 

176 

90 

170 
156 

98 

15 

133 

22 

176 

126 

189 

154 

91 
214 
163 
223 
151 
216 

97 

25 

171 
150 
173 
131 
212 
213 


46 

24 

135 

130 
168 

171 

155 

4 

144 

118 

153 

148 

172 
139 

57 

131 


O 


G. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


OF  THE 


REPORTS 

OF  '1  HE 

Commissioners  of  the  United  States 


TO  THE 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


PUBLISHED  UNDER  DIRECTION  OF  THE  SECRETARY 
OF  STATE  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  CONGRESS. 


EDITED  BY 


ROBERT  H.  THURSTON,  A.  M.,  C.  E., 

PROFESSOR  OF  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING,  STEVENS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY;  MEMBER  OF  THE 
SCIENTIFIC  COMMISSION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

18  7  6. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


A. 


Subject. 

.Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Abbe  L’Epde,  historical  sketch . 

Education . 

.  K 

II 

55 

27 

Academie,  Bau . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

367 

359 

Berg . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

3C3 

357 

Acid,  phosphoric,  in  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

7 

12 

Do . 

.  B 

II 

15 

39 

sulphuric . 

Chemical  Industry . 

.  A 

II 

5 

2 

tartaric,  in  self-raising  Dread . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

91 

198 

vegetable . 

.  B 

II 

9 

19 

Ackerbau-Ministerium . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

•21 

22 

Ackerman,  report,  extracts.  See  index  to - 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

Act  authorizing  the  appointment  of  United 

States  commissioners . 

Introduction . 

.  A 

I 

Joint  resolution,  appropriation,  of  Congress. 

. do . 

.  A 

I 

Adamson's  steam-boiler . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

127 

141 

Admission  tickets . 

Introduction . 

.  A 

I 

76 

52 

Adriance,  Platt  &  Co.’s  mower . . 

. do . . 

.  P. 

I 

279 

141 

Do . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

428  ■ 

330 

Do . 

.  B 

I 

312 

164 

Aero-steam  engine,  Henderson's  theory . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

I 

151 

158 

Affameurs . 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  c 

III 

28 

31 

A  fra  School  of  Forestry . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

100 

152 

Agricultural  development,  history . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

316 

172 

implements,  trial  of . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

8 

14 

machinery,  reports.  (Seelndeicli, 

Maw  &Dredge,  Michael, Schmied, 

Tisserand) . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

products,  Tisserand  on . 

.  B 

I 

316 

171 

Agriculture,  (see  Fertilizers,  Food,  Tisserand.) 

colonial  policy . 

. do . . 

.  B 

I 

324 

178 

Air-engines,  hot . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

150 

154 

Lehmann’s . 

.  A 

III 

162 

160 

Air-thermometers . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

.  F 

II 

13 

17 

Albert’s  photographic  process . 

Photography . 

.  D 

II 

18 

46 

Albumen  and  starch . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

469 

373 

Albumen,  vegetable,  in  bread . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

93 

205 

Albums,  Hofksai's . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  0 

II 

24 

37 

Alcohols . 

Chemical  Materials . 

.  F 

II 

14 

19 

Aletoscopes . 

Photography . . 

.  D 

II 

14 

33 

Algeria,  forest  area . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

79 

105 

Algerian  ores  and  mines . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

Algiers,  photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

.  D 

II 

13 

30 

Alien-Porter  engine . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

33 

42 

Alloys  adapted  to  casting  in  chills . 

.  A 

III 

328 

303 

Alphabets,  Chinese  and  Japanese . „ . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  0 

II 

24 

36 

Morse’s  telegraphic . 

Telegraphs . 

.  J 

IV 

18 

25 

Alterian,  copper-ores,  treatment . 

Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

106 

243 

copper- vitriol  establishments . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

112 

260 

production . 

.  F 

IV 

115 

266 

Aluminum . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

365 

232 

America,  ( see  United  States.) 


4  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  187X 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Pa  ge. 

Art. 

America,  stone- working  in . . 

W orkiug  of  Stone . . 

..  D 

IV 

.  SI 

21 

North,  exhibits  of  woods . 

Forest  ry . . 

..  D 

I 

12 

7 

South,  exhibits  of  woods . 

. do . . 

..  D 

I 

13 

8 

American  and  British  machinery . 

Machinery . 

..  A 

III 

241 

248 

ordnance  . 

..  A 

III 

381 

304 

steam  tire-engines . 

.  A 

III 

100 

123 

tool-making . 

..  A 

III 

902 

214 

beam  c-Dgine . 

. do . 

III 

59 

<34 

carriage-wheels . 

Wood  Industries . 

..  C 

IV 

ti 

o 

clocks . 

Instruments . . 

..  G 

11 

27 

34 

locomotives . 

Machinery . . 

..  A 

III 

60 

09 

machinery,  British  opinion . 

. do . 

..  A 

III 

204 

215 

machine-tools . 

. do . 

..  A 

III 

240 

247 

mechanics  at  Vicnua . 

..  A 

III 

343 

322 

progress,  cause  of . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

328 

183 

publications ;  character . 

Government  Priming . 

..  1* 

II 

5 

3 

telegraphic  exhibits .  . . 

Telegraphs . 

I 

II 

5 

o 

tools,  German  opinion  of . 

Machinery . 

..  A 

HI 

338 

317 

wood-work,  exhibits . 

Wood  Industries . 

..  C 

IV 

5 

1 

wood  working  tools . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

249 

257 

Amici's  improvement  in  lenses. . 

Instruments . 

11 

36 

41 

Ammonia  from  gas,  new  process . , 

Fertilisers . 

..  C 

11 

49 

52 

salts . ‘ . 

..  C 

11 

48 

50 

sulphate  of,  price . 

. do  . 

..  C 

II 

,411 

51 

Amyl  scries . 

Chemical  Materials . . 

. .  K 

II 

15 

21 

Anatomy . 

Medicine  and  Snrgorv . 

..  E 

II 

7 

4 

Anderson.  (See  Reports,  British.) 

Andreasherg  Metal-  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

..  v 

IV 

115 

207 

Aneroid  barometers . 

Instruments . 

.  li 

11 

9 

17 

Angular  belt,  Underbill's . 

Mnrhinerv . 

.  A 

III 

334 

312 

Apartment  buildings  at  Vienna. . 

Architecture . 

.  A 

IV 

5 

21 

Do . 

..  A 

IV 

ti 

2 

models . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

*15 

29 

lleinricbsbotT. . 

..  Aa 

IV 

15 

30 

Apparatus  for  measuring  strains  in  girders _ 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

in 

02 

82 

Jaite's . 

Telegraphs . 

.  J 

it 

12 

16 

Appeulne  forests . 

Forestry . 

..  D 

i 

59 

73 

Appleby  A  Brothers'  steam-crane . 

Machinery . . 

..  A 

m 

335 

315 

Appleton,  B„  A  Co.,  book-printing . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  O 

ii 

6 

4 

Apprentices  at  Vlmprimerie  Nationale  Framjaiso 

Government  Printing . 

.  P 

ii 

14 

33 

the  Staatsdniokerie.  Vienna _ 

..  P 

ii 

9 

17 

Appropriation  by  Congress . 

Introduction . 

..  A 

i 

Arbey  A  Co.'s  ploning-macbine . 

Machinery . 

iii 

284 

273 

Arched  doors . 

Architecture . . 

..  A 

IV 

17 

29 

Architectural  designs,  American  and  European. 

..  B 

IV 

24 

53 

development  in  Vienna . 

. d.i . 

.A 

IV 

20 

30 

ARCHITECTURE  AND  MATERIALS  OF  COSSTRUC- 

Ttox.  Report  of  N.  L.  Derby.  . 

..  B 

IV 

Private  Dwellings  of  V iknna. 

Report  of  J.  R.  NlBRXSEE . 

IV 

Architecture.  (See  Buildings.) 

of  American  churches . 

..  B 

IV 

24 

56 

stvles  of . 

..  B 

IV 

21 

44 

exhibition  buildings . 

. do . 

..  A 

IV 

8 

10 

Areometers . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

..  F 

II 

6 

6 

Armor-plate.  Sheffield . 

Machinery . . 

..  A 

III 

440 

417 

Armorv.  Colt's,  (see  Fire-arms) . 

Introduction . 

..  B 

I 

343 

201 

GENERAL  INDEX.  5 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Arms,  equipments,  Herzog's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

480 

387 

Armstrong’s  dovetailing  machine . 

. do . 

_  B 

I 

245 

.94 

Army-saddles . 

....  B 

I 

344 

206 

Aromatic  compounds . 

Chemical  Materials . 

....  F 

II 

15 

26 

Aroza,  photographic  establishments . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

10 

22 

Arsenal  at  Vienna. . . . . 

•Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

14 

'  27 

Arsenical  production  at  Freiberg . 

Metallurgy . 

_  F 

IV 

51 

121 

Do . 

_  F 

IV 

56 

131 

Art,  Governmental  Patronage  of,  Keport 

of  E.  11.  Gallaudet . 

Patronage  of  Art . 

_  FT 

II 

Art,  building . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

....  Aa 

IV 

11 

18 

development  in  Great  Britain . 

Patronage  of  Art . 

_  FT 

II 

7 

6 

French,  no  longer  supreme . 

. do . 

....  FT 

II 

12 

16 

government  commission  proposed . 

-  FT 

II 

13 

19 

patronage . 

....  FT 

II 

7 

5 

graphic,  instruction  in,  Langl's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

451 

361 

Lorck’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

377 

253 

Masson’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

336 

191 

museums;  application  to  industry . 

Patronage  of  Art . 

....  FT 

II 

12 

17 

of  war,  Mertian’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

343 

200 

patronage,  no  support  needed . 

Patronage  of  Art . 

....  FT 

II 

12 

18 

standard  in  Europe . 

....  FT 

II 

11 

14 

state  policy.. . 

-  FT 

II 

14 

21 

Artificial  Stone,  Stone  Working,  Report  of 

Louis  J.  Hinton . 

Working  of  Stone . 

--.-  D 

IV 

.Art  of  Printing  and  Manufacture  of  Paper, 

Keport  of  G.  W.  Silcox . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

Artillery,  Krupp’s . 

Metallurgy . 

-  E 

IV 

76 

61 

Artisans,  Viennese . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

23 

35 

Artist,  characteristics  of . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

11 

13 

Ashes  of  wood,  potash  from  . . . 

Fertilizers . 

-  C 

II 

51 

55 

Asia,  fairs  in . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

32 

7 

Astronomical  photography . 

....  B 

I 

338 

193 

Aubois  canal-lock . 

Civil  Engineering . 

....  C 

III 

64 

87 

Audemar’s  exhibit  of  watches . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

16 

21 

Aultman,  Miller  &  Co.’s  mowers  and  reapers  : 

Sehmied’s  report . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

277 

137 

Maw  &  Dredge’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

428 

329 

Tisserand’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

314 

165 

Australia,  exhibits  of  wood . — 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

39 

47 

wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

18 

45 

Austria,  forest  products . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

19 

18 

Lower,  forest  exhibits . 

....  D 

I 

28 

29 

School  of  Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

98 

142 

state  railroads,  forest  products . 

. do  . 

....  D 

I 

49 

61 

Upper,  exhibit  of  woods . 

. do . 

....  D 

I 

29 

30 

state  forests . 

....  D 

I 

69 

86 

Austrian  brick  manufacture . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

6 

7 

horological  exhibits . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

23 

32 

locomotives . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

72 

87 

metallurgical  exhibits . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

5 

4 

process  . 

....  F 

IV 

159 

375 

photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

20 

50 

plane-tables  . . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

II 

8 

13 

reports.  ( see  Reports.) 

schools . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

102 

54 

ssheep,  exhibits . 

Sheep  and  Wool . . 

....  E 

I 

12 

13 

■merinoes.  Cotswold-merino - 

....  E 

I 

13 

14 

6  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

REI'CiKT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Austrian  Staats-eisenbahn-Gesellschaft . 

..  Machinery . 

.  A 

Ill 

71 

terra-cotta . 

..  Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

5 

watches,  exhibit . 

. .  Instruments . 

.  G 

11 

20 

wood-working  machinery . 

Austro- Hungary,  [nee  Hungary.; 

. .  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

287 

lead  metal  industry . 

..  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

157 

railroads . 

..  Telegraphs . 

.  1 

11 

59 

telegraphs.. . 

.  I 

11 

54 

employes . 

.  I 

II 

71 

otliees . 

. do . 

.  I 

H 

68 

wool  production . 

. .  Sheep  and  Wool . 

. .  E 

I 

3t* 

A  ntomatic  telegraphy . 

. .  Telegraphs . 

.  I 

II 

12 

Do . 

.  J 

II 

11 

Automatism,  education  of . 

..  Education . 

.  K 

11 

11 

Auxiliary  telegraphs . 

..  Telegraphs . 

.  I 

11 

42 

Aveling  A  Porter's  engines. . 

..  Machinery . 

111 

101 

A  very  wool-spinner,  Anderson's  report . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

247 

Serlo  A  Stulzel's  report.. 

.  B 

I 

361 

Thurston's  report . 

..  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

288 

Zeman’s  report . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

423 

Awards,  London  exhibition,  1h51 . 

I 

38 

Paris  exhibition,  1855 . 

.  A 

I 

46 

•  Paris  exhibition,  1867 . 

.  A 

I 

57 

Paris  exhibition,  1867 . 

. .  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

121 

Vienna,  American  exhibits . 

. .  Introduction . 

I 

215 

classification  by  states . 

I 

216 

distribution . 

. .  Machinery . 

.  A 

HI 

6 

distribution . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  A 

I 

109 

distribution . 

.  B 

I 

3IG 

distribution  by  groups . 

.  A 

I 

199 

statistics,  general . 

. .  Machinery . 

.  A 

I 

9 

tabular  exhibit . . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  A 

t 

199 

United  States  exhibits . . . 

. .  Machinery . 

B. 

. .  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

9 

Band-saws,  Fay  A  Co. 'a . 

.  A 

III 

259 

Perin's . ....I...... 

III 

284 

Iinnsonie  &  Co.'s . 

.  A 

III 

270 

Richards,  London  St  Kelley's . 

.  A 

III 

263 

Whitney's . 

III 

253 

1  laden  school  of  forestry . . 

..  Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

97 

Badollet  St  Co.'s  watches . 

..  Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

14 

Bakers  of  London . 

..  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

90 

Bakery,  Vienna . . 

.  B 

It 

97 

Baking,  coagulation  of  vegetable  albumen _ 

.  B 

II 

93 

Balance-thermometer.  Siemens'  electrical . 

..  Instruments . 

.  H 

II 

11 

Balances . 

..  Physical  Apparatus . 

.  F 

II 

6 

sensibility  of . 

. .  Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

34 

Ban  at  wheat,  harvesting  and  grinding . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

18 

Barley  bread . . 

.  B 

11 

84 

Barometers,  aneroid . 

. .  Instruments . 

.  H 

II 

9 

Pillischer's . 

.  H 

II 

9 

mercurial . 

.  H 

II 

9 

Kappeler's . 

.  H 

II 

9 

Barrages,  at  Port  a  1' Anglais . 

.  Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

37 

between  Monterean  and  Paris . 

.  c 

III 

37 

on  the  Seine  and  Tonne . . 

.  c 

III 

30 

Bar  re  school  for  idiots . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

83 

Art. 

86 

o 

27 

277 

369 

47 

30 

61 

54 

50 

12 

14 

9 

23 

116 

97 

220 

279 

321 

19 

32 

45 

95 

70 

71 

12 

66 

170 

67 

15 

66 

16 

267 

274 

270 

255 

260 

140 

18 

196 

217 

205 

23 

7 

40 

45 

183 

17 

16 

18 

18 

46 

44 

33 

42 


GENERAL  INDEX.  7 


Subject. 

IIeport. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art, 

Barrels,  paper . 

...  Printing  and  Paper . . 

....  K 

II 

27 

39 

Barrow  steel . 

. ..  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

40S 

387 

Fairbaim’s  tests . 

....  A 

III 

408 

387 

Thurston’s  test . 

....  A 

III 

409 

388 

works . 

....  A 

III 

406 

385 

Barrows,  tubular . 

. . .  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

431 

338 

Basins,  hydraulic . 

. ..  Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

9 

17 

of  the  Danube . 

. ..  Hydraulic  Engineering . 

...  D 

III 

6 

5 

Batteries,  telegraphic . 

. ..  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

7 

6 

telegraphic . 

...  J 

II 

16 

21 

Belgian . 

....  J 

II 

9 

8 

Callaud’s . 

...  J 

II 

16 

23 

Daniell’s . 

...  J 

II 

16 

22 

Grove's . 

...  J 

II 

16 

22 

Bau-Academie  at  Berlin . 

. ..  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

367 

359 

Bauer’s  telegraphic  aoparatus . 

. ..  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

36 

19 

Bavaria  School  of  Forestry . 

. ..  Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

97 

134 

Bavarian  clocks  and  watches . 

. ..  Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

23 

32 

sheep  culture . 

. . .  Sheep  and  “Wool . 

...  E 

I 

12 

13 

Baxter's  oil-prints . 

. ..  Printing  and  Paper . 

...  P 

II 

10 

11 

Bayer  and  Langl,  on  painting . 

. . .  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

439 

350 

Beard  of  wheat,  removing . 

. ..  Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

27 

61 

Bedding-stone . 

. ..  Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

17 

30 

Beef,  canned . 

. . .  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

473 

379 

Beet-root  sugar  cultivation . 

...  B 

I 

325 

180 

Belosic  area  and  products . 

. . .  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

93 

127 

Belgian  artificial  stone . 

. ..  Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

45 

55 

educational  exhibits . . 

. -.  Education . 

...  L 

II 

17 

19 

industrial  schools . 

...  L 

II 

17 

20 

manufactures . 

. . .  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

390 

370 

history  of . 

...  A 

III 

389 

309 

metallurgical  exhibits . . 

. ..  Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

17 

41 

photographs . . 

. ..  Photography . 

...  D 

II 

15 

38 

railroads . 

. ..  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

60 

48 

reverberatory  furnaces . 

. ..  Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

18 

43 

road-locomotives . 

. . .  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

83 

100 

schools . . 

. ..  Education . 

...  K 

II 

103 

56 

for  idiots . 

...  K 

II 

77 

34 

telegraphs . 

. ..  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

60 

48 

administration . 

...  I 

II 

55 

31 

employes . 

...  I 

II 

72 

62 

offices . 

...  I 

II 

68 

55 

Belgium  woods . 

. . .  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

9 

41 

Belleroplion,  iron-clad . 

. . .  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

58 

61 

Belleville  steam-boiler . 

...  A 

III 

131 

143 

Belt,  Underhill’s  angular . 

...  A 

III 

334 

312 

Belts  and  motors,  Eadinger’s  report . . 

. . .  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

414 

309 

Benedikt  on  artificial  teeth . 

...  B 

I 

432 

341 

dental  apparatus . 

...  B 

I 

432 

342 

Bentz’s  method  of  removing  beard  and  bran. 

. ..  Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

27 

61 

Berg  on  book-binding . . 

. . .  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

409 

302 

Berg-Academie  at  Freiberg . . 

. . .  Machinery . 

...  A 

in 

363 

357 

Bergman’s  boiler . 

...  A 

in 

132 

146 

Berlin,  visit  to . 

...  A 

in 

364 

358 

Bernay’s  pump . 

...  A 

in 

197 

205 

Berryman’s  feed-water  heater . 

...  A 

in 

134 

149 

Berry,  wheat,  chemical  composition . 

. ..  Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

n 

6 

9 

proximate . 

....  B 

n 

8 

16 

8 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


Subject. 

Bessemer  process,  Ackerman's  report . 

Eepokt. 

.  Metallurgy . 

Vol. 

IV 

Tage. 

175 

Art- 

142 

steel  in  the  Alpine  country . 

IV 

15 

14 

Bicetre,  school  for  idiots . 

.  Education . 

....  K 

II 

SO 

36 

Bigelow's  boot  and  shoe  machinery . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

219 

93 

Do . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

hi 

309 

291 

Binding  at  lTmprimerie  Rationale  Fran^aise  . .. 

Government  Printing . 

....  P 

ii 

13 

32 

books,  Berg’sreport . . . 

Introduction . i 

....  B 

i 

409 

302 

Lott’s  report . 

....  B 

i 

410 

303 

Binocular  telescopes . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

ii 

7 

10 

Binsfeldhammer  smelt  ing  and  roasting  furnaces . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

150 

352 

Blast-furnaces,  (see  Furnaces.) 

Buttgenbach’s . 

....  E 

IV 

82 

C3 

European,  dimensions . 

....  E 

IV 

41 

24 

Bleiberg  Smelting  Company . 

....  F 

IV 

1G9 

396 

Bloyberg,  ores  and  furnace . 

....  F 

IV 

17 

42 

Blondeau’s  thoory  of  yeast-cells . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

73 

170 

Blood,  dried,  as  a  fertilizer . 

Fertilizers . 

....  c 

II 

50 

54 

Bloomerios  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia.... 

Metal  lurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

19 

21 

Blowing-apparatus  and  pumps  in  Germany . 

Machinery . . 

....  A 

III 

359 

351 

engines . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

136 

114 

of  the  Cleveland  district . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

412 

392 

Bobbin  for  sewing-machines . 

Sewing-machines . 

....  B 

III 

8 

32 

Bochum  cast-steel  bells . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

112 

86 

works . 

.  E 

IV 

111 

80 

coal-mines . 

.  E 

IV 

111 

81 

coko  blast-furnaces . 

. <lo . 

....  E 

IV 

111 

83 

furnaces . . 

.  E 

IV 

111 

84 

iron-mines . 

. do . . 

....  E 

IV 

111 

82 

mining  and  steel  works . 

....  E 

IV 

110 

79 

stoel  castings . 

....  E 

IV 

112 

85 

Bog  ores  and  limonito . 

. do . 

....  E 

IV 

167 

137 

Bohomia,  Belosic  territory . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

93 

127 

estates,  area . 

....  D 

I 

89 

117 

Count  Cliotek . 

....  D 

I 

92 

124 

Count  Thun . 

....  D 

I 

89 

.  118 

llsli-culture . 

....  D 

I 

91 

127 

lbrest-culturo . 

....  D 

I 

91 

120 

lands . 

....  D 

I 

89 

117 

Gros  Zdikau . 

....  D 

I 

91 

122 

Joachimstbaler  forest . 

....  D 

I 

71 

90 

Uenhof . 

....  D 

I 

93 

126 

Penuc . 

....  D 

I 

91 

121 

Skalicz . 

....  D 

I 

92 

123 

Weltrus . 

....  D 

I 

92 

125 

woods . . . 

....  D 

I 

23 

2.", 

Bohemian  arches . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

17 

29 

Boilers,  Adamson . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

127 

141 

Belleville . 

....  A 

III 

131 

143 

Bolzano,  Xedesco  &  Co . 

....  A 

III 

133 

143 

construction,  principles  of . 

....  A 

III 

144 

151 

Davey-Faxman . 

....  A 

III 

127 

142 

Ehrhardt . 

...  A 

III 

132 

145 

Galloway . 

....  A 

III 

111 

127 

trial . 

....  A 

III 

111 

123 

Howard . -. - 

...  A 

III 

124 

136 

advantages  claimed. . 

- ,.do . 

....  A 

III 

126 

139 

Meyer . 

...  A 

III 

131 

144 

Paucksch  &  Freund . 

...  A 

III 

133 

147 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


9 


Subject. 


Report. 


Yol.  Page.  Art. 


Boilers,  Pitkins  Brothers  .  Machinery . 

sectional,  characteristics . do . 

historical  sketch . <lo . 

trials . do . 

Sigl . . do  . 

Sinclair . do . 

Bologna  Photographic  Society .  Photography . 

Bolt  and  nnt  machine,  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manu¬ 
facturing  Company .  Introduction . 

Bolt,  flour .  Vienna  Bread . 

Bolting  flour . do . 

Bolzano,  Tedesco  &  Co.'s  boiler .  Machinery . 

grate . do . 

Bonding  walls .  Architecture . 

Bone-meal,  steamed,  composition  and  price . Fertilizers . 

Book-binding,  Berg's  report .  Introduction . 

Lott’s  report . do . . 

Book  illustrations,  German .  Photography . 

printing,  D.  Appleton  &  Co .  Printing  and  Paper  . . 

Books,  Lecliner,  Klar,  and  Richter’s  report . Introduction . 

Boot  and  shoe  machinery,  Bigelow . do . 

Do .  Machinery . 

Borsig’s  exhibits . Metallurgy . 

Locomotive  "Works . Machinery . 

Rouble  viaduct. . Civil  Engineering - 

Bouillon  School  of  Forestry .  Forestry . 

Boulton  &  Imray's  pump .  Machinery . 

Bran,  composition  of . Vienna  Bread . 

duster . do . 

proportion  of  flour  attached . do . 

removal . do . 

Brawn's  carbon  prints .  Photography . 

Brazilian  photographs . do . — 

Bread,  (see  Wheat.) 

Bread  block .  Vienna  Bread . 

Daglish  s  aerated.... . do . 

flour,  Viennese . do . 

leavened  and  unleavened . do . 

light  and  heavy . do . 

Paris  wheat . . do . 

phosj)hatic . do . 

advantages  of . do . 

introduction  into  Europe . do . . 

Meyer’s  investigations . do . 

Vienna  bakery . do . 

porosity  of . do . 

signification  of  the  word . do . . . . 

stale . do . 

Vienna  excellencies  . . . do . . 

Bread,  Vienna,  Report  of  E.  X.  HonsFoitp . do . 

Breakwater,  concrete  .  Architecture . . 

Breeding  sheep,  establishments  in  France .  Sheep  and  Wool - 

modification  by  circumstances . do . 

progress  of  the  century . -.do . 

Brefeld  on  alcoholic  fermentation .  Vienna  Bread . 

Breguet's  watches. . .' .  Instruments . 

report  on  cheap  watches . do . 

Exhibition  Buildings 


A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

A 

D 

B 
B 
B 
A 
A 
B 
*  C 
B 
B 
D 
O 
B 
B 
A 
E 
A 
C 
D 
A 
B 
B 
B 
B 
D 
D 


B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

E 

E 

E 

B 

G 

G 

Aa 


III 

109 

126 

III 

118 

132 

III 

118 

131 

III 

119 

133 

III 

133 

148 

III 

127 

140 

II 

15 

34 

I 

331 

259 

II 

49 

109 

II 

47  ' 

106 

III 

133 

148 

III 

133 

143 

IV 

7 

10 

II 

46 

45 

I 

409 

302 

I 

4 10 

303 

II 

16 

41 

II 

6 

4 

I 

447 

356 

I 

249 

98 

III 

309 

291 

IV 

59 

45 

III 

364 

358 

III 

15 

1 

I 

153 

100 

III 

199 

210 

II 

3 

5 

II 

48 

108 

11 

48 

103 

II 

27 

61 

n 

19 

43 

ir 

7 

8 

ii 

110 

235 

ii 

91 

199 

ii 

59 

129 

ii 

76 

165 

ii 

84 

183 

ii 

88 

193 

ii 

92 

201 

ii 

112 

241 

ii 

112 

242 

ii 

111 

240 

ii 

112 

243 

ii 

77 

166 

ii 

75 

164 

ii 

94 

210 

ii 

100 

223 

ii 

IV 

11 

22 

i 

36 

45 

i 

5 

2 

i 

5 

1 

ii 

83 

181 

n 

17 

23 

ii 

18 

24 

IV 

21 

43 

Bricks 


10 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art.. 

Brick  buildings  at  Vienna . 

Architecture . 

.  A 

IV 

11 

17 

molded,  manufacture  of . 

.  B 

IV 

7 

6 

Vienncso . 

IV 

6 

6- 

peculiar  kind . 

.  B 

IV 

8 

12 

Brick-kilns,  apartment . 

.  Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

19 

41 

contiunal . 

. do . 

IV 

21 

42 

Brickmaking . . 

IV 

19 

40 

Brick-work,  carved,  red  cement  for . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

9 

15 

in  the  United  States . 

.  B 

IV 

8 

11 

Bridge,  Fink,  at  Louisville,  Ivy . 

Introduction . . 

.  B 

I 

346 

209 

Bridges,  L.,  Report  ou  Buildings  of  the 

Exhibition  and  Railroad  Structures . 

,  Exhibition  Buildings . 

Brinckman  on  split-wood  manufacture) . 

Introduction . . 

.  B 

I 

405 

300 

veneers . 

.  B 

I 

408 

29» 

British,  (see  Great  Britain,  England,  English.) 

British  and  American  machinery . 

_ ; . do . 

.  B 

I 

231 

73 

British  aud  American  machinery . 

Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

204 

215 

methods . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

241 

248 

ordnance  . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

381 

364 

steam  Hre-engirie . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

10G 

123 

tool-making . 

....  A 

III 

202 

214' 

British  Colonies,  photographs . 

Photography . 

....  1) 

II 

14 

9 

woods .  . 

Forestry  . 

_  D 

I 

44 

39 

educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

.  L 

II 

21 

3b 

exhibitors . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

224 

154 

exhibits,  character  of . 

....  E 

IV 

223 

152 

machines,  vurious . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

243 

250 

exports . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

223 

153 

India,  educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

....  L 

II 

17 

21 

photographs . 

Photography . 

....  D 

.  II 

22 

61 

wood9 . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

40 

39 

iron-clad  Monarch . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

420 

404 

iron  making . , . 

....  A 

III 

405 

383 

and  steel  industry . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

2*23 

152’ 

navy . . . 

Machinery . 

III 

425 

402 

policy . 

....  A 

III 

433 

410 

opinion  of  American  tools . 

....  A 

III 

240 

247 

railroads . . . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

G3 

50- 

reports,  (see  Reports.) 

sheep,  (see  Sheep.) 

stone-working  machinery . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  I) 

IV 

16 

13 

telegraphs . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

63 

50 

telegraphic  administration . 

II 

56 

35 

employes . . . . . 

....  I 

II 

74 

64 

offices . 

....  I 

II 

60 

57 

woodlands . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

51 

64 

wood  working  tools . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

265 

268 

workingmen  at  Vienna . 

....  A 

III 

342 

321 

Brixlegg  Smelting  Company . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

164 

382. 

Bronze  cast  in  chills . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

326 

300 

character  of  ordinary . 

....  A 

III 

324 

299 

chilled,  cold-rolled . 

....  A 

III 

326 

301 

cold-rolled,  B.  Dean's . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

324 

293 

compared  with  steel . 

....  A 

III 

334 

310 

Uchatius . . . 

III 

324 

268 

Brooks.  D.,  Report  on  Telegraphs  and 

Apparatus . 

Telegraphs . 

....  J 

II 

GENERAL  INDEX 


11 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Brown,  A.  H.,  Report  on  Government  Printing 

Institutions . 

Government  Printing  .... 

....  P 

II 

Brown,  Darling  <fc  Sharpe's  tools . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

319 

294 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Company's— 

No.  1  screw-machine . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

232 

241 

No.  4  screw-machine . 

....  A 

III 

233 

242 

Anderson’s  report . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

239 

83 

Hartig  and  others'  report . 

....  B 

I 

381 

257 

Nut  and  bolt  machine . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

381 

259 

Plain  milling-machine . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

234 

243 

Screw-machine . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

382 

262 

Tools . . . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

232 

240' 

Universal  milling-machine . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

235 

244 

Brotherhood  &  Hardinghams  engine . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

37 

44 

Bruise  Island  overfall . 

Civil  Engineering  . 

....  C 

III 

34 

40 

Brunner,  Lauer,  and  Zinner  on  shovels . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

436 

348 

Brunner's  theodolite . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

6 

6 

Brush-machine,  Woodbury’s : 


Anderson's  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

250 

99 

Exner’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

422 

319 

Hartig  and  others’  report . 

...  B 

I 

384 

272 

Thurston’^  report . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

307 

290 

Brussels  Exchange . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

23 

50 

Brunswick  school  of  forestry . . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

97 

137 

Buchholz’s  cylinder-mills . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

61 

132 

Buda-Pesth  bridge . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  .... 

...  D 

III 

15 

26 

river  improvements  at . 

. do . 

...  D 

III 

8 

10 

Building,  (see  Architecture,  Construction.) 

art  of . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

H 

18 

progress  in  Austria,  bridges  and 

railroad  structures . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

31 

43 

Buildings,  Exhibition,  Dublin,  1853  . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

39 

20 

London,  1851 . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

35 

15 

London,  1862 . 

. do . . 

....  A 

I 

48 

34 

New  York,  1853 . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

41 

24 

Paris,  1855 . 

. do . . 

....  A 

I 

39 

25 

Paris,  1867 . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

52 

40 

Vienna,  1873 . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

65 

47 

Vienna,  1873 . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

24 

54 

Vienna,  1873 . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

...  Aa 

IV 

5 

1 

framed . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

18 

36 

groups  . 

...  A 

IV 

14 

10 

laws . 

. do . . 

....  A 

IV 

14 

22 

machinery  hall . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

. ...  Aa 

IV 

11 

19 

materials . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

280 

144 

of  Vienna . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

11 

16 

Neue  Freie  Presse . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

_  Aa 

IV 

13 

25 

public,  location  of . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

23 

51 

regulations,  Vienna . 

....  A 

IV 

17 

28 

school,  (see  Schools.) 

Staatsdruckerei .  . 

Government  Printing . 

....  P 

II 

7 

12 

Viennese . 

.  Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

10 

20 

present  system . 

. . do . 

....  A 

IV 

7 

9 

wooden . 

.  Wood  Industries . 

....  c 

IV 

11 

11 

Bukowina  forests . 

.  Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

71 

92 

Burback . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

65 

57 

Burmeister  &  Wain’s  marine-engines . 

Machinery . 

.. ..  A 

III 

52 

56 

Buttgenbach's  blast-furnace . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

82 

62 

Butyl  series . 

Chemical  Materials . 

.  F 

II 

15 

23 

12 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


9 


c. 

SUBJECT.  REPORT. 


Cadmium . . . 

Cail  &  Co.’s  works . . 

Caisson,  floating,  in  Danube . 

Cake,  leavened  and  unleavened _ 

Caledonia,  New,  forests . . 

Calendar,  general,  of  the  exhibition 

California  exhibits . 

Calking  and  riveting  steam-boilers  . 

Calland’s  battery . 

Calorie  engine,  Ericsson's . 

Cameron  s  steam-pump . 

Canadian  phosphate . 

sowing-machines . 

Canal,  Donau . 

feeding,  Aisne  and  Marne. . 

lock,  of  Aubols . 

Canned  food,  (see  Food.) 

Caoutchonc . 

Caprou  water-wheels . 

Do . , . 

Carbon-prints . 

collodion  negatives  . 

discovery . 

process,  Obcrnottor’s . 


Introduction . 

Machinery . 

Hydraulic  Engineering 

Vienna  bread . 

Forestry . 

Introduction . 

. do . 

Machinery . 

Telegraph . 

Machinery . . 

. do . 

Fertilizers . 

Sewing-Machines . 

Hydraulic  Engineering 

. do . 

. do . 

Introduction . 

. do . 

Machinery . 

Photography . - 

. do . 

......do . 

. do . . 


Carol's  locomotive . 

Carinthln  forests  products . 

state . 

mining  companies . . 

Cnrnioln  forests . 

Middle  and  Lower . 

state  forests . . . 

Carpenter,  C.  F„  Report  on  Instruments  ok 
Precision . . 

Carpentry . . 

Flattich’a  report . 

Carrara  marble . . 

Caseins . 

Car-building  in  Germany . 

Carriages . . . 

Cars,  hospital .  . 

Cartography,  Zaflhuk's  report . . 

Carved  brick  work,  cement  for . 

Castings,  cement . . 

iron . 

Cast  iron  in  construction . 

Cast-steel  bells,  Boehnin . 

in  the  Alpine  country . 

Whitworth's  compressed . . 

works,  Bochnru . 

Catalogue,  Vnited  States  section . 

Catketometers . 

Cayley's  liot-air  engine . 

Ceilings . - . - 

mode  of  plastering . 

Cel's,  gluten . 

illustrated . . . 

starch . . 


Machinery . 

Forestry . 

_ _ do . 

Metallurgy . 

Forestry . 

. do . 

. . do . 

Instruments . 

Architecture . . 

Introduction . . 

Architecture . 

Vienna  Bread . 

Machinery . . 

Wood  Industries _ 

Introduction . 

. do . 

Architecture . 

_ do . . 

. do . . 

. do . . 

Metallurgy . 

. do . 

Machinery . - 

Metallurgy . 

Introduction . . 

Physical  Apparatus. 

Machinery  . . . 

Architecture . 

. do . . 

Vienna  Bread . 

. do . 

. do . 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

B 

I 

366 

235 

A 

III 

398 

379 

D 

in 

7 

8 

B 

n 

76 

165 

D 

i 

81 

no 

A 

i 

78 

52 

B 

i 

300 

156 

A 

in 

80 

93 

J 

ii 

16 

23 

A 

hi 

150 

155 

A' 

in 

186 

196 

C 

ii 

43 

97 

B 

in 

10 

o 

D 

HI 

6 

6 

D 

III 

44 

55 

1) 

HI 

64 

87 

B 

I 

334 

189 

B 

I 

272 

127 

A 

III 

177 

182 

1) 

U 

17 

44 

I) 

II 

IS 

°7 

1) 

ir 

11 

23 

1) 

n 

19 

49 

A 

hi 

70 

83 

D 

i 

28 

27 

D 

i 

74 

97 

F 

IV 

168 

393 

1) 

i 

21 

19 

1) 

i 

2*’ 

21 

D 

i 

75 

98 

G 

ii 

B 

IV 

18 

35 

B 

I 

408 

298 

B 

IV 

16 

28 

B 

II 

9 

21 

A 

III 

360 

354 

C 

IV 

6 

3 

B 

I 

479 

386 

B 

I 

433 

343 

B 

IV 

9 

15 

B 

IV 

10 

18 

B 

IV 

13 

24 

B 

IV 

13 

23 

E 

IV 

112 

86 

E 

IV 

14 

13 

A 

in 

439 

415 

E 

IV 

111 

80 

A 

i 

190 

63 

F 

ii 

5 

3 

A 

hi 

157 

151 

A 

IV 

14 

23 

A 

IV 

22 

18 

B 

ii 

54 

17 

B 

ii 

69 

146 

B 

ii 

73 

154 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


13 


Subject. 

Ceils,  yeast . 

Blondeau’s  theory . 

cavities  in . 

effect  of . 

effect  of  heat . 

effect  of  solution  of  sugar . 

Cements . 

Austrian . 

quality  of . 

breakwaters . 

castings . .' . 

flooring . 

foundations! . 

finish . 1 . 

Portland . 

red,  for  carved  brick-work . 

Sauliick . 

structures . . . 

Cerealine . .' . 

Cereals  along  Northern  Pacific  Railroad . 

Ceylon  forests . 

Chain-towage  vs.  paddle-wheels . 

Charcoal  of  Styria . 

Charles  VI,  encouragement  of  architecture _ 

Charts,  mural . 

Chemical  Materials  )  | 

and  Physical  Ap- |  Report  by  W.  Gibbs..  ^ 

paratus . J  l 

Chemical  Industry,  Report  by  J.  P.  Smith _ 

Hoffman's  report . 

products  from  excreta . . 

Chemical  glass-ware . 

Chemicals,  Kopp's  report . 

classification . . 

Chemistry  and  materia  medica . 

of  fats  and  oils . 

Cheviot  sheep . 

Chief  Executive  Commissioner,  Report  by 

H.  Garretson . 

Chills,  alloys  best  for . 

broDze  castings . 

China,  Cochin,  photographs . . 

printing  in . 

wood  exhibits . . . 

Chinese  alphabets . 

iron  working . 

paper . 

imitations . . . 

Chloride  of  lime,  manufacture . 

Choltitz,  Count,  estate  . ... . 

Chotek,  Count,  estate . 

Chromo-lithograpliy . . 

advantages  of . 

Grefe’s  report . 

history . 

methods . 

progress  . 

Chronometers,  (see  Watches.) 


Rei-out. 


Vienna  Bread . 

. do . 

. do . 

. do . 

. do . 

. do . . 

Exhibition  Buildings  . 
Working  of  Stone  ... 

Architecture . 

. do . 

. do  ..... . 

Working  of  Stone  ... 

Architecture . 

. do . . 

Working  of  Stone  ... 

Architecture . 

Working  of  Stoue  . . . 

Architecture . 

Vienna  Bread . 

Introduction . 

Forestry . 

Machinery . 

Forestry . 

Architecture . 

Introduction . 

Chemical  Materials  . . 
Physical  Apparatus. . 


Chemical  Industry 

Introduction . 

Fertilizers . . 

Chemical  Materials  .... 

Introduction  . 

Chemical  Industry _ 

Medicine  and  Surgery 
Chemical  Industry  .... 
Sheep  and  Wool . . 


Chief  Executive 

Machinery . 

. do . 

Photography . 

Printing  and  Paper  . 

Forestry . 

Printing  and  Paper  . 

Metallurgy . 

Printing  and  Paper  . 

. do . 

Chemical  Industry.  : 

Forestry . 

. do . 

Printing  and  Paper  . 

. do . 

Introduction . 

Printing  and  Paper  . 

. do . 

. do . 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

B 

II 

78 

169 

B 

II 

79 

172 

B 

II 

79 

172 

B 

II 

80 

175 

B 

II 

80 

173 

B 

II 

79 

173 

A 

IV 

18 

37. 

D 

IV 

36 

42 

A 

IV 

12 

19 

B 

IV 

11 

22 

B 

IV 

10 

18 

D 

IV 

36 

37 

B 

IV 

9 

16 

A 

IV 

11 

17 

I) 

IV 

34 

41 

B 

IV 

9 

15 

D 

IV 

36 

43 

B 

IV 

10 

19 

B 

II 

9 

24 

B 

I 

298 

151 

D 

1 

39 

44 

A 

III 

53 

58 

I) 

III 

32 

36 

A 

IV 

20 

31 

B 

I 

357 

222 

F 

II 

F 

II 

A 

II 

B 

I 

364 

230 

C 

II 

56 

64 

F 

II 

18 

28 

B 

I 

468 

369 

A 

II 

5 

1 

E 

II 

12 

6 

A 

II 

7 

7. 

E 

I 

29 

37 

A 

III 

328 

30 

A 

III 

326 

300 

D 

II 

13 

30. 

O 

II 

34 

35 

D 

I 

39 

45 

O 

II 

24 

36 

E 

IV 

168 

O 

II 

21 

28 

O 

II 

33 

31 

A 

II 

7 

4 

D 

I 

93 

128 

D 

I 

92 

124 

O 

II 

9 

7 

O 

II 

11 

14 

B 

I 

411 

305 

O 

II 

9 

8 

O 

II 

.  9 

7 

O 

II 

9 

14 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  187T 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

'Church  architecture . . . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

St 

56 

Churches  for  work-people . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

101 

68 

Chucks,  Horton’s  lathe . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

33T 

316 

Civil  Engineerin'!-:,  Public  "Works,  and  A  bciii- 

tecture,  Report  hy  "W.  "Watson . 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

Civil  engineering,  Kleitz's  report . 

Introduction .  . 

.  B 

I 

468 

369 

Claparedo  &  Co.’s  locomotives . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

62 

72 

Clausthal,  lead-smelting  at . 

Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

104 

233 

Clayton  «fc  Shuttlcworth'a  engines . 

III 

101 

115 

Cleaning  sewing-machine  castings . 

Sewiug-Machiues . 

.  B 

III 

28 

6 

Cleveland  mining  district . 

Machinery . 

III 

409 

389 

ores  and  fuel . 

III 

410 

391 

Climate  of  Hungary . 

Vienna  Bread . 

II 

14 

36 

affecting  amount  of  nitrogen  in  wheat . 

. do . 

.  11 

II 

15 

40 

Clocks,  American . 

Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

87 

34 

A  ustrian . . 

II 

23 

32 

Havanan . 

. do . 

.  G 

II 

24 

32 

Dutch . 

. do . 

II 

25 

33 

electrical . 

.  G 

11 

26 

35 

French . 

. do . 

II 

26 

33 

history  of . . . 

.  G 

II 

22 

30 

peculiarities  of . 

II 

83 

31 

Swiss . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

349 

328 

*tow>r . •. . 

Instruments . 

II 

28 

36 

Westminster .  . 

II 

30 

38 

Cloth,  (sec  Cotton.) 

Cloth  cutler,  Worth's . 

Introduction . 

.  II 

I 

324 

271 

Do  . 

Machinery . . . 

III 

319 

294 

Clothing,  linen,  ready-made . 

Introduction . 

b 

I 

404 

294 

Cluli-hnuses . 

Metallurgy . 

.  K 

IV 

105 

76 

Coal,  Hoffman's  report . 

Introduction . 

I 

370 

244 

mines  of  lioohum . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

111 

81 

Pennsylvania . . . 

Introduction . 

III 

256 

116 

Russia  production . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

217 

151 

Coal-tar  products . 

Chemical  Industry . 

.  A 

II 

8 

8 

Cohalt,  Ktipelwicser  s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  n 

I 

398 

284 

Serlo  and  Stolid's  report  . 

.  B 

I 

362 

226 

Cnekerill  locomotives . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

62 

74 

oscillating  engines . 

.  A 

III 

58 

62 

works . 

III 

383 

365 

history . 

Metallurgy . 

.  F. 

IV 

131 

110 

Colin  on  sewing-machines . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

423 

322 

Coignnrd  pump . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

178 

207 

Coins,  value  of . . . 

Introduction . 

.  A 

I 

27 

Do . 

.  B 

I 

224 

Coke  blast-furnaces,  Bochum . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

Ill 

e3 

furnaces.  Bochum . . . . . 

.  E 

IV 

111 

84 

Cold-rolled  bronic . 

Machinery . . 

III 

334 

310 

Dean's . . . 

III 

321 

295 

shafting . 

. do . 

III 

326 

301 

Anderson’s  report . 

Introduction . 

I 

240 

86 

Holmes'  report . 

I 

253 

105 

Cold-rolling,  applications  of . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

334 

311 

Colladon  s  floating  wheels . 

.  A 

III 

179 

186 

Collier,  r„  Report  on  Commercial  Fertilizers  Fertilizers . 

.  C 

II 

Collodion  negatives . . 

Photography . 

.  D 

II 

12 

27 

Collins  &  Co.'s  plows . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

272 

128 

•Colonial  agricultural  policy . 

.  B 

I 

324 

178 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


15 


SUliJECT. 

Retort. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Coloring  materials,  artificial . 

Chemical  Industry . . 

...  A 

II 

8 

8 

Colt’s  armory . 

Iutroductiou . 

....  B 

I 

343 

201 

Commerce,  Richter's  report . 

....  B 

I 

461 

364 

Commercial  Fertilizers,  Report  by  P.  Collier. 

Fertilizers . . 

....  C 

II 

Commissioners,  United  States . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

156 

60 

assignment  of  duties . . . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

9 

1 

regulations . 

Introduction . . 

....  A 

I 

159 

62 

•Committee,  advisory,  of  citizens . 

....  A 

I 

153 

61 

Concentration  of  sulphuric  acid . 

Chemical  Industry . 

....  C 

II 

6 

o 

Condensation,  surface . 

Machinery . . 

....  A 

III 

44 

52 

Conde  water-worts . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  . ... 

....  D 

III 

47 

60 

•Conductor,  telegraphic . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

8 

7 

Do . 

....  J 

II 

11 

10 

•Cone-pulleys  for  lathes . 

Machinery . . 

....  A 

III 

213 

ooo 

Congress,  International . 

Introduction . . 

....  A 

I 

90 

53 

of  millers,  desirable . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

64 

135 

act  authorizing  appointment  of  United 

States  commissioners . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

joint  resolution,  appropriation . 

...  A 

I 

•Conservatoires  des  Arts  et  Metiers . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

392 

373 

Constantinople,  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . . 

....  D 

I 

100 

156 

Construction,  Materials  of,  Report  by 

N.  L.  Derby . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

Construction  of  Private  Dwellings  in 

Vienna,  Report  by  T.  R.  KlERNSkE . 

Architecture . . 

....  A 

IV 

Construction,  ( see  Architecture.) 

buildings  in  general . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

....  Aa 

IV 

16 

32 

exhibition  buildiD^s . 

....  Aa 

IV 

8 

12 

special  services . 

. ...  Aa 

IV 

16 

33 

superintendence . 

....  Aa 

IV 

16 

31 

C/O'&Tme  of  fljur . . . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

42 

96 

Cooperage . 

Wood  Industries . 

....  c 

IV 

14 

14 

Coffer,  &c.,  Metallurgy  of,  Report  by 

H.  Painter . 

Metallurgy . . 

....  F 

IV 

Copper . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

369 

240 

Brixlegg  Smelting  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

165 

385 

extraction,  at  Altenau . . 

....  F 

IV 

106 

243 

Kafveltorps  Stock  Company . 

....  F 

IV 

23 

52 

Lower  Hungary . 

....  F 

IV 

194 

445 

Do . 

IV 

209 

470 

Mansfield  Copper  Works . 

....  F 

IV 

133 

320 

Oker  Smelting  Works . 

IV 

127 

300 

Do . 

....  F 

IV 

129 

304 

Russia,  arsenical  ores . 

....  F 

IV 

215 

4S9 

refining-hearths . . 

IV 

216 

404 

reverberatory  furnaces . 

. do . 

IV 

216 

401 

Copper  plate  printing . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

10 

10 

Copper- vitriol  at  Altenau . 

Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

113 

260 

production . 

IV 

115 

266 

Freiberg . 

IV 

86 

208 

Oker  Smelting- Works . 

IV 

130 

303 

Coprolites,  English . 

Fertilizers . 

....  C 

II 

17 

15 

Copyists,  continental  nations  as . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

11 

22 

•Corinthian  furnaces,  sections  of . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

21 

23 

Corn,  nutritive  value  of . 

Vienna  Bread _  .  . 

II 

110 

236 

•Cornices  of  molded  stone . 

Working  of  Stone . 

IV 

10 

8 

Correspondence  by  telegraph . 

Telegraphs  . 

II 

82 

73 

Corrugated  iron . . 

Architecture  . 

IV 

14 

27 

Corundum  and  emery . 

Introduction . .  . 

I 

369 

237 

16  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


Subject. 

Repost. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Cotswold  sheep . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

...  E 

I 

21 

26- 

meriuoes . 

...  E 

t 

13 

14. 

Colton,  Peez’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

-tut 

29a 

Tisserand’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

299 

153 

Cotton  goods,  Peez’s  report . . 

...  B 

I 

401 

292 

Weigert’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

374 

249 

Cotton  iiiacliiuery,  German . 

Maehinerv . 

...  A 

III 

350 

344 

Cotton  manufacture,  Delbaye's  report . 

Introduction . 

...  IS 

I 

332 

168 

Swiss . . . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

111 

348 

324 

Cotton  printing  and  dyeing . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

475 

382 

Cotton  spinning,  Peez's  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

404 

293 

Steiger- Meyer's  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

1 

■475 

380 

Cotton-weaving,  Peez's  report . 

. do . 

...  1$ 

I 

404 

293 

Steiger-Meyer  s  report . 

...  B 

I 

475 

381 

(.'ourts  of  justice,  Georgs- Marieu-Mutte  Co . 

IV 

102 

71 

Cradle . 

education . . 

...  IC 

11 

6 

o 

Cranes,  steam,  Appleby  &  Co . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

335 

315 

Wilson  &  Co.'s . 

. do . 

...  A 

nr 

335 

315 

Creches . . . 

education  . 

...  K 

ii 

6 

3 

C'rousot ;  Schneider  A  Co . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

118 

9L 

Crewe,  tailroad  repair-shops  at . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

HI 

401 

382 

Cross-breeding,  efficiency  of . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

...  E 

I 

38 

48 

In  France . 

...  E 

I 

34 

42 

Cryolite) . 

Introduction . 

...  IS 

I 

305 

233 

for  making  soda . 

Chemical  Industry . 

...  A 

II 

C 

3 

Crystals . 

Chemical  Materials . 

...  F 

11 

7 

8 

Cumberland,  and  the  hematite  district . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

405 

384 

on*a . 

...  A 

1 1  r 

400 

380 

Cnpcllation- furnace . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

158 

374 

Cutter-grinder,  Pratt  Si  Whitney  Company's,... 

Machinery... . . . 

in 

220 

234 

Cut-otl  of  the  Danube . 

Hydraulic  Engineering .... 

...  D 

hi 

5 

3- 

Cutts,  It.  D.,  Report  on  Instruments  ok  Pkk- 

C1SION . 

Instruments . 

...  II 

ii 

Cylinder-mill,  Buchholz's . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

H 

61 

132 

porcelain . . 

...  IS 

II 

41 

102 

Cylinder-milling . 

II 

42 

97 

D. 

Dalmatia  woods . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

30 

3 

Damplimot  on  silk  and  silk-industries . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

1 

332 

180 

Dams  on  the  Ybbs  and  Eurlaf . 

Hydraulic  Engineering . 

...  D 

III 

9 

13 

Daniell's  batteries . 

Telegraphs . 

...  .r 

II 

16 

22 

Danube  River . . . . 

Hydraulic  Engineering . 

...  D 

III 

5 

1 

cut-offs . 

...  D 

III 

5 

3 

embankments . 

III 

6 

4 

basins . 

...  D 

III 

6 

5 

Douan  Canal . 

III 

6 

C 

rtooils  and  ice-gorges . 

...  D 

III 

6 

7 

caisson . 

...  I) 

III 

7 

6 

Lower,  improvements . 

. <lo . 

...  D 

III 

7 

9 

Btula-Pestli . 

. do . 

III 

8 

10 

D'Arliuconrt's  telegraphic  apparatus . 

Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

40 

22 

Darling,  Brown  &  Sharpe's  tools . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

242 

90 

Do . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

319 

294 

Danglish's  aerated  bread . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

91 

199 

Davanne  on  photography . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

337 

192 

Davey-Paxman  steam-boiler . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

HI 

127 

142: 

P.tvis,  C.,  Report  on  Hydraulic  E.\  ;isf.krixo  . . 

Hydraulic  Engineering - 

...  D 

IED 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


17 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Deaf  -  Mutes,  Instruction  of,  Report  of 

E.  M.  Gallaudet . 

Deaf-Mutes . 

....  M 

II 

Deaf-mutes,  American  exhibits . 

. do . 

....  M 

II 

5 

3 

Anglo-American  school . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

64 

28 

European  exhibits . 

Deaf-Mutes . 

....  M 

II 

5 

2 

Friedberg  exhibits . 

....  M 

n 

9 

8 

Heinicke’s  school  . ... . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

43 

19 

Hernandez's  school  1 . 

....  K 

ii 

49 

24 

HollaDdo-German . 

. do . 

....  K 

ii 

43 

19 

Hill's  school . 

....  K 

ii 

43 

19 

reports . 

Deaf-Mutes . 

....  M 

ii 

6 

5 

schools  and  other  methods . 

Education . 

....  K 

n 

41 

8 

Spanish-French . 

....  K 

ii 

49 

24 

Dean’s  cold-rolled  bronze . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

hi 

321 

295 

Decker  Brothers’  pumping-engine . 

. do . 

....  A 

hi 

189 

197 

Deep-sea  thermometer,  Siemens’ . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

ii 

10 

19 

Deere  &  Co.’s  hoes . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

273 

131 

Definitions,  learning  of . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

70 

31 

Delhaye  on  cotton-manufacturing . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

332 

188 

Dempwolff’s  analysis  of  wheat . 

YiennaBread . 

....  B 

ii 

73 

153 

at  Pesth . 

. do . 

....  B 

n 

103 

229 

Deninger  on  leather  . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

375 

250 

India  rubber . 

....  B 

i 

375 

251 

Denmark  photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

....  D 

ii 

15 

37 

telegraphic  administration . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

ii 

32 

55 

Dental  apparatus . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

432 

342 

manufactures . 

....  B 

i 

342 

199 

Dentistry . 

Medicine  and  Surgery _ 

....  E 

ii 

11 

5 

Derby,  N.  L.,  Report  on  Architecture  and 

Materials  of  Construction.. . . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

Designs,  architectural . 

....  B 

IV 

23 

52 

defects  . 

....  B 

IV 

6 

5 

Devastation,  iron-clad . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

434 

411 

Dextrine . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

92 

203 

and  its  homologues . 

. do . 

....  B 

II 

13 

32 

and  sugar . 

. do . 

....  B 

II 

9 

20 

Diamonds . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

370 

243 

Diamond-saw,  Young . 

Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

16 

14 

Die-sinking  machine, Pratt  &WhitneyCompauy’s  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

227 

236 

Dillinger  Company’s  exhibit . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

71 

Dingler-Ehrhardt  compound  engine . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

31 

41 

Diplomas  of  honor . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

200 

68 

Do . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

9 

17 

Diseases  of  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

21 

51 

Disintegrator,  millers’ . 

....  B 

II 

46 

104 

Dividing  engine . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

....  F 

II 

6 

4 

Dodge,  J.  R.,  Report  on  Sheep  and  Wool . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

I 

Dome  of  exhibition  building . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

....  Aa 

IV 

9 

13 

details . 

....  Aa 

IV 

11 

17 

framing  of  roof . 1 . 

IV 

9 

J5 

girder . 

....  Aa 

IV 

9 

14 

lantern  . 

IV 

10 

16 

Domestic  Lithograph  and  Printing  Company  . . . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

8 

6 

Donau-Gesellschaft  engines,  &e . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

57 

59 

Doors,  construction  of . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

16 

26 

Doremus,  C.  A.,  Report  on  Photography  at 

Vienna . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

Dorsets . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

I 

28 

35 

2 


18 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


SUBJECT. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Double  transmission  by  telegraph . 

Telegraphs . 

....  J 

II 

22 

18 

Dough,  action  of  lime-water  on . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

85 

185 

hour  to  make . 

....  B 

II 

103 

227 

preparation  of . 

. do . 

....  B 

II 

99 

220 

room  at  Vienna . 

....  B 

II 

98 

219 

what  causes  it  to  “  run  " . 

II 

74 

ICO 

Dovetailing-machines : 

4 

Armstrong's . 

Introduction . . 

....  B 

I 

245 

94 

Hall’s . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

257 

200 

Knapp  s,  Anderson's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

24C 

95 

Exner’s  report . 

. do . . 

I 

422 

318 

Hartig  and  others'  report  . 

....  B 

I 

383 

205 

Dowlals  Works,  South  Wales . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

448 

418 

Drainage . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

22 

48 

Dresden,  and  its  Polytechnic  School . 

Machinery . . 

III 

302 

350 

lutnxluctiou . , 

....  U 

I 

274 

134 

,  press  for  sewing-machines . 

Sewing-Machines . . 

....  B 

III 

30 

7 

sharpener,  Sellers  A  Co . 

Introduction . 

I 

235 

78 

twist,  Morse’s . 

. do . . 

....  B 

I 

242 

91 

Drugs,  SchrofT s  report . 

I 

402 

3G5 

Dublin  International  exhibition,  (tee  Inter- 

national  Exhibition*.  > 

Dubroiji's  photographic  exhibits. . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

11 

25 

Duke  of  Northumberland's  Alnwick  Castle 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

18 

34 

Dutuont,  Nout  A,  centrifugal  pump . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

HI 

197 

200 

Duster  for  bran . 

Vienna  Bread., . 

....  I) 

II 

48 

108 

Dutch,  (tee  Holland.  Netherlands.) 

Dutch  clocks . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

ii 

25 

.  33 

schools  for  idiots . . . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

77 

34 

Dwellin')#,  Private,  or  Vienna,  Report  by  J. 

NiEllN'SEE . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

Dyeing . . . 

Introduction . . 

I 

475 

382 

and  printing  in  Switzerland . 

Machinery . 

r 

III 

348 

325 

Earle's  steam-pomp . 

ij. 

Machinery . 

III 

189 

199 

Earlswnod  school  for  idiots  . . 

Edneation  . . . 

....  K 

11 

83 

39 

Edison's  automatic  telegraphy . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

ir 

13 

13 

duplex  telegraphy . 

....  I 

ii 

34 

18 

Education.  Report  by  J.  W.  Ilorr . 

Edneation . 

. . . .  L 

n 

Education,  Report  by  E.  Ssmut . 

....  K 

ii 

Education,  (tee  Instruction,  Schools.) 

of  automatism . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

17 

9 

of  both  sides. . 

....  K 

ii 

29 

14 

by  example  and  competition . 

....  L 

n 

32 

49 

free  edneation  . . 

....  K 

ii 

3 

1 

in  general  . 

it 

99 

48 

of  the  hand . 

....  K 

n 

114 

67 

of  idiots,  (see  Idiots.) 

of  language . 

Edneation . 

....  K 

11 

119 

71 

Levassenr's  report,  (see  Reports. 

French . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

352 

215 

modern  tendencies  of . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

123 

73 

National  Bureau  of . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

448 

357 

object  of . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

113 

66 

Paris  and  Vienna . . 

....  L 

ii 

5 

1 

physiological .  . 

....  K 

ii 

123 

73 

principles  and  methods . 

....  L 

ii 

32 

50 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


19 


Subject.  '  Report. 

Education  of  the  senses .  Education . 

industrial . do . 

medical . do . 

sex  in . do . 

through,  not  of  the  senses . do . 

Tschudi’s  report .  Introduction . 

in  the  United  States . Education . 

of  workmen  at  Vienna . do . 

Educational  appliances,  Fussell's  report . Introduction . 

exhibits .  Education . 

Egyptian . do . 

technical . Machinery . 

Egger  Smelting  “Works .  Metallurgy . 

Egypt,  educational  exhibits . . .  Education . . 

photographical  exhibits .  Photography . 

forest  area .  Forestry . 

Ebrenwerth’s  puddler . Metallurgy . 

Ehrhardt-Dingler  boiler .  Machinery . 

engine . do . 

Electical  bridge .  Instruments . 

clocks . do . . 

deep-sea  thermometer . do . 

machine,  Holz . .  Physical  Apparatus _ 

Electricity  and  magnetism . do . 

Embroidery,  Swiss . Machinery . 

Emery  and  corundum . Introduction . 

Ems  Smelting  Works .  Metallurgy . 

Encaustic  tiles . Working  of  Stone . 

Encephalon  training .  Education . 

Engineering,  Civil,  Report  by  W.  Watson _ Civil  Engineering . 

Kleitz's  report . Introduction . 

Engineering,  Hydraulic,  Report  by  C.  Davis.  .  Hydraulic  Engineering 
Engines,  ( see  Locomotives.) 

aero-steam,  Henderson's  theory .  Machinery . 

blowing . do . 

caloric . do . 

Ericsson’s . do . 

Lehmann's . do . 

Sterling’s . do . 

gas,  compared  with  steam-engines . do . 

Bray  ton’s . do . 

Thurston's  trial  of . do . 

Lenoir’s . do . 

non-explosive,  advantages  of . do . 

Otto  &  Langen’s . do . 

Tresca’s  trial . do . 

theory  of,  Rankine’s . do . 

steam,  sero,  Henderson's  theory . do . 

American .  Introduction . 

beam . Machinery . 

British,  efficiency  of . do . 

Brotherhood  &  Hardingham’s . do . 

Burmeister  &  Waine's . do . . 

Clayton  &  Skuttlewortk's . do . . 

Cockerill’s  oscillating . do . 

compared  with  gas-engines . do . 

dimensions,  table  of . do . 

double-cylinder . do . 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

K 

LI 

115 

68 

K 

II 

117 

70 

K 

II 

116 

69 

K 

II 

129 

77 

K 

II 

33 

16 

B 

I 

482 

88 

L 

II 

33 

51 

L 

II 

22 

24 

B 

I 

280 

143 

L 

II 

8 

3 

L 

II 

18 

23 

A 

III 

341 

319 

F 

IV 

170 

399 

L 

II 

18 

23 

D 

II 

22 

57 

D 

I 

77 

103 

E 

IV 

50 

33 

A 

III 

132 

145 

A 

III 

31 

41 

H 

II 

11 

22 

G 

II 

27 

35 

H 

II 

10 

19 

F 

II 

11 

14 

F 

II 

9 

12 

A 

III 

189 

326 

B 

I 

369 

237 

F 

IV 

155 

363 

D 

IV 

24 

28 

K 

II 

23 

12 

C 

III 

B 

I 

345 

201 

D 

III 

A 

m 

151 

153 

A 

hi 

412 

392 

A 

iii 

150 

154 

A 

hi 

150 

155 

A 

HI 

162 

160 

A 

iii 

151 

156 

A 

iii 

149 

153 

A 

HI 

165 

164 

A 

iii 

165 

165 

A 

iii 

162 

161 

A 

iii 

168 

168 

A 

in 

168 

169 

A 

iii 

171 

170 

A 

iii 

174 

177 

A 

iii 

151 

158 

B 

i 

415 

310 

A 

iii 

59 

64 

A 

in 

424 

401 

A 

ni 

37 

44 

A 

in 

52 

56 

A 

IH 

101 

115 

A 

iii 

58 

62 

A 

in 

149 

153 

A 

iii 

39 

47 

A 

HI 

49 

55 

20 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1573. 


Subject.  Eepobt. 

Engines,  steam,  Donan-GeselLdiaft's . .  Machinery . 

Ebrhardt-Dingler’a . do . 

rirt-,  tine  Fire  engines,  i 

Galloway's . do . 

historical  sketch . do . 

Marshall,  Sons  &  Co.’» . do . 

Monarch,  iron-clad . do . 

New  York  Safety  Steam  Power 

Company's . do . .. . 

Go . . . Introduction . 

Norwalk  Iron  Company’s .  Machinery . 

I)o .  Introduction . 

Do . . . 

Penn  &  Co.'s. .  Machinery . 

Pickering's . do  . . 

Do .  Introduction . 

l)o . do . 

(>•>1  table,  economy  of .  Machinery . 

trade  in........... . do  . . 

Porter-Alien . ....do . 

Heading  Iron  Works' . . . 

Policy  ii.  Co.'s. . do . 

Schneider  &  Cu.’a . do . 

Sellers  A  Co.’* .  Introduction  . . 

Siemens’ .  Machinery . 

Sociu  A  Wicks’  . . do . 

Stablllmento  DolmlcoTricstlno  . do . 

Sulaer  Druthers' . do . 

Tangyc  Druthers' . . . 

traction,  and  road  locomotives . do . 

Turner  A  Co.'s . do . 

England,  (sc*  British.  Great  Britain.) 

England,  consumption  of  fertilisers .  Fertiliser* . 

coprolites . do . 

importation  of  gnano  1-1)  to  1861 . do . 

fertilUors  1861  to  . . In  . 

English  schools  for  idiots  .  Education . 

superphosphates .  Fertilizers . 

telegraphic  administration .  Telegraphs . 

instruments  . do . . 

lines . do . . 

tiles . .  Architecture . 

traction-engines . Machinery . 

watches .  instruments . 

F.nnis,  R.  and  T.  A.,  job-printing .  Printing  and  Taper 

Equipments,  army.  Herzog’s  report .  Introduction . 

Ericsson’s  caloric  engine .  Machinery . 

Escapements,  tonrliillon .  Instruments . 

Essen.  Krnpp's  works  at . Machinery . 

Essex  County  (New  York)  iron-ores . Metallurgy . . 

Essex  Hall,  school  for  idiots .  Education . 

Etching,  l>y  Tilghman's  sand-blast . . Introduction . 

Ethyl  series . Chemical  Materials  . 

European  Mam  fai  ti  ring  PrsTRt'  ts.  Report 

by  R.  H.  Tnt'RSTON . Machinery . 

European  copies  of  United  States  machinery . do . 

forest  administration . Forestry . 

machinery  practice . Machinery . 


YoL 

Page. 

Art. 

A 

III 

57 

59 

A 

III 

31 

41 

A 

III 

29 

39 

A 

III 

42 

50 

A 

III 

100 

114 

A 

III 

430 

408 

A 

III 

26 

37 

D 

I 

418 

312 

A 

III 

25 

30 

B 

I 

267 

183 

B 

I 

416 

311 

A 

III 

450 

420 

A 

III 

35 

43 

B 

I 

O54 

104 

B 

I 

417 

313 

A 

III 

98 

112 

A 

HI 

103 

119 

A 

111 

33 

42 

A 

III 

100 

113 

A 

HI 

101 

116 

A 

III 

29 

40 

B 

I 

416 

314 

A 

HI 

38 

45 

A 

in 

20 

32 

A 

HI 

57 

60 

A 

III 

21 

33 

A 

HI 

29 

38 

A 

HI 

87 

104 

A 

III 

101 

116 

C 

II 

10 

8 

C 

11 

17 

15 

C 

II 

14 

12 

C 

It 

15 

13 

K 

11 

82 

38 

C 

II 

34 

34 

I 

II 

51 

26 

I 

II 

10 

10 

3 

II 

23 

31 

B 

IY 

7 

8 

A 

III 

83 

101 

G 

II 

19 

25 

0 

II 

7 

5 

B 

I 

380 

387 

A 

III 

150 

155 

G 

II 

13 

16 

A 

III 

370 

360 

E 

IY 

1G1 

K 

II 

63 

38 

B 

I 

378 

255 

F 

II 

14 

21 

A 

I 

A 

III 

195 

203 

D 

I 

10 

3 

A 

III 

17 

25 

G'ENERAL  INDEX. 

Subject.  Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

21 

Art. 

European  machinery  practice,  influence  in 

United  States . 

machinery . 

....  A  ' 

Ill 

40 

48 

manufacturers,  position  of . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

18 

28 

work  of . 

....  A 

III 

78 

90 

telegraphic  conductors . 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

II 

14 

19 

ink-writer . 

. do . 

....  J 

II 

7 

6 

insulator  tests . 

. do . 

....  J 

11 

22 

30 

relays . 

....  J 

II 

5 

1 

service  . 

....  J 

II 

31 

41 

sewing-machines . 

Sewing-Machines . 

....  B 

III 

6 

2 

sheep . . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

16 

17 

wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

_  B 

II 

19 

46 

Euteuberg  Forest  School . 

Forestry . 

_  D 

I 

99 

14G 

Exchange  at  Brussels . 

Architecture . 

_  B 

IV 

23 

50 

Excreta,  (see  Fertilizers.) 

Excreta,  chemical  products  of . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

II 

56 

64 

Exhibition  Buildings  and  Railroad  Strug- 

tures,  Report  by  L.  Bridges . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

_ Aa 

IV 

Exhibition  buildings . 

Architecture . 

_  B 

IV 

24 

54 

Lyons . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

397 

373 

review  of . 

_  A 

III 

11 

21 

success  of . 

_  A 

III 

3 

1 

Exhibitions,  (see  Fairs,  International.) 

Exhibitions,  industrial,  earliest . 

Introduction . 

_  A 

I 

33 

9 

origin  of  . . . . 

_  A 

I 

31 

1 

French,  origin  of . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

33 

10 

Exhibitors,  faults  of  management . 

Machinery . 

_  A 

III 

10 

18 

United  States,  success  of . 

_  A 

III 

10 

19 

Do . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

....  Aa 

IV 

7 

9 

Exhibits,  classification,  Dublin,  1853 . 

Introduction . 

_  A 

I 

40 

22 

London,  1851 . 

_  A 

I 

36 

17 

London,  1862  . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

49 

36 

New  York,  1853  . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

42 

25 

Paris,  1855  . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

44 

30 

Vienna,  1873  . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

98 

57 

distribution  by  nations . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

_ Aa 

IV 

6 

4 

general,  character  of . 

Machinery . 

_  A 

III 

4 

4 

national,  character  of . 

......do  .  . 

....  A 

III 

16 

24 

of  California . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

300 

156 

of  States  (United  States) . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

197 

64 

Exmoor  sheep . 

Sheep  and  Wool . . 

.  E 

I 

27 

34 

Exner,  (see  Reports,  Austrian.) 

Expansion  of  steam,  economic  gain  by . 

Machinery . 

_  A 

III 

18 

27 

maximum  effect  by . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

48 

54 

Experience,  lessons  from . 

.  Education . . 

.  K 

II 

3 

1 

F. 


Fabrics,  textile,  Weigert's  report . 

Introduction . 

_  B 

I 

374 

248 

Fagersta  iron-ores  and  limestone . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

142 

122 

steel,  Kirkaldy’s  experiments . 

. do . 

_  E 

IV 

147 

124 

gun-barrels . 

_  E 

IV 

144 

123 

plate,  test  of . 

.  E 

IV 

150 

125 

■works,  exhibit  . . 

. do . . 

.  E 

IV 

141 

121 

Fairbairn’s  tests  of  Barrow  steel . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

408 

387 

Fairfield,  G-.  A.,  Report  on  Sewing-Machines. 

Sewing-Machines . . 

.  B 

III 

Fairfield  Works  of  Elder  &  Co . 

Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

423 

399 

Fairs . 

Introduction . 

.  A 

I 

32 

7 

Fats  and  oils,  chemistry  of . 

Chemical  Industries . 

.  A 

II 

7 

7 

22 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1S73. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Feed- water  beater . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

Ill 

134 

149 

Febling's  analysis  of  bread . 

.  ViennaBread . . 

....  B 

II 

96 

213 

Fermentation . 

. do . . 

....  B 

II 

n 

167 

alcoholic . 

....  B 

II 

F3 

160 

changes  by . 

....  B 

II 

111 

240 

effect  of . 

....  B 

II 

63 

162 

loss  due  to . 

II 

96 

215 

theories  of . 

....  B 

11 

61 

177 

Ferro-manganese  of  lteaicza . 

Metallurgy . . 

....  E 

IV 

46 

27 

Fertilizers,  Commercial  Report  by  P.  Cot,- 

LIEU . 

.  Fertilizers . 

...  C 

II 

A  merican,  analysis . 

. do . 

....  C 

II 

36 

36 

composition . 

....  C 

II 

37 

37 

price . 

II 

39 

33 

value . . . 

...  C 

11 

36 

38 

commercial,  exhibits .  . 

11 

10 

9 

frauds  iu  manufacture  and  sale  , . . . 

II 

41 

40 

Importation  into  England . 

...  C 

11 

15 

13 

manufacture  and  sale . 

...  C 

11 

41 

40 

potash . 

11 

53 

58 

nUuxljt'-'r  ilotlAr  rcfllftO . . 

. do . . 

11 

49 

53 

Sehmied  s  report . 

,  Introduction . . 

....  B 

I 

399 

265 

Fibrins,  vo^etablc .  . 

....  B 

II 

9 

21 

Flfo-wlfeat,  \(iunesota . . .  . 

. . . .  » 

11 

so 

128 

milling  process . 

. do . . 

....  It 

II 

56 

123 

Finances  of  Paris  exhibition,  1867 . 

. . . .  B 

11 

57 

42 

Fire,  precautions  against . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

15 

24 

Fire-box,  Ilelpalre's  . 

Machinery . 

lit 

78 

SI 

Fire-arms,  Ulrich's  report . 

Introduction . . . 

I 

47e 

365 

Mertlun's  report . 

...  B 

I 

313 

200 

Ucmiogtou's  report . . . 

...  It 

I 

353 

112 

Russell's  re|»nt . . 

...  U 

1 

254 

111 

Somrad's  report . 

...  B 

I 

346 

346 

Sharpe's  report . 

...  B 

I 

255 

113 

Smith  A  Wesson's  report . 

...  B 

I 

255 

114 

Fire  engines,  steam,  American  and  Ilritish  ... 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

106 

123 

merits  of . 

...  A 

III 

106 

124 

historical  sketch . 

...  A 

III 

107 

125 

rotary . 

...  A 

m 

103 

120 

Silsby  Manufacturing  Co.. 

...  A 

hi 

105 

121 

Fish,  Hamilton,  Se-  ketakt  ok  State,  Intro- 

ductokt  Letter . . 

Introduction . 

...  A 

i 

Fish . 

...  B 

i 

472 

376 

guano  . 

Fertilizers . 

...  C 

ii 

47 

46 

scraps . 

...  C 

ii 

47 

46 

Flashes  on  the  Tonne . 

CiTil  Engineering . 

...  C 

nr 

27 

29 

Flagging,  Yorkshire . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  I) 

IV 

26 

32 

Flattich  on  house  carpentry . . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

l 

406 

298 

Floods,  protection  against . 

Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

...  D 

III 

6 

7 

Floors,  arched . 

Architecture . 

IV 

17 

29 

Austrian . 

...  B 

IV 

19 

37 

cement . 

Working  of  S'one . 

...  I) 

IV 

30 

37 

construction . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

16 

26 

materials . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

31 

38 

Florence,  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

97 

140 

Flour,  aroma  of . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

74 

159 

bolt . 

...  B 

II 

49 

109 

changes  in  becoming  bread . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

92 

201 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


23 


Subject.  Retort. 

Flour,  characteristics  of .  Vienna  Bread . 

chemical  examination  of . do . 

Hungarian . do . 

light  bread  from . do . 

low  and  high  milled . do . 

No.  O  and  A  grits . do . 

self-raising . do . 

southern . do . 

testing  of . do . 

Vienna  bread . do . 

Flues,  laws  relating  to .  Architecture . 

Fly-presses,  German . . .  Machinery . 

Food,  (see  Agriculture,  Ott  Thiel,  Tisserand, 

Warhanek,  and  Wines.) 

industries,  machinery  of .  Machinery . 

of  plants .  Fertilizers . 

Forests  and  Forestry,  Report  by  J.  W. 

Warder .  Forestry . 

Forestry  of  Lower  Austria . - . do . 

schools  of,  Austria . do . 

Austro-Hungary . do  . 

Baden . do . 

Bavaria . do . 

Belgium . . do . 

Brunswick . do . 

France . do . 

Germany . do . 

■  Do . do . 

Hanover . do . 

Hesse-Darmstadt . do . 

Hungary . do . 

Italy . do . 

Norway . do . 

Portugal . do . 

Russia . do . 

Prussia . do . 

Saxe-Weimar  . . do . 

Saxony . do . 

Spain . do . 

Sweden . do . 

Switzerland . do . 

Turkey . do . 

Wurtemberg . do . . 

Forests,  effect  of  grazing  in . do . 

of  Algeria . do . 

Austria . do . 

Lower . do . . 

Upper . do . 

Austrian  state-railroad . do . . 

Bohemia .  do . 

Bukowina . do . 

Carinthia . do . 

Carniola . do . 

Egypt . .do . 

Europe,  administration . *..do . 

France . do . 

Galicia . do . 

Germany . : . do . 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

B 

II 

68 

143 

B 

II 

75 

161 

B 

II 

71 

149 

B 

II 

84 

183 

B 

II 

73 

156 

B 

II 

73 

155 

B 

II 

91 

198 

B 

II 

66 

138 

B 

II 

74 

156 

B 

II 

59 

129 

A 

IV 

15 

25 

A 

III 

357 

348 

A 

III 

358 

349 

C 

II 

5 

1 

D 

I 

D 

I 

68 

84 

D 

I 

98 

142 

D 

I 

99 

147 

D 

I 

97 

140 

D 

I 

97 

134 

D 

I 

100 

153 

D 

I  ' 

97 

137 

D 

I 

100 

150 

D 

I 

96 

133 

D 

I 

98 

141 

D 

I 

97 

133 

D 

I 

97 

139 

D 

I 

99 

147 

D 

I 

100 

149 

D 

I 

100 

152 

D 

I 

100 

154 

D 

I 

100 

151 

D 

I 

96 

133 

D 

I 

97 

138 

D 

I 

97 

135 

D 

I 

100 

155 

D 

I 

100 

152 

D 

I 

99 

148 

D 

I 

100 

156 

D 

I 

97 

136 

D 

I 

29 

31 

D 

I 

79 

105 

D 

I 

64 

79 

D 

I 

66 

81 

D 

I 

69 

86 

D 

I 

49 

62 

D 

I 

71 

90 

D 

I 

71 

92 

D 

I 

74 

97 

D 

I 

75 

98 

D 

I 

77 

103 

D 

I 

10 

3 

D 

I 

53 

66 

D 

I 

72 

93 

D 

I 

60 

76 

24  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Subject. 

Retort. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Alt. 

Forests  of  Goriiz . . 

. .  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

72 

94 

Great  Britain . . 

...  D 

I 

51 

63 

Guadeloupe . 

I 

ei 

108 

Guiana . . 

...  D 

I 

60 

106 

Holland . . 

...  D 

I 

53 

65 

Hungary . 

...  D 

I 

76 

100 

Ixtria . 

...  1) 

I 

72 

94 

Italy . 

...  D 

1 

58 

7«> 

Martinique . . 

...  D 

I 

61 

107 

Netherlands . 

. do . 

...  D 

I 

53 

65 

New  Caledonia . . 

. do . 

...  I) 

I 

61 

no 

Norway . . 

...  D 

I 

S3 

68 

Oceanic  colonies . . 

. do . 

...  D 

I 

61 

111 

Portugal . . 

....  It 

I 

57 

71 

Russia . 

...  1) 

I 

55 

69 

Salzburg . . . . . . 

...  1) 

I 

70 

68 

Sardinia . . . 

...  D 

I 

50 

74 

Saxe  Coburg  Gotha . . 

...  D 

I 

49 

60 

Sehwarzenberg . . 

...  D 

I 

85 

115 

Senegal . . 

...  D 

I 

61 

109 

Sicily . 

....  D 

I 

59 

74 

Spain . 

. . . .  I) 

I 

56 

70 

Styrla . 

....  I) 

I 

75 

99 

J  Sweden . 

....  » 

I 

53 

68 

Switzerland . . . 

. . . .  1) 

I 

53 

67 

Vienna  Joint  Stock  Company  ...... 

....  I> 

K 

I 

IV 

62 

112 

1*4 

locomotive  wheels . 

. .  Machinery . 

III 

335 

314 

Forgings,  architectural . 

. .  Architecture . 

....  b 

IV 

13 

21 

hydraulic . . 

. .  Machinery . 

III 

334 

313 

hydraulic . 

. .  Metallurgy . 

....  K 

IV 

53 

34 

Foundations,  cement . 

. .  Architecture . 

....  It 

IV 

0 

16 

of  exhibition  buildings. . 

..  Kxhibilion  Buildings . . 

IV 

6 

11 

Founderics  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia  . 

..  Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

19 

19 

Founder)'- work  for  sowing  machines . 

, .  Sewing Machines . . 

....  B 

hi 

27 

6 

Fonrneyron-Jonral  wheel,  Tbime's . 

. .  Machinery . . 

....  A 

hi 

164 

192 

turbines  of  Nagle  &  Kacmp  . 

in 

160 

188 

Fourrade's  wotk  and  reward . . 

..  Education . . 

....  K 

it 

55 

27 

Framed  buildings . 

. .  Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

18 

36 

Frankfort,  school  for  idiots . 

. .  Education . 

....  K 

ii 

81 

37 

Freiberg,  Berg- Academic . 

. .  Machinery . 

m 

363 

357 

Copper-Vitriol  Works . 

. .  Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

9 

23 

Metallurgical  Works . 

....  F 

IV 

oe 

227 

rousting  ores  at . . . 

...  F 

IV 

42 

101 

Smelting  Company . 

IV 

168 

394 

smelting  process . 

....  F 

IV 

56 

136 

roasted  matte . 

....  F 

IV 

77 

187 

Smelting  Works . 

IV 

96 

225 

sulphuric-acid  manufactory . 

....  F 

IV 

46 

108 

French  art . 

. .  Patronage  of  Art . 

....  X 

II 

12 

16 

clocks . 

. .  Instruments . . 

....  G 

II 

25 

33 

colonies,  photographs  from . . 

..  Photography . 

...  D 

II 

13 

30 

educational  exhibits . 

..  Education . 

....  L 

II 

18 

2* 

exhibitions,  origin  of . 

..  Introduction . 

I 

33 

10 

fairs  . 

...  A 

I 

32 

5 

forests  . 

..  Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

53 

66 

products  of . 

...  D 

I 

40 

10 

hydraulic  engineering . 

.  Hydraulic  Engineering - 

...  r» 

III 

12 

2! 

GENERAL  INDEX.  25 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Trench  lead-refining . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IY 

9 

24 

manufacturing  districts . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

391 

372 

metallurgical  exhibits  . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IY 

9 

19 

metal  industry . 

_  F 

IY 

9 

23 

metal-working  tools . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

244 

252 

photographic  exhibits .  . 

Photography . 

_  D 

II 

10 

20 

Photographic  Society . 

_  D 

II 

10 

21 

phosphates . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

II 

19 

20- 

prices  of . 

.  C 

II 

26 

31 

reports,  ( see  Reports,  French.) 

schools . 

Education . 

.  K 

II 

103 

57 

for  Idiots . 

.  K 

II 

79 

35 

sheep,  ancient  breeds . 

Sheep  aud  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

37 

47 

breeding  establishments . 

_  E 

I 

36 

45 

cross-breeding . 

_  E 

I 

34 

42 

distribution  of  breeds . 

_  E 

I 

33 

41 

local  adaptation  of . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

35 

43 

methods  of  husbandry . 

. do . . 

.  E 

I 

38 

49 

mutton  producers . 

.  E 

I 

37 

46 

Rambouillet  stock . 

.  E 

I 

35 

44 

statistics . 

.  E 

I 

32 

40 

telegraphs . 

Telegraphs . 

.  I 

II 

62 

49 

telegraphs . : . 

.  J 

II 

23 

31 

administration . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

52 

34 

employes . . 

.  I 

II 

71 

60 

instruments . 

. . do . 

.  .1 

II 

23 

32 

Hughes’ . 

.  J 

II 

25 

34 

officers  . 

.  I 

II 

69 

56 

organization . . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

52 

34 

wood-working  tools . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

284 

273 

Friedberg  Institution  for  the  Blind  and  Deaf- 

Mutes . 

.  Deaf-Mutes . 

.  M 

II 

8 

9 

Friedmann’s  injector . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

138 

150 

Friedmann  on  Hew  York  Harbor  improvements. 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

437 

349 

Fruits,  preserved,  Ott’s  report . . 

.  B 

I 

472 

377 

Fuels,  mineral,  of  the  United  States . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

255 

115 

Furnaces,  ( see  Blast-furnaces.) 

dimensions  of  Cleveland . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

409 

390 

practice  at  Scotch . . 

.  A 

III 

419 

398 

Furniture,  American . . . 

.  Wood  Industries . 

.  0 

IY 

6 

3 

exhibits . 

.  C 

IV 

16 

16 

Furring  and  lathing . 

,  Architecture  . 

.  B 

IV 

8 

13 

Fiirstenberg  Prince,  area  of  domain . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

93 

129 

flora. . 

.  D 

I 

93 

129 

forest  culture . 

.  D 

I 

94 

130 

Fiirst  &  Bradley's  plows . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

273 

130 

Fussell,  on  educational  appliances . . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

280 

143 

G. 


Galicia  flora . . . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

1 

72 

93 

forest  products . 

.  D 

I 

26 

25 

State  forests . 

.  D 

I 

72 

93 

topography . 

.  D 

I 

72 

93 

Gallaudet,  Dr.,  School  at  Hartford . 

Gallaudet,  E.  M.,  Report  on  Governmental 

Education . 

.  K 

II 

64 

28 

Patronage  op  Art . 

.  Patronage  of  Art . 

.  N 

II 

Report  on  Deaf-Mute  Instruction... 

Deaf-Mutes . 

.  M 

II 

Galloway  compound  engines . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

29 

39 

26 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject.  Retort. 

Galloway  steam-boiler,  trial  of .  Machinery . 

Galvanized  iron  and  roofing-metal . -Architecture . 

telegraphic  wire .  Telegraphs . 

Galvano-plastic  apparatus  for  electrotypes .  Government  Printin; 

Gardening,  landscape . Architecture . 

Gabkktso.v,  II.,  Report  of  CuiKF  Executive 

Commissioner . . 

Gas,  ammonia  from . . . .  Fertilizers . 

and  steam  engines  compared . Machinery . 

compared  with  steam  as  a  motor . do . 

engines,  advantages  of  Crayton's  non- 

explosive . do . 

defects  in  explosive... . .do . . 

Lenoir's  . . do . 

non-explosive . do . 

Otto  &  Langen's .  do . 

IUnkine's  theory  of . do . 

illuminating,  Stiugl  s  report . .  Introduction  . 

Gavltt  A  Co.'s  exhibits  of  printing .  Printing  and  Pape r. . 

Gear-cutter,  Sellers  &  Co .  Machinery . 

Do . Introduction . 

Gear-molding  machine,  Scott's .  Machinery . 

Genius,  creative,  tralnlug  of .  Education . . 

Genoa,  school  of  forestry .  Forestry . 

Gentllly,  school  for  Idiots. .  Education . 

Geography,  Instruction  In .  Introduction . 

teaching  of .  Education . . 

Geology  of  Swedish  Iron-ores .  Metallurgy . 

Georgs  Marten  Hutto  Company . do . 

German  and  United  States,  graphic  arts .  Introduction . 

book  Illustrations .  Photography . 

Empire  sc  pool  of  forestry .  Forestry . . . 

entries  of  sheep . Sheep  and  Wool .... 

(looks,  sheep . do . 

lithography . . .  Printing  and  Paper 

locomotive-works,  character  of .  Machinery . 

moriuoes,  wool  of . . . Sheep  and  Wool... 

metallurgical  exhibit .  Metallurgy . 

opinion  of  American  tools . Machinery . 

phosphates . . .  Fertilizers . 

price . do . - . 

school  for  idiots . . .  Education . 

sewing-machines .  Sewing-Macbinoa  .. 

superphosphates .  Fertilizers... . 

telegraphic  collection .  Telegraphs . 

employis . do . 

office  . . do . 

telegraphs . *1° . 

watches . . . . .  Instruments . . 

Germany,  educational  apparatus . Education . 

exhibits . do . 

models . - . do . 

fiue  wool  of . Sheep  and  Wool - 

forest  administrations . Forestry . 

area . do . 

products . do . 

metallurgical  exhibits .  Metallurgy . 

periodicals.... . Education . 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

A 

Ill 

Ill 

127 

B 

IV 

14 

26 

J 

II 

15 

20 

P 

II 

C 

10 

B 

II 

24 

55 

C 

1 

C 

II 

41 

52 

A 

III 

149 

153 

A 

III 

147 

152 

A 

III 

105 

165 

A 

III 

103 

162 

A 

in 

1(18 

lfd 

A 

hi 

168 

168 

A 

hi 

168 

169 

A 

in 

174 

177 

B 

i 

400 

2*6 

0 

ii 

6 

6 

A 

in 

SI6 

225 

B 

i 

582 

361 

A 

hi 

381 

295 

K 

ii 

34 

17 

D 

i 

100 

149 

K 

ii 

81 

37 

II 

i 

337 

221 

K 

ii 

123 

72 

E 

IV 

158 

134 

K 

IV 

04 

64 

It 

i 

:79 

256 

D 

ii 

16 

41 

D 

i 

06 

133 

E 

i 

0 

10 

E 

i 

10 

11 

0 

ii 

15 

19 

A 

in 

78 

87 

E 

i 

10 

11 

E 

IV 

55 

36 

A 

III 

338 

317 

C 

11 

20 

22 

C 

II 

25 

29 

K 

II 

77 

34 

B 

III 

6 

2 

C 

II 

31 

33 

I 

II 

43 

24 

I 

II 

71 

60 

I 

11 

58 

46 

.  I 

II 

58 

46 

G 

II 

19 

26 

.  L 

II 

20 

23 

.  L 

II 

19 

27 

.  L 

II 

20 

29 

.  E 

I 

41 

53 

.  D 

1 

60 

76 

.  D 

I 

60 

76 

.  D 

I 

61 

77 

.  F 

IV 

30 

68 

.  L 

n 

20 

30 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


27 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Germany,  photographic  exhibits . 

.  Photography . 

.  D 

II 

16 

41 

sheep,  Spanish  breed . 

.  Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

40 

52 

soil . . 

.  Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

63 

78 

trees . 

.  D 

I 

62 

78 

Gewerbe-Schule  at  Vienna . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

367 

359 

Gheel,  school  for  idiots . . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

77 

34 

Ghent,  school  for  idiots . • . 

. do . 

.  K 

II 

77 

34 

Gibus,  W.,  Report  on  Physical  Apparatus  i 

Physical  Apparatus _ 

and  Chemical  Materials . } 

Chemical  Materials  . ... 

II 

Giersberg  on  the  work  at  Hallett’s  Point,  N.  Y. 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

391 

277 

Gillet,  Dr.,  school . 

.  Education . 

_  K 

II 

64 

28 

Gintl  on  resins . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

401 

288 

starch . 

.  B 

I 

400 

287 

Girard’s  sluice-gates . 

.  Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

34 

40 

turbine,  Gwynne  &  Co.’s . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

178 

183 

Girders  and  columns,  iron . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

64 

56 

strains  on . 

,  Civil  Engineering . 

.......  C 

III 

62 

82 

Gladbaoh,  school  for  idiots . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

76 

33 

/Glassware,  chemical . 

Chemical  Materials  .... 

.  F 

II 

18 

28 

Gleiwitz  lurnace,  exhibit . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

114 

89 

Globes . . . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

358 

223 

Gluten . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

8 

17 

cells,  illustrated . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

69 

146 

size  of . 

.  B 

II 

73 

154 

changes  in . 

. do . . 

.  B 

ii 

92 

202 

chemical  constitution . 

. do . 

.  B 

ii 

12 

31 

percentage  in  flour . 

. . do . 

.  B 

ii 

12 

30 

Gold . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

i 

370 

242 

pens,  Nagel  on  the  manufacture . 

.  B 

i 

•  409 

301 

Goldschmidt  on  leather . 

. do . 

.  B 

i 

406 

295 

Goniometers . 

Physical  Apparatus _ 

.  F 

ii 

6 

5 

Goritz  exhibit  of  forest  products . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

i 

26 

26' 

area . 

. do . 

.  D 

i 

73 

94 

coast-land  forest . 

. do . 

.  D 

i 

72 

94 

description  of  country . 

. do . 

. .  D 

i 

73 

95 

flora . 

.  D 

i 

74 

96 

Governmental  architectural  work . 

Architecture . 

. .  B 

IV 

22 

46 

Governmental  Patronage  of  Art,  Report  by 

E.  M.  Gallaudet . 

Patronage  of  art . 

. .  N 

II 

7 

4 

Governmental  Printing  Institutions,  Report 

by  A.  H.  Brown . 

Government  Printing... 

.  P 

II 

Graham,  L.,  exhibit  of  printing . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  0 

II 

7 

5 

Grain,  wheat,  coatings . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

5 

8 

effect  of  milling . 

.  B 

II 

70 

148 

Hungarian . 

.  B 

II 

16 

42 

nutritive  salts . 

.  B 

II 

109 

233 

phosphorus  in  . . . 

.  B 

II 

13 

33 

separation  of . 

.  B 

II 

22 

55 

Granite,  use  in  United  States . . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

5 

3 

Graphic  arts,  “  Picturesque  America  ” . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

336 

191 

Lorck’s  report . 

I 

337 

253 

Grate,  Bolzano’s . . . 

Machinery . 

III 

133 

148 

Zeh’s . 

.  A 

III 

133 

148 

Groat  Britain,  ( see  British,  England.) 

fairs  in . 

Introduction . 

.  A 

I 

32 

4 

forests . 

Forestry . 

I 

51 

63 

photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

II 

7 

9 

woodlands . . 

Forestry . 

I 

51 

64 

28  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject.  Eepout.  Vol.  Page.  Art. 


Greece,  forest  products . 

Forestry . . 

..  D 

I 

38 

40 

metallurgical  exhibits . 

Metallurgy . . 

..  F 

IV 

219 

501 

Greenwich  observatory  records . 

Instruments . 

..  G 

II 

9 

7 

Grcfe  on  lithography  and  chromo-lithography  . . 

Introduction . . 

..  B 

I 

411 

305 

Grenoble  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

..  D 

I 

100 

150 

Grinding  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

..  B 

II 

18 

45 

finer  products  of . 

II 

3.1 

7G 

Grits  in  0  and  A  flour . 

..  B 

II 

73 

155 

nature  and  cause  of . 

. do . 

..  B 

II 

7-1 

158 

purification  of . 

..  B 

II 

49 

110 

unpurified . 

..  B 

II 

34 

75 

Vienna . 

. do . 

..  B 

II 

31 

G7 

Groats,  Pumpernickel . 

..  B 

II 

111 

238 

Grosshappen  forests . 

Forestry . 

..  D 

I 

G8 

85 

Gros  Zdikau  forests . 

. do . 

..  D 

I 

91 

122 

Grounds  of  the  exhibition . 

. .  Aa 

IV 

5 

1 

Group  jury  No.  XIII,  cou^iosition  of . 

..  A 

III 

G 

8 

sections  of  . 

. do . . 

..  A 

III 

7 

10 

Groups,  building,  at  Vienna . 

Architecture . 

..  A 

IV 

10 

14 

Grove-batteries . j . 

Telegraphs . 

..  J 

11 

10  • 

22 

Gruuer  on  mineral  industry,  iron, .and  steel . 

Introduction . . 

..  B 

I 

293 

147 

Sellers  &.  Co.’s  rotary  puddler  and 
rolls . 

..  B 

I 

294 

148 

Guadeloupe,  forests  of . 

Forestry . 

..  D 

I 

61 

108 

Guano,  fish . 

Fertilizers . 

..  C 

11 

47 

46 

price  and  composition . 

..  C 

II 

47 

48 

importation  into  England . 

. do . . 

..  C 

II 

14 

12 

Peruvian,  consumption  of . 

..  C 

II 

44 

42 

present  supply . 

. do . 

..  C 

II 

44 

43 

qualities . 

..  C 

II 

41 

44 

Guiana,  forests  of . 

Forestry . 

..  1) 

I 

60 

10G 

Guinotte  valve-gear . 

Machinery . . 

..  A 

III 

G3 

7G 

application  to  reversing  en- 

gines  . 

..  A 

III 

G7 

79 

automatic  adjustment . 

..  A 

III 

G9 

82 

construction  of . 

..  A 

III 

65 

78 

design  of . 

..  A 

III 

63 

77 

peculiar  applications . 

..  A 

HI 

G8 

80 

use  in  hoisting-engines _ 

..  A 

nr 

Gd 

81 

Gun,  (see  Fire-arms.) 

Gun-barrels,  tJchatius'  theory  of  making . 

..  A 

iii 

328 

302 

G Wynne's  Girard  turbines . 

..  A 

m 

178 

183 

pumps . 

..  A 

iii 

203 

195 

Hoard t  on  iron  and  steel  works . . 

H. 

Introduction . 

..  B 

i 

407 

297 

Hague  School  for  Idiots . 

Education . 

..  K 

i 

77 

34 

Hall,  machinerv . 

Machinery . . 

..  A 

iii 

3 

2 

Hallett’s  Point.  Xew  York,  submarine  opera- 

tions  at.  Kleitz's  report . 

Introduction . . 

..  B 

i 

345 

208 

Schwedler,  Sternberg,  Giersberg, 
and  Housselle's  reports . 

..  B 

i 

491 

277 

Hall's  dovetailing  machine . 

Machinery . 

..  A 

iii 

257 

26G 

sudden-grip  vis3 . 

..  A 

iii 

257 

2G6 

Anderson’s  report . 

Introduction . 

..  B 

i 

241 

88 

Hartig  and  others’  re- 

port . 

..  B 

i 

382 

260 

Hamburg  sewerage . A . 

Hydraulic  Engineering . 

..  D 

iii 

12 

20 

GENERAL  INDEX 


Subject.  Report. 

Hamoi  wire-works .  Metallurgy . 

Hammer,  Massey’s  steam .  Machinery . 

Sellers  &  Co.’s . Introduction . 

Sellers’  steam . Machinery . 

Hampshire  downs . Sheep  and  “Wool . 

Hanamann  on  sugar  and  apparatus .  Introduction . 

Hand,  education  of  the . . . Education . 

Hannak  on  instruction  in  history .  Introduction . 

Harborimprovements.  (seeHallett’sPoint.N'.  T.) 

Harpol’s,  Oscar,  typographical  exhibit .  Printing  and  Paper.. 

Harrison’s  chronometer . Instruments . 

Harrow,  Nisliwitz’s .  ^Dtroduction . 

Hartford  School .  Education . 

Hartig  and  others,  (see  Reports,  German.) 

Harvesters,  (see  Mowing-machines.) 

Johnston  Harvester  Co .  Introduction . 

Schmied's  report . do . 

Schmied’s  report . do . 

Harvesting  wheat _ *  .  Vienna  Bread . 

Hasanclever  and  Helbig’s  furnaces . Metallurgy . 

Hassall’s  investigations  of  yeast-plant . Vienna  Bread . 

Haswcll’s  apparatus  for  forging . Metallurgy . 

cross-heads . do . 

cylinder-heads . ■ .  do . 

forged  crank . do  . 

hydraulic  forging  process . do . 

journal-boxes .  do . 

locomotive,  hydraulic-forging . do . 

locomotive  wheels,  solid . do . 

Hearing,  concord  of .  Education . 

Heat  apparatus . Physical  Apparatus.. 

effect  on  yeast-cells .  Vienna  Bread . 

Heaters,  Berryman’s  and  others’ . Machinery . 

Heating  of  flour .  Vienna  Bread . 

prevention  of . do . 

Heinrichshof  at  Vienna .  Exhibition  Buildings 

Heinricke’s  school  for  deaf-mutes . Education . 

Hematite  ores,  Cumberland . Machinery . 

Henderson’s  theory  of  aero-steam  engines .  do . 

Kerbst  A  Co.’s  Smelting  Works . Metallurgy  ..., . 

Hercules,  Her  Britannic  Majesty’s  iron-clad _ Machinery . 

Hernandez's  school  for  deaf-mutes .  Education . 

Herzog  on  arms  and  equipments . Introduction . 

Hesse-Harmstadt  school  of  forestry .  Forestry . 

Hexyl  series .  Chemical  Materials  . . 

Hill’s  school  for  deaf-mutes .  E  lucation . 

Hinterbrahl  school  of  forestry . Forestry . 

Hinterhuber  &  Kuschel’s  furnaces .  Metallurgy . 

Hinton,  L.  J.,  Report  on  Working  of  Stone 

and  Artificial  Stones .  Working  of  Stone... 

Hirsch,  J.  M.,  lithographic  work . Printing  and  Paper... 

Hirsch  on  American  gun-factories .  Introduction . 

hospital  cars,  litters . do . 

wqtch-making . do . 

school  for  deaf-mutes . Education . 

Historical  photographic  collection .  Photography . 

sketch,  Ahbd  L’EpOe . Education . 

telegraphs .  Telegraphs . 

telegraphical  collection . do . 


29 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

E 

IV 

52 

A 

III 

299 

289 

B 

I 

238 

81 

A 

III 

294 

288 

E 

I 

2G 

32 

B 

I 

402 

289 

K 

II 

114 

67 

B 

I 

454 

362 

0 

II 

8 

6 

G 

II 

7 

3 

B 

I 

273 

133 

K 

II 

64 

28 

B 

I 

277 

138 

B 

I 

429 

334 

B 

I 

425 

326 

B 

II 

18 

45 

F 

IV 

147 

345 

B 

II 

82 

178 

E 

IV 

176 

E 

IV 

179 

E 

IV 

182 

E 

IV 

184 

E 

IV 

175 

E 

IV 

180 

E 

IV 

174 

E 

IV 

183 

K 

II 

52 

25 

F 

II 

13 

17 

B 

II 

79 

173 

A 

III 

134 

149 

B 

II 

39 

83 

B 

II 

20 

48 

Aa 

IV 

15 

30 

K 

II 

43 

19 

A 

III 

408 

386 

A 

III 

151 

158 

F 

IV 

143 

345 

A 

III 

434 

411 

K 

II 

49 

24 

B 

I 

480 

387 

D 

I 

97 

139 

F 

II 

15 

25 

K 

II 

43 

19 

D 

I 

99 

146 

F 

IV 

173 

414 

D 

IV 

0 

II 

8 

6 

B 

I 

478 

385 

B 

I 

479 

386 

B 

I 

477 

384 

K 

II 

43 

19 

D 

II 

21 

51 

K 

II 

55 

27 

J 

II 

30 

40 

I 

II 

43 

24 

oO 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

History,  instruction  in . 

.  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

454 

362 

of  the  band-saw . 

.  Machinery _ y . 

...  A 

III 

255 

263 

chromo-lithography  . . . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

9 

8 

chronometers . 

.  Instruments . 

...  G 

II 

7 

3 

clocks . 

...  G 

II 

22 

30 

Cockerill’s  Works . 

.  Machinery . 

III 

384 

366 

Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers.. 

...  A 

HI 

393 

374 

Creusot . 

...  A 

III 

394 

376 

locomotivo-engiucs . 

...  A 

III 

81 

98 

marine-engine  practice . 

...  A 

III 

42 

50 

printing . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

11 

5 

1 

progress  in  the  adoption  of  steel... 

.  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

81 

97 

sectional  steam-boilers . 

...  A 

in 

118 

131 

steam-engine  improvement . . 

...  A 

in 

17 

26 

fire-engines . 

...  A 

in 

107 

125 

stone-dressing  in  England . . 

.  Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

11 

10 

Hoes,  Deere  A  Co.’s . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

273 

131 

Hofksai's  albums . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

ii 

*24 

37 

Holland,  collective  teaching . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

ii 

45 

2*2 

forests  . 

.  l-'orcstry . 

...  D 

i 

53 

.  65 

Hollando-Gerraan  schools  for  deaf-mutes . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

ii 

43 

19 

Holmes  and  Payton's  stone-dressing  machine... 

.  Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

10 

9 

on  American  steam  machinery . . 

.  Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

252 

103 

4  cold-rolled  shafting . 

...  B 

i 

253 

105 

Pickering’s  engine . 

...  B 

i 

252 

104 

steam-pump  and  water-wheels . 

...  B 

i 

253 

106 

Holtz  electrical  machines . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

...  F 

ii 

11 

14 

Ilolzappel,  lead  work  at . 

.  Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

151 

354 

Ilotner,  Leo  &  Co.,  letter-engraving . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

ii 

8 

6 

Hooke's  improvements  on  horology . 

Instruments . 

...  G 

ii 

9 

8 

Horology,  Dr.  Hooke’s  work  in . 

...  G 

ii 

7 

4 

schools  of . 

...  G 

ii 

13 

15 

Hokstorp,  E.  N.,  Iteport  on  Vienna  Bread _ 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

ii 

analysis  of  prize-flour . 

...  B 

n 

105 

232 

experiments  with  state  bread . 

...  B 

ii 

95 

211 

Horton  lathe-chucks . 

Machinery . . 

...  A 

hi 

337 

316 

Hospital  cars  and  litters . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

479 

386 

Georgs-Marien-niitte  Companv . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

103 

73 

railroad  cars . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

436 

347 

Hot-blast  stoves,  Whltwoll . . . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

155 

Houses  for  work-people,  Georgs-Marien-Uiitto 

Company . 

...  E 

IV 

98 

66 

House-zius  of  Vienna . 

Architecture . . 

...  A 

IV 

6 

5 

Honsselle  and  others  on  harbor  improvements 

at  New  York . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

391 

277 

Howard  steam-boiler . 

Machinery . . 

...  A 

III 

118 

130 

detailed  description  of.... 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

124 

133 

Howe  sewing-machine . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

10 

3 

Hoyt,  J.  W.,  Report  on  Education . 

Education . 

...  L 

II 

Hughes'  telegraphic  printer . 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

11 

9 

7 

Hull's,  Miss,  school . 

Education . 

...  L 

II 

64 

28 

Hungarian  climate . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

u 

15 

38 

mill-industry . 

...  B 

II 

75 

163 

mills,  high  milling . 

...  B 

II 

57 

125 

products  of . 

...  B 

II 

61 

133 

prize  flour . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

71 

149 

sheep  . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

...  E 

I 

15 

15 

culture . 

...  E 

I 

39 

51 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Hungarian  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

14 

bread  . 

...  B 

II 

84 

character  of . 

...  B 

II 

16 

compared  with  Victoria . 

. do . . 

...  B 

II 

15 

Dempwolff’s  investigations.. 

...  B 

II 

103 

hardiness  of . 

. do . . . 

...  B 

II 

30 

varieties  of . 

...  B 

II 

16 

Hungary,  (see  Austro-Hungary.) 

educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

...  L 

II 

17 

exhibits  of  forest  products .  . 

Forestry . . . 

...  D 

I 

33 

flora . 

...  D 

I 

77 

forests  . 

...  D 

I 

76 

state  . 

...  D 

I 

77 

Lower,  metallurgical  processes . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

179 

mint  . . 

...  F 

IV 

177 

silver  extraction  in . 

...  F 

IV 

181 

photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

...  D 

II 

21 

school  of  forestry . 

Forestry: . 

...  D 

I 

99 

Upper,  quicksilver  distillation . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

211 

Hiipsclier  on  penmanship . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

458 

Hiitte,  Julius,  lead-smelting  works . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

132 

zinc-vitriol  works . 

...  F 

IV 

131 

Hydraulic  Exgineerinc,,  Report  of  C.  Davis  . . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  . . . . 

...  D 

III 

forging . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

.53 

forging . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

334 

motors,  character  of . 

. do . 

...  A 

in 

176 

Hygrometry . . 

.  Wood  Industries . 

...  C 

IV 

8 

Hygroscopic  changes,  effect  on  wood . 

I. 

Hydraulic  Engineering.... 

...  C 

IV 

7 

Ice-gorges  on  the  Danube . 

...  D 

III 

6 

Idiots,  American  schools  for . 

Education . 

...  K 

n 

86 

education  of . 

...  K 

n 

75 

foreign  schools  for . . 

. do . 

...  K 

n 

75 

training  of . 

...  K 

n 

90 

Illinois,  schools  of . 

...  K 

n 

64 

Illuminating-gas,  Stingl’s  report . . 

.  Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

400 

Illustration,  book,  ( see  Engraving,  Photography) 

Germany . . . 

.  Photography . 

...  D 

n 

16 

Ilsenburg,  cast  iron  art  work . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

iron,  its  quality . 

. do . . 

...  E 

IV 

molding-sand . . 

...  E 

IV 

temperature  of  fusion . 

...  E 

IV 

Imitation,  a  means  of  learning . . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

II 

66 

of  Japanese  paper . 

.  Paper  and  Printing . 

...  O 

II 

23 

training  of . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

25 

Imperial  pavilion  at  Vienna .  . . . 

.  Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

11 

Importation  of  instruments . . 

.  Physical  Apparatus . 

...  F 

II 

18 

Impressions,  nature  of . . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

II 

33 

received  bv  children . . 

...  K 

II 

33 

Imprimerie  Nationals  Fran9aise . . 

.  Paper  and  Printing . 

...  O 

II 

14 

(see  Printing-office.) 

Indeich  on  agricultural  machinery . . 

.  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

362 

forestry . 

...  B 

I 

362 

Warder,  Mitchell  &  Co.’s  mower _ 

. . do . 

...  B 

I 

362 

India,  British,  educational  exhibits . 

.  Education . 

...  L 

II 

17 

forestry  exhibits . 

.  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

39 

India  rubbgr . 

.  Introduction . . 

...  B 

I 

375 

31 

Art. 

36 

183 

42 

40 

229 

64 

43 

18 

37 

102 

100 

102 

424 

420 

432 

52 

147 

473 

363 

313 

310 

34 

313 

179 

6 

4 

7 

41 

32 

32 

46 

28 

286 

41 

187 

189 

188 

190 

30 

31 

13 

20 

29 

16 

16 

33 

228 

227 

229 

21 

46 

251 


32 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

India-rubber  goods  Schnek’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

406 

296 

Indian  corn,  nutritive  value . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

no 

236 

Inductoriums . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

...  F 

II 

10 

13 

Industrial  exhibition  at  Lyons . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

HI 

397 

378 

origin  of . 

Introduction . 

...  A 

I 

32 

1 

palace . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

5 

3 

schools  of  Goorgs-Harien-HiUte  Co.. 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

101 

09 

senses,  education  of . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

117 

70 

Industries,  intiuences  affecting  Swiss . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

347 

323 

German  food,  machinery  for . 

...  A 

III 

358 

349 

linen,  of  Switzerland . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

349 

330 

Infant  schools . . . 

Education . 

11 

23 

11 

training  of . 

...  IC 

II 

25 

13 

Inflexible,  Her  Britannic  Majesty's  iron-clad... 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

434 

411 

Injectors,  Friedmann's . 

...  A 

III 

138 

150 

history  and  philosophy  of . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

133 

150 

Sellers  &  Co.’s . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

138 

150 

Ink-writer,  telegraphic . . 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

II 

7 

0 

Institute  of  Technology,  Stevens,  Professor 

Thurston’s  tests  of  steel  at . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

409 

338 

Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,  Report  by  K.  M. 

Gallaudet . 

Deaf-Mutes . 

...  M 

II 

Instruction,  (see  Education.) 

in  history,  Hannak's  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

454 

302 

in  learning  and  in  art,  Langl's  report 

. (lo . 

...  B 

I 

451 

301 

means  of,  Lowcnthal’s  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

445 

355 

musical,  IVoinwunu’s  report  ... _ 

...  B 

I 

419 

359 

natural  history,  Pokorny's  report. .. 

...  B 

I 

445 

354 

physiological . 

Education . 

...  1C 

II 

70 

31 

popular . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

23 

34 

Instruments  or  Precision: 

Report  by  C.  F.  Carpenter . 

Instruments . 

...  G 

II 

Report  by  R.  I).  CUTTS . 

...  H 

II 

Insulators,  telegraphic . 

Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

8 

? 

Do . 

...  J 

II 

10 

ii 

manufactures . 

...  J 

11 

22 

29 

Prussian . 

...  J 

II 

21 

28 

tests,  European . 

...  J 

II 

22 

30 

Internal  navigation . 

Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

...  D 

III 

12 

22 

International  congresses . 

Introduction . 

...  A 

I 

80 

53 

International  exhibitions— 

Earlier . 

...  A 

I 

32 

12 

1851,  London,  awards . 

...  A 

I 

38 

19 

buildings . 

...  A 

I 

35 

15 

classifications . . 

...  A 

I 

30 

17 

exhibitions . 

...  A 

I 

35 

1G 

inception . 

...  A 

I 

34 

13 

jurors . 

...  A 

I 

33 

13 

preparations . 

. do . 

...  A 

I 

34 

14 

1853.  Dublin,  buildings . 

...  A 

I 

39 

21 

exhibitions . 

...  A 

I 

39 

22 

inception . 

...  A 

I 

39 

20 

1853.  New  York,  buildings . 

...  A 

I 

41 

24 

classification . 

. do . 

...  A 

I 

42 

25 

inception . 

...  A 

I 

40 

23 

juries . 

...  A 

I 

42 

26 

1855,  Paris,  arrangement . 

. do . 

...  A 

I 

44 

29 

awards . 

...  A 

I 

46 

32 

GENERAL  INDEX.  33 


Subject. 

Report. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

International  exhibitions — Continued. 

1855,  Paris,  buildings . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

43 

28 

classifications . 

....  A 

I 

44 

30 

exhibition . 

....  A 

I 

46 

31 

inception . 

....  A 

I 

42 

27 

1862,  London,  buildings . 

....  A 

I 

48 

34 

classification . 

....  A 

I 

49 

36 

exhibition . 

....  A 

I 

48 

35 

inception . 

....  A 

I 

47 

33 

juries . 

....  A 

I 

51 

38 

organization . . . 

....  A 

I 

50 

37 

1867,  Paris,  arrangement . 

....  A 

I 

52 

41 

awards . 

....  A 

I 

57 

45 

buildings . 

....  A 

I 

52 

40 

exhibition . 

....  A 

I 

55 

43 

finances  . 

....  A 

I 

55 

42 

inception . 

....  A 

I 

51 

39 

juries . 

....  A 

I 

57 

45 

official  reports  and  records . 

....  A 

I 

56 

44 

1873,  Vienna,  administration . 

.  A 

I 

110 

58 

admission-tickets . 

....  A 

I 

76 

51 

advisory  committee  of  citizens. 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

158 

61 

arrangement . 

....  A 

I 

64 

48 

awards,  distribution . 

....  A 

I 

198 

65 

distribution  by  groups. 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

199 

67 

to  exhibitors  from 

the  United  States... 

....  A 

I 

200 

69 

Do . 

....  A 

I 

215 

70 

tabular  exhibit . . 

....  A 

I 

199 

66 

tabular  exhibit  classi¬ 
fied  by  states . 

....  A 

I 

216 

71 

buildings . 

....  A 

I 

65 

49 

calendar,  general . 

....  A 

I 

78 

52 

catalogue,  official,  United 
States  section . . 

....  A 

I 

190 

63 

classification  of  exhibits . 

. . do . 

....  A 

I 

98 

57 

commissions  of  the  United 

States . . 

. . do . 

_  A 

I 

156 

60 

commissions  of  the  United 
States,  regulations . 

. do . . 

....  A 

I 

159 

62 

congresses,  international . 

_  A 

I 

80 

35 

contributions  from  the  several 

states . 

_  A 

I 

196 

64 

diplomas  of  honor . 

_  A 

I 

200 

68 

inception . 

_  A 

I 

58 

46 

jury,  international;  regula¬ 
tions . 

. do . . 

.  A 

I 

92 

56 

jury,  international;  selection, 
list  of  members . 

_  A 

I 

116 

59 

location . 

.  A 

I 

64 

47 

machinery;  special  regulations 

. do . 

.  A 

I 

82 

54 

regulations,  general . 

. do . 

_  A 

I 

70 

50 

tran spor tation-rates,  reduction 
of  . . . . - . 

.  B 

I 

85 

55 

Invention,  progress  of  German . 

Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

356 

344 

Iron  and  its  ores,  Hofmann's  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

369 

238 

Kupelwieser’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

397 

283 

British  India . 

Metallurgy . 

.  'E 

IV 

170 

3 


34 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Iron  anil  stool  forgings . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

138 

117 

Griiner’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

•293 

147 

Maw  anil  Dredge's  report . 

...  B 

I 

281 

145 

Russian . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

208 

149 

wares,  Haardt's  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

407 

297 

works,  Osnabruck . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

92 

63 

corrugated . . . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

14 

27 

cost . 

...  B 

IV 

13 

23 

driving-wheels  of  locomotives,  forged . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

81 

95 

galvanized,  and  roofing-metal . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

14 

26 

girders  and  columns . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

G4 

56 

in  buildings. . .  . 

Architecture . . 

...  A 

IV 

12 

19 

industriesof  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia. 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

16 

16 

linings  for  shafts  of  mines  . 

...  E 

IV 

127 

104 

Low  Moor . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

415 

395 

making,  British . 

...  A 

HI 

405 

383 

...  E 

IV 

168 

Prussian  . .., . 

. do . 

...  E 

IV 

56 

41 

manufactures  in  Switzerland . 

...  A 

III 

350 

333 

Sweden . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

152 

127 

mines,  Spanish . 

...  E 

IV 

207 

118 

ores  and  steel,  Fagersta . — 

...  E 

IV 

142 

122 

. do . 

...  E 

IV 

172 

.  E 

IV 

166 

sliip-huilding . 

.  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

421 

398 

shoes  for  railway  brakes . 

,  Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

GO 

48 

vessels,  classification  of . 

.  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

420 

405 

vs.  steel . . 

...  A 

III 

81 

94 

vs.  wood  in  ship-buihling . 

...  A 

III 

421 

398 

wire  fiom  Westphalia . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

GO 

50 

works,  Cockerill's . 

. do . 

...  E 

IV 

1)1 

110 

wrought . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

13 

23 

production  of . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

3G6 

234 

Iron-clad  Bellerophon . 

.  Machiuerv . 

...  A 

III 

58 

61 

Indexible . . 

...  A 

III 

434 

411 

Minotaur . 

...  A 

III 

58 

61 

Monarch . . 

...  A 

III 

426 

404 

Irrigation,  utilization  of  sewage  bv . . 

.  Fertilizers . 

...  G 

II 

59 

66 

Isochronism  in  chronometers . . 

.  Instruments . 

...  G 

11 

7 

3 

Istria  flora . 

.  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

74 

96 

forestry  exhibits . 

...  D 

I 

26 

26 

forests . . 

...  D 

I 

72 

94 

Italian  engineering . 

Hvdraulic  Engineering - 

...  D 

HI 

15 

27 

locomotives . 

...  A 

III 

70 

84 

schools . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

II 

101 

52 

Italy,  educational  exhibits . 

...  L 

11 

21 

32 

flora . # . . 

.  Forestry . 

...  D 

58 

72 

forestry  exhibits . 

...  D 

I 

16 

16 

metal  industry . 

.  Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

13 

30 

production  . . 

...  F 

IV 

15 

39 

photographic  exhibits . . 

.  Photography . 

...  D 

II 

14 

32 

smelting  process . 

.  Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

14 

38 

telegraphic  administration . 

.  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

57 

30 

emplovfs . 

...  I 

11 

74 

65 

officers  . 

...  I 

II 

69 

58 

telegraphs . 

...  I 

11 

65 

51 

Itard's  principles  of  teaching  idiots . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

II 

75 

32 

GENERAL  INDEX.  '  35 


Subject. 

Report. 

J. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Jaccard's  watches . 

.  Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

16 

22 

Jaite’s  telegraphic  repeaters . 

.  Telegraphs . . 

.  1 

II 

11 

11 

Janke’s  school  for  deaf-mutes . . 

.  Education . . 

_  K 

II 

43 

19 

Japan,  art  of  printing  in . 

.  Paper  and  Printing . . 

.  0 

II 

24 

35 

forestry  exhibits . 

.  Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

40 

50 

photographic  exhibits . 

.  Photography . 

.  D 

II 

22 

58 

Japanese  alphabet . 

.  Paper  and  Printing . 

.  0 

II 

24 

36 

colors . 

.  0 

II 

24 

36 

paper . . . . . 

.  0 

11 

21 

28 

imitations . 

.  0 

II 

23 

31 

pavilion . . 

.  Exhibition  Buildings . 

_  Aa 

W 

12 

21 

pictorial  printing . 

.  Paper  and  Printing . 

.  0 

II 

25 

38 

plane-tables . 

,  Instruments . . 

.  H 

II 

8 

14 

Jewell  Brothers’  mills . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

_  B 

II 

67 

140 

Joachimsthaler  forest . . 

,  Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

71 

90 

Johnston  Harvester  Company . . 

Introduction . 

_  B 

I 

277 

138 

harvester,  Scbmied’s  report . 

_  B 

I 

429 

334 

mower  and  reaper,  Tisserand’s  report. 

.  B 

I 

309 

162 

Jones  &  Laughlin’s  cold-rolled  shafting . 

_  B 

I 

240 

86 

Do . 

Machinery . 

_  A 

III 

324 

296 

Jonval  wheels  of  Rieter  &  Co . 

.  A 

III 

179 

184 

Joseph  I,  of  Austria,  architectural  impulse  — ... 

.  Architecture . 

.  A 

IV 

20 

31 

Judenberger  Iron  Works’  exhibit . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

49 

31 

Jury  for  education . 

Education . 

_  L 

II 

27 

43 

Group  XIII,  organization  of . 

Machinery . 

_  A 

III 

•  6 

8 

International . 

....  A 

III 

5 

5 

on  products  of  milling . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

33 

71 

pavilion . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

11 

20 

selection  of  group . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

7 

10 

system,  defects  of . 

....  A 

III 

5 

7 

work,  methods . . . 

....  A 

III 

7 

9 

K. 

Kafveltorps  Stock  Co.’s  mines  . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

23 

53 

sulphuric  acid  manufacture 

. do . ... . 

....  F 

IV 

24 

58 

Hammerer  &  Starke’s  plane-tables . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

8 

13 

Kappeler’s  mercurial  barometer . 

....  H 

II 

9 

18 

Kerosene  oils,  Schwarz's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

463 

367 

Kirby’s  mowers  and  reapers . 

....  B 

I 

311 

163 

Kitchen  of  “  Z  ins-house  ” . 

Architecture . . 

....  A 

IV 

7 

7 

Klar,  Lechner,  and  Richter  on — 

Books . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

447 

356 

Book-trade,  American . 

....  B 

I 

450 

360 

National  Bureau  of  Education . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

448  * 

357 

Kieitz  on  civil  engineering . 

....  B 

I 

345 

207 

Knapp’s  dovetailing-machine — 

Anderson’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

246 

95 

Exuer’s  report . . . 

....  B 

I 

422 

318 

Hartig  and  others’  reports . 

....  B 

I 

383 

265 

Knirr  on  schools . 

....  B 

I 

440 

351 

school  apparatus . 

....  B 

I 

444 

353 

plans . 

....  B 

I 

444 

352 

Kopp  on  albumen  and  starch . . . 

....  B 

I 

469 

373 

chemicals . 

....  B 

I 

468 

369 

oils . 

■R 

I 

46R 

371 

petroleum . 

....  B 

I 

468 

372 

pharmaceutical  preparations . 

....  B 

I 

468 

370 

36 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL 


Lechner,  Klar,  and  Richter  on  American  book 

trade . do .  B 

Lecbner,  Klar,  and  Kichter  on  American  books . do .  B 


Subject. 

KErouT. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Kopparberg  Copper  Works . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

22 

51 

Kraft  &  Son's  plane-tables . 

.  Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

8 

13 

Krain,  metal  products . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

_  F 

IV 

176 

416 

Krupp’s,  Friedrich,  artillery . 

_  E 

IV 

76 

61 

establishment,  production  of . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

in 

371 

362 

machinery . 

.  Metallurgy . 

_  E 

IV 

72 

60 

mines  and  smelting  works . . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

iii 

370 

361 

ordnance . 

.  A 

in 

374 

363 

steel-works . . 

iii 

370 

360 

wheels . 

_  A 

iii 

81 

96 

works  of . 

.  Metallurgy . . 

.  E 

IV 

69 

59 

Kupelwieser  on  metallurgical  processes . 

.  Introduction . 

_  B 

i 

396 

280 

nickel  and  cobalt . 

.  B 

i 

398 

284 

ores  of  iron . 

.  B 

i 

397 

2P2 

Pittsburgh  steels . 

.  B 

i 

397 

281 

Sellers  «fc  Co.’s  rotary  puddlcr. 

. do . 

.  B 

i 

397 

283 

Kuschel  &  Iliuterhuber'e  furnaces . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

173 

414 

L. 

Laboratories,  requirements  of . 

.  Chemical  Materials . 

.  F 

.11 

17 

27 

Laibach,  ferromanganese . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

48 

29 

_  E 

IV 

159 

Lancashire,  England . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

413 

394 

Lancaster  School  for  Idiots . . 

.  education . 

_  K 

II 

85 

40 

Landed  property,  distribution  of . 

.  Introduction . . 

_  B 

I 

320 

174 

Landolt  on  mowing-machiucs . . 

_  B 

I 

467 

368 

Landscape  gardening . 

.  Architecture . 

_  B 

IV 

24 

55 

Lane  &  Bodley  wood  working  machinery . . 

.  Introduction . 

_  B 

1 

421 

317 

Langl  A  Bayer  on  painting . . 

.  B 

I 

430 

350 

Langl,  on  instruction  in  learning  and  art . 

.  B 

I 

451 

361 

Language,  education  of . 

.  education . 

....  K 

II 

119 

71 

signs  a  means  of . . 

.  K 

II 

66 

30 

La  Salpetriere  School  for  Idiots . 

_  K 

II 

81 

37 

Lathes,  B.  1).  Whitney's . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

424 

323 

gnuge . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

249 

258 

construction  of . •> . 

....  A 

III 

212 

221 

Horton’s  chucks  for . . 

....  A 

III 

337 

316 

Pratt  &  Whitney  Company's  engine  ... 

....  A 

III 

226 

234 

Sellers  &  Co.'s . 

_  A 

III 

209 

218 

Do . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

234 

76 

spindles  of . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

213 

2-22 

weight  of . . 

....  A 

III 

213 

223 

Lathing  and  furring . 

.  Architecture . 

_  B 

IV 

8 

13 

Lauer  on  skorels . . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

436 

348 

Lautentlial  silver -lead . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

126 

295 

zinc  desilverization  at . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

118 

275 

process  . 

.  F 

IV 

126 

297 

Lead,  Metallurgy  of,  Report  by  H.  Fainter 

.  F 

IV 

Learning,  imitation  a  means  of . 

.  education . . 

.  K 

II 

66 

30 

Leather,  Peuinger's  report . . 

.  Introduction . . 

.  B 

I 

375 

250 

Goldschmidt's  report . . 

.  B 

I 

406 

295 

Sayer  s  report ;  cow,  calf,  and  horse 

hides . 

.  B 

I 

335 

190 

leather  and  caont- 

chouc . 

.  B 

I 

334 

189 

450  366 

447  356 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


37 


Subject. 

Eeport. 

Vol. 

Page.  Art. 

Lechner,  Klar,  an d  Eichter  on  American 

National  Bureau  of  Education . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

448 

357 

Le  Creusot,  Schneider  &  Co.’s  works  at . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

394 

375 

Lehman’s  hot  air  engine . 

....  A 

III 

162 

160 

Leicester  sheep,  description . 

Sheep  and  Wool . . 

....  E 

I 

19 

22 

improvement  of . 

......do  . 

....  E 

I 

19 

21 

in  the  United  States . 

....  E 

I 

20 

23 

Leignitz  School . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

43 

20 

Lenoir’s  gas-engine . - . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

162 

161 

Tresca's  trial  of . 

....  A 

III 

163 

163 

Leopoldsdorf,  trial  of  agricultural  machinery  .. 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

306 

160 

L'Epee,  life  and  work . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

55 

27 

Lessing  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

100 

151 

Lessons,  object,  in  the  kindergarten . 

Education . . 

....  K 

II 

15 

7 

from  experience . 

....  K 

II 

3 

1 

Letter-press  printing  at  Vienna . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

5 

2 

Levasseur’s  report,  ( see  Eeports,  French.) 

Lewis,  Hugh,  &,  Co.’s,  lithographic  exhibits  ... 

....  0 

II 

8 

t) 

Libraries  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company  ... 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

102 

70 

Liebig’s,  Baron,  views  of  fermentation . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

83 

181 

nutritive  salts  in  food . 

_ _ _ do  . . . . . 

....  B 

II 

110 

235 

Lincolns . 

.  Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

I 

21 

26 

Linen  industries  of  Switzerland . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

349 

330 

ready  made  clothing . 

Introduction . 

.. ..  B 

I 

404 

294 

Lines,  K.  B.,  Eeport  on  Telegraphs  and 

Telegraphic  administration . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

Link-motion  blocks,  Haswell’s . 

Metallurgy  . . 

....  E 

IV 

181 

Lippstadt  Wire  Works . 

....  E 

IV 

63 

54 

Liquors,  (see  Wines.) 

Lisbon  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

100 

154 

Lithographic  exhibits,  Hugh  Lewis  &  Co . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

8 

6 

Domestic  Lithographic 

and  Printing  Company. 

. do . . . 

....  0 

n 

8 

6 

Joseph  M.  Hirsch . 

....  0 

ii 

8 

6 

materials  and  methods,  German  .. 

. do . 

....  0 

ii 

15 

19 

press  of  Eader . 

....  0 

n 

16 

21 

printing  and  presses . 

......do  . 

....  0 

ii 

15 

20 

Lithography  and  chromo-lithography,  Grefe’s 

report  on . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

JL 

411 

305 

and  typography,  Lorck’s  report  . . 

- - do . 

....  B 

i 

317 

254 

Staatsdruokerei,  Vienna . 

Government  Printing . 

....  P 

ii 

6 

8 

Litters  and  hospital  cars,  Hirsch’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

479 

386 

Little  < fc  Edison’s  system  of  telegraphy . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

ii 

13 

13 

Live-stock  raising  in  the  United  States . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i  • 

326 

182 

Locating  public  buildings . 

Architecture. . 

....  B 

IV 

23 

51 

Lock,  canal,  at  Aubois . 

Civil  Engineering . 

....  C 

III 

f4 

87 

Port  h  1’ Anglais . 

- - do . . . 

....  C 

III 

37 

46 

Locomotive  engines . . . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

137 

115 

Locomotives,  American . 

Machinery . . 

....  A 

III 

60 

69 

Austrian,  Works . 

....  A 

III 

71 

.86 

Belgian  road,  with  rubber  tires... 

. do  . . . . 

....  A 

III 

83 

100 

British  tank . 

....  A 

III 

61 

70 

Carel’s . 

....  A 

III 

70 

83 

Claparede’s . 

....  A 

I  IT 

62 

72 

Compagnie  de  Fives-Lille . 

. do  . . . 

....  A 

III 

62 

73 

double  bogie  .  „ . . . . 

Introduction . . . 

....  B 

•I 

260 

118 

German . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

360 

353 

38  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Locomotives,  German,  practice . 

. do . . 

....  A 

Ill 

71 

85 

historical  sketch  of . 

...  A 

III 

72 

87 

Italian . 

....  A 

III 

70 

84 

length  of  tubes . 

number  of,  exhibited  and  their 

Introduction . 

...  B 

1 

262 

119 

dimensions . 

Machinery . . 

...  A 

III 

60 

67 

passenger . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

264 

120 

Schneider  &  Co.’s . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

61 

71 

Societ6  Anonymo  do  Couillct . 

...  A 

III 

63 

75 

Cockerill . 

...  A 

III 

62 

74 

tablo  of,  exhibited . 

...  A 

III 

60 

68 

wheels  for,  forged . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

335 

314 

works,  Borsig’s . 

...  A 

III 

364 

353 

Sharpe,  Stewart  &  Co.’s . . . 

...  A 

III 

399 

381 

Lodging-houses  of  Georgs-Marien-Hiitto  Co... 
London  and  Northwestern  Railway  Co.’s  shops 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

105 

75 

at  Crowe . 

Machinery . 

.  .  A 

III 

401 

382 

London  International  Exhibition,  (sec  Inter¬ 
national  Exhibitions.) 

London  side-walks . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

26 

34 

use  of  stucco  in . 

...  D 

IV 

34 

41 

Looms,  German . 

Machinery’ . 

...  A 

III 

357 

346 

Lopez,  Hebrcda  y,  methods  of  teaching . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

49 

24 

Lorck  6u  etching  by  Tilghman's  sand-blast . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

373 

255 

graphic  art . 

...  B 

I 

377 

253 

United  States  and  Germany 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

379 

256 

typography  and  lithography’ . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

377 

254 

Lott  on  book-binding . 

...  B 

I 

410 

303 

Louisville,  Fink  bridge  at . . 

...  B 

I 

346 

2C9 

Low  Moor  Iron  "Works . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

417 

395 

Lowe,  N.  M.,  Report  on  Wood  Industries . 

Wood-Industries . 

...  C 

IV 

Liiwentlial  on  means  of  instruction . 

Lower  Austria,  ( see  Austria.) 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

445 

355 

Danube . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  .... 

...  D 

III 

7 

9 

river  improvements  at  Buda  Pesth 

...  D 

III 

8 

10 

Hungary,  (see  Hungary.) 

Lumber . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

...  Aa 

IV 

17 

36 

preservation  of . . 

IV 

18 

39 

Lyons  Industrial  Exhibition . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

397 

378 

M. 

Machine,  Arbey  &  Co.’s  planing . 

Machinery  . 

...  A 

III 

394 

375 

Brown  &  Sharpe  ManufacturingCo.’s 

milling . 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Co.'s 

...  A 

III 

234 

243 

screw . 

:..  A 

III 

232 

241 

Hall’s  dovetailing . 

...  A 

III 

257 

266 

Miller's  pipe-bending . 

...  A 

III 

319 

294 

Pratt  &  Whitney  Co.'s  chucking . 

...  A 

III 

228 

237 

die-sinkiDg . . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

227 

236 

hand-milling _ 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

224 

232 

profiling . 

revolving  bead- 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

£21 

229 

screw . 

. do . 

...  A 

in 

224 

233 

Scott's  gear-molding . 

...  A 

in 

321 

295 

Sellers  &  Co.'s  slotting . 

...  A 

m 

219 

226 

sewing . 

...  A 

in 

285 

356 

shop,  sewing  machines . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

in 

28 

7 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


39 


SUBJECT. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Pago. 

Art. 

Machine-shops,  German . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

Ill 

355 

343 

tools,  Eritish  opinion  of  American _ 

......do . . . 

....  A 

III 

240 

247 

German . 

. do  . . 

....  A 

III 

358 

350 

"Webb’s  wheel-finishing . 

. do . . . . 

....  A 

III 

242 

249 

Woodbury  brush . 

_  A 

III 

307 

290 

Machinery  and  Manufactures,  Report  by 

R.  H.  Thurston . 

....  A 

III 

Austrian  wood-working . 

......do . . . 

_  A 

III 

287 

277 

Bigelow  shoe . 

....  A 

III 

309 

291 

British  authorities  on  American . 

. do . . . 

_  A 

III 

204 

215 

European  copies  of  American . 

_  A 

III 

202 

213 

German . 

......do . 

_  A 

III 

351 

335 

cotton . 

_  A 

III 

356 

344 

manufactures  of . 

_  A 

III 

354 

339 

paper . . 

_  A 

III 

357 

347 

textile . 

....  A 

III 

355 

341 

Hall . 

_  A 

III 

3 

2 

Hall . 

Civil  Engineering . 

....  C 

III 

11 

19 

Metal-working,  at  Vienna . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

201 

212 

of  German  food -industries . 

....  A 

III 

356 

349 

of  Group  XIII . 

....  A 

III 

5 

6 

Prunier’s  pumping  . . 

....  A 

III 

191 

200 

regulation . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

82 

54 

Sir  -Joseph  Whitworth  &  Co.’s . . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

435 

412 

Swiss  manufactures  of . . . 

....  A 

III 

350 

332 

textile,  at  Vienna . 

....  A 

III 

288 

278 

watchmaking . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

5 

2 

wood- working,  at  Vienna . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

247 

255 

Machines,  ( see  Reports.) 

Madrid,  school  of  forestry  at . 

Eorestry . 

....  D 

I 

100 

155 

Magendie’s  experiments  on  wheat  breads . 

Vienna  Broad . 

....  B 

II 

110 

236 

Magnesium . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

364 

230 

lamps,  Thurston’s  and  Larkin’s _ 

....  B 

I 

364 

231 

Magnetic  apparatus . . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

....  F 

II 

11 

15 

Magnets . 

....  F 

II 

11 

16 

Manassein’s  views  of  the  yeast-plant . 

Vienna  Bread . . 

....  B 

II 

83 

181 

Manganese  for  mailing  chloride  of  lime . 

Chemical  Industry . 

....  A 

II 

7 

4 

Manufactures,  attachments  to  sewing-machines 

and  methods  of . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

292 

28 

cotton  iu  Switzerland . 

....  A 

III 

348 

324 

European . . 

....  A 

m 

342 

320 

iron,  Switzerland . 

hi 

350 

333 

machinery . 

. do . 

....  A 

hi 

350 

332 

metal  goods . 

....  A 

hi 

352 

336 

methods  of,  of  cold-rolled  shafting 

. do . 

....  A 

hi 

324 

297 

of  ordnance,  bronze  used  in . 

....  A 

hi 

331 

306 

textile,  of  Switzerland . 

....  A 

hi 

352 

337 

watch  and  clock . 

....  A 

hi 

349 

328 

wood  and  paper . 

....  A 

hi 

353 

338 

Manures,  commercial,  classification  of . 

Fertilizers . 

-  C 

ii 

11 

10 

consumption  in  United 

States . 

-  C 

ri 

15 

14 

demand  for . 

.  c 

ii 

14 

11 

phosphatic . 

Chemical  Industry . 

....  A 

ii 

7 

6 

Mansfield  Copper  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

-  F 

IV 

135 

320 

furnaces  . 

-  F 

IV 

133 

315 

silver  extraction . 

.  F 

IV 

134 

317 

sulphuric  acid . 

_  F 

IV 

135 

319 

40 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Subject. 

Retort. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Marble,  artificial . 

Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

45 

55 

building,  Vienna . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

ii 

17 

Carrara . 

....  B 

IV 

16 

28 

Marienbrunn,  school  of  forestry  at . 

Forestry . 

I 

98 

143 

Marine  steam-engines  and  machinery . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

135 

113 

American  beam . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

59 

64 

Burmeistejr  A  Wain’s.... 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

52 

56 

character  of  the  exhibits 

of . 

....  A 

III 

4-2 

49 

maximum  effective  ex- 

pansion  in . 

_  A 

III 

48 

54 

jDonau  Dampfschitl-i'ahrt 

Gesellschaft . 

....  A 

III 

57 

59 

double-cylinder . 

....  A 

III 

49 

55 

historical  sketch  of . 

....  A 

III 

42 

50 

increaso  of  steam  pres- 

sures  in . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

43 

51 

Penn  A  Sons'  oscillating 

and  trunk . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

450 

420 

principles  of  economy  in 

propulsion . 

....  A 

III 

53 

58 

recent  changes  in . 

....  A 

III 

48 

53 

Soci6t6  Cockerill's . 

....  A 

III 

58 

62 

Stabilimento  Teclinico 

Triestino . 

III 

57 

60 

surface  condensation  in  .. 

....  A 

III 

44 

52 

Marquetry . 

Wood  Industries . 

....  c 

IV 

13 

13 

Marshall  Sons  A  Co.'s  engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

100 

114 

Martinique,  flora  of . 

Forestry . 

I 

81 

107 

forests . 

I 

81 

107 

Martin  steel . 

Metallurgy . 

IV 

177 

143 

in  the  Alpine  country . 

IV 

16 

15 

Mason  A  Hamlin’s  organs . 

Introduction . 

I 

431 

345 

Massachusetts,  educational  exhibits  of . 

Education . 

II 

12 

10 

Massey’s  steam-hammers . 

Machinery . 

III 

299 

289 

Masson  on  the  graphic  arts,  "Picturesque 

America” . . . . . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

336 

191 

Mastic . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

11 

21 

Materia  Medica  and  Chemistry . 

Medicine  and  Surgery . 

....  E 

II 

12 

6 

Materials,  steel  vs.  iron . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

80 

94 

Matthews’  soda-water  apparatus . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

251 

101 

Mausoleum,  Wasserburger's . 

Working  of  Stone . 

.  D 

IV 

19 

18 

Mantner.  press-yeast  of . 

Vienna  Bread . . 

..  B 

II 

86 

187 

Maw  ami  Dredge’s  Reports,  ( see  Reports, 

British.) 

McCormick's  mower  and  reaper— 

Schmied's  report .  Introduction .  B 

Tisserand's  report . do .  B 

McNicol’s  paper-machinery . Printing  and  Paper .  0 

Meal,  steamed  bone .  Fertilizers .  C 

Measures  and  weights,  table  of .  Introduction .  A 


values  of . do _ 

Do . do _ 

Meat,  Thiel's  report . do _ 

and  fish,  Ott's  report . do _ 

extracts,  Ott's  report . do _ 

Mechanical  Laboratory  of  the  Stevens  Institute 
of  Tecbnologv,  tests  at .  Machinery. 


A 

B 

B 

B 

B 


I 

I 

II 
II 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 


428 

314 

20 

46 

223 

4-2 

353 

371 

472 

471 


331 

166 

25 

45 

72 

27 

224 

245 

376 

375 


III  409  388 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


41 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Mechanics,  American,  at  Vienna . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

Ill 

342 

323 

Mechanism,  German . 

....  A 

III 

355 

342 

Mechernicher  Smelting-Works . 

Metallurgy .  . 

....  F 

IV 

153 

359 

production . 

....  F 

IV 

154 

361 

Media  school  for  idiots . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

90 

44 

Medical  senses,  education  of . 

....  K 

II 

116 

69 

Medicine,  (see  Pharmaceutics.) 

Medicine  and  Surgery,  Report  of  A.  Eup- 

PANER . . . . 

Medicine  and  Surgery _ 

....  E 

II 

Medicines,  Kopp’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

468 

370 

Mercier  on  leather . 

....  B 

I 

476 

383 

Mercurial  barometers . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

II 

9 

16' 

Kappeler’s . 

....  H 

II 

9 

18 

thermometers . 

Phvsical  Apparatus . 

....  F 

11 

13 

18 

Merinoes  and  Cotswold  merinoes . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

I 

13 

14 

German,  grades  of . 

....  E 

I 

10 

11 

predominance  of . 

....  E 

I 

7 

6 

Mertian  on  the  art  of  war,  (see  Reports, French.) 

Metal,  (see  Hofmann’s  report.) 

Metallurgical  process . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

179 

424 

processes,  Kupelwieser's  report  . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

306 

280 

Metallurgy  op  Lead,  Silver,  Copper  and 

Zinc,  Report  of  H.  Painter . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

Metals,  roofing . 

Architecture . . 

IV 

14 

26 

used  in  construction . 

. do . . 

....  B 

IV 

13 

23 

goods,  manufactures . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

352 

336 

value  and  resilience  of . . 

....  A 

III 

443 

416 

Metal-working  machinery  at  Vienna . 

. do . . 

....  A 

III 

201 

212 

British  view  of  Amer- 

ican . . . 

....  A 

III 

204 

215 

Tresca’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

340 

195 

tools,  French . 

Machinery . . 

....  A 

III 

244 

252 

Swiss . 

....  A 

III 

245 

253 

Methyl  series . 

Chemical  Materials . 

....  F 

II 

14 

20 

Metrological  apparatus,  German . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

359 

352 

Meyer’s  boilers . 

....  A 

III 

131 

144 

experiments  with  phosphatic  bread  . . . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

111 

238 

system  of  telegraphy . 

Telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

22 

14 

Michaels  on  agricultural  machinery . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

253 

107 

Miscroscopes . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

...  F 

II 

8 

11 

Amici’s  improvement . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

36 

44 

exhibit . 

....  G 

II 

35 

43 

Middlings  or  unpurified  grits . 

Vienna  Bread. . 

....  B 

II 

34 

75 

Migotti  on  linen  ready-made  clothing . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

404 

294 

Milan,  arcades  at . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

23 

49 

Milk,  condensed,  Ott’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

472 

378 

Thiel’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

373 

247 

Mill,  porcelain  cylinder . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

44 

102 

at  St.  Gallen . 

....  B 

II 

46 

104 

Buchholz  cylinder . 

....  B 

II 

61 

132 

Millers'  congress  suggested . 

....  B 

II 

64 

135 

Miller’s  pipe-bending  machine . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

319 

294 

Do . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

241 

87 

Milling  cylinder,  advantages . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

44 

100 

description . 

....  B 

II 

42 

97 

illustration . 

....  B 

II 

42 

y8 

effect  on  grain . 

...  B 

II 

70 

148 

half-high . . 

......do  . 

....  B 

II 

55 

118 

42 


42  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION, 

1873. 

Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Milling  high,  advantages  of . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

54 

116 

and  low,  differences . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

30 

70 

character  of . 

...  B 

11 

34 

74 

description . 

...  B 

II 

33 

72 

Hungarian  process . 

...  B 

II 

57 

126 

products . 

...  B 

II 

•  57 

125 

origin  of . 

...  B 

II 

31 

67 

low,  cooling  necessary . 

...  B 

II 

40 

90 

process  . 

...  B 

II 

55 

120 

produt  ts  of . 

...  B 

II 

35 

77 

machine,  Brown  &  Sharpe  Hanufactur- 

ing  Co.’s . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

234 

243 

Pratt  &  Whitney  Company's.. 

...  A 

III 

2*23 

230 

older  methods  of . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

31 

66 

■  of  “  Fife”  wheat . 

...  B 

II 

56 

123 

products  of . 

...  B 

II 

104 

230 

Mills,  Hungarian,  average  product . 

...  B 

11 

61 

133 

industry . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

75 

164 

Millstones . 

...  B 

II 

36 

82 

grooves,  arrangement  of . 

...  B 

11 

37 

85 

dimensions . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

40 

91 

forms . 

...  B 

II 

40 

80 

use  of . 

...  B 

11 

38 

86 

Thilenius . 

...  B 

II 

40 

92 

Mind  affected  by  colors  of  the  cradlo . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

4 

o 

Mineral  fuel  of  tho  United  States,  Maw  & 

Dredge’s  report . 

Introduction . . 

...  B 

I 

255 

115 

products,  Gruner's  report  on . 

...  B 

I 

293 

147 

Miues,  Pettigrew’s  report  on . 

. do . . 

...  B 

I 

290 

149 

Mining  and  steel  works,  Bochum . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

110 

79 

methods  and  cost,  Ackerman’s  report., 
of  iron  ores  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and 

. do . . 

...  E 

IV 

105 

136 

Silesia . 

...  E 

IV 

17 

17 

property  and  iron  works  at  Seraing . 

...  E 

IV 

131 

110 

Minnesota  “Fifo"  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

40 

92 

Mitscherlich,  on  growth  of  yeast-plant . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

78 

171 

Models,  educational,  German . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

20 

29 

of  Lemcrcier . . 

...  K 

II 

60 

30 

Molded  brick,  Viennese . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

6 

6 

Molding,  sewing-machino  work . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

27 

6 

Monarch,  Her  Britannic  Majesty’s  iron-clad _ 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

426 

404 

construction  of  the  hull  of  the . ! 

...  A 

III 

408 

406 

engines  and  boilers  of  the . 

...  A 

III 

430 

403 

performance  of  the  . . 

...  A 

III 

432 

409 

turrets  and  armaments  of  the . 

...  A 

III 

420 

407 

Monckoven,  treatise  on  photography . 

Photography . . 

...  D 

II 

15 

39 

Money,  value  of . 

Introduction . . 

...  A 

I 

42 

27 

Do . 

...  B 

I 

353 

223 

Monopoly  of  state  telegraphy . 

Telegraphs . . . 

...  I 

11 

52 

28 

Montandon's  watches . 

Instruments . 

...  G 

II 

16 

22 

Moonlight  photographs . 

Photography . 

...  D 

II 

14 

33 

Moorhof  on  hospital  railroad-cars . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

436 

347 

Morse's  telegraphic  alphabet . 

Telegraphy . 

...  I 

II 

18 

25 

circuit . 

...  I 

II 

6 

4 

register . 

...  I 

II 

7 

5 

Morse  twist-drill . . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

242 

91 

Morse  Twist-Drill  Company . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

310 

294 

Mortar-mill  at  Dunkerque  aud  Graveiines . 

Civil  Engineering . . 

...  C 

III 

50 

75 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


43 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Mortar,  mode  of  mixing . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

13 

20 

Mosaic  floors . 

Working  of  Stone _ _ 

...  D 

IV 

25 

29 

work,  seasoning  of . 

Wood  Industries . . 

...  C 

IV 

6 

3 

Mostau,  estate  of  A.  E.  Ritters  von  Korners . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

91 

131 

Motala  Works,  exhibits  of . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

59 

65 

Mothers  as  teachers . 

Education . 

...  K 

II* 

10 

4 

first  manual . 

...  K 

II 

3 

1 

Motor  and  belts,  Radinger’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

414 

309 

Motors,  character  of  hydraulic . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

170 

179 

steam  vs.  air . . 

...  A 

III 

147 

152 

tide . 

Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

...  D 

III 

14 

25 

Mourie’s  method  of  bread-making . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

90 

195 

Mowing  and  reaping  machines  : 

Adriance,  Platt  &  Co.’s,  Maw  &  Dredge’s 

report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

279 

141 

Schmied’s  report . . . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

428 

330 

Tisserand’s  report. . 

. do  . . . . 

...  B 

I 

312 

164 

Aultman,  Miller  &.  Co.’s,  Maw  &  Dredge’s 

report . 

...  B 

I 

277 

137 

Michaels’s  report. . . 

. do . . . 

:..  B 

I 

254 

109 

Schmied’s  report  .. 

. do . . . 

...  B 

I 

428 

329 

Tisserand’s  report.. 

. do . . . 

...  B 

I 

314 

165 

Johnstou  Harvester  Co.,  Maw  &  Dredge's 

report . 

...  B 

I 

277 

133 

Schmied’s  report... 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

429 

334 

Tisserand’s  report. . 

. do . . . 

...  B 

I 

309 

162 

McCormick’s,  Schmied’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

428 

331 

Tisserand's  report . 

...  B 

I 

314 

166 

Osborne,  D.  M.,  &  Co.'s,  Maw  &  Dredge’s 

report . 

...  B 

I 

280 

142 

Schmied’s  report... 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

429 

332 

Tisserand’s  report. . 

......do . . . 

...  B 

I 

311 

1C3 

Sieberling  Co.’s,  Maw  &  Dredge’s  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

279 

140 

Schmied’s  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

429 

333 

Tisserand’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

314 

167 

Sprague’s,  Schmied’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

430 

336 

Tisserand’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

314 

167 

Superior  Machine  Co.’s,  Schmied’s  report... 

. -do . 

...  B 

I 

430 

335 

Tisserand’s  report- . 

...  B 

I 

314 

168 

Warder,  Mitchell  &  Co.’s,  Indeich’s  report _ 

...  B 

I 

362 

229 

Maw  &  Dredge’s 

report . 

...  B 

I 

279 

139 

Schmied’s  report... 

....  B 

I 

426 

327 

Tisserand’s  report. . 

...  B 

I 

303 

158 

Wood’s,  Maw  &  Dredge’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

136 

275 

Michaels’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

1C8 

253 

in  general,  Landolt’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

368 

467 

Maw  &  Dredge’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

135 

274 

Schmied's  report . 

...  B 

I 

326 

425 

Tisserand’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

163 

311 

Miihlbaeh  Smelting  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

166 

390 

Museum,  European . 

Deaf-Mutes . 

...  M 

II 

10 

12 

purchasers  at  Vienna . 

...  M 

II 

5 

2 

South  Kensington . 

...  M 

II 

8 

8 

Music  Hall,  Strauss . . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

11 

19 

printing  of . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

8 

24 

Musical  instruction,  Weinwurm’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

449 

359 

instruments,  Schelle’s  report . : . 

...  B 

I 

434 

344 

44  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Musical  instruments,  Mason  &  Hamlin’s  organs 

Report. 

Introduction . 

...  B 

Vol. 

I 

Page. 

434 

Art. 

345 

woods  for . 

Wood  Industries . 

...  C 

IV 

25 

20 

Muskets,  (see  Tire-arms.) 

Mutes,  deaf,  school  for . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

33 

16 

and  blind  schools . 

...  K 

II 

40 

23 

Mutton-producing  breeds  of  France . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

. ..  E 

I 

37 

46 

production,  tendency  to . 

. do . 

...  E 

I 

8 

8 

X. 

Nacbrodt  Wire-Works .  Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

C2 

53 

Nagel  &  Ksomp,  award  to . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

181 

190 

Fouraeyron,  turbines  of . 

...  A 

III 

ISO 

188 

pumps  exhibited  by . 

...  A 

III 

198 

208 

Nagel  on  the  manufacture  of  gold  pens . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

409 

301 

Nagy  Bary  Smelting  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

213 

482 

Nancy  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

...  I) 

I 

100 

150 

Napier  &  Sons'  works . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

IV 

423 

399 

National  Bank-Note  Company’s  exhibit . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

8 

6 

Bureau  of  Education . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

309 

237 

Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing  ... 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

8 

6 

Printing-Office  of  Franco . 

Government  Printing . 

...  P 

II 

0 

7 

Nations,  continental,  as  copyists . 

...  A 

III 

11 

22 

comparison  of  the  practice  of  various.. 

...  A 

III 

19 

23 

Natural  History,  instruction  in,  Pokorny's 

eport . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

415 

354 

Naval  policy,  British . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

HI 

433 

410 

Navigable  routes . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  . ... 

...  D 

III 

40 

53 

Navigation  of  the  Seine  and  Yonne . 

...  D 

III 

20 

27 

internal . 

...  D 

III 

12 

22 

Navy,  British . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

425 

402 

Needle  for  sowing-machines . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

32 

8 

Negatives,  photographic . 

Photography . 

...  D 

II 

12 

27 

Nervous  system,  central . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

23 

12 

Netherlands,  educational  exhibits . . 

...  L 

II 

22 

23 

forests . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

53 

65 

photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

...  D 

II 

16 

40 

telegi'aphic  administration . 

Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

57 

38 

None  Freio  Prcsse . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

6 

3 

Neuhof,  forests  of . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

93 

126 

Neustadt,  school  of  forestry . 

...  D 

I 

96 

133 

Neut  &  Dumont's  centrifugal  pumps . 

...  A 

III 

197 

206 

New  Caledonia  forest . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

81 

110 

England,  production  of  fish-scrap . 

Fertilizers . 

...  C 

II 

47 

46 

New  York  educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

...  L 

II 

13 

11 

Harbor  improvements,  ( see  DaUett's 

Point.) 

Friedman's 

report . . . . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

437 

349 

Kleitzs  re- 

port . 

...  B 

I 

345 

208 

International  Exhibition. 

( see  Internation  Exhibitions.) 

Safety  Steam  Power  Company's 

engines . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

26 

37 

Nickel,  Hofmann’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

369 

239 

Knpelwieser's  report . 

...  B 

I 

398 

284 

Serlo  and  Stolzel’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

361 

226 

Niernsee.  J.  R.,  Report  on  Private  Dwellings 

in  Vienna . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


45 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Nishwitz’s  harrow . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

273 

133 

Nitrogen  and  atmosphere . 

Fertilizers . 

....  C 

II 

8 

6 

phosphoric  acid . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

14 

38 

distribution  of . 

....  B 

II 

71 

151 

its  relation  to  the  climate . 

....  B 

II 

14 

37 

Norman-Fieid  School  for  Idiots . 

Education . 

....  IC 

II 

85 

40 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad  cereals . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

298 

151 

Northumberland,  Duke  of,  Alnwick  Castle . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

18 

33 

Norwalk  Iron  Co.’s  engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

25 

36 

Maw  and  Dredge's 

report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

267 

123 

Radinger’s  report. . . 

....  B 

I 

416 

311 

Norway,  flora  of . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

64 

68 

forests  . 

....  D 

I 

53 

68 

metallurgical  exhibits . 

.  Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

26 

62 

photographic  exhibits . . 

.  Photography . 

....  D 

II 

15 

36 

telegraphic  administration . 

.  Telegraphs . . . 

....  I 

II 

57 

38 

Note  and  bond  printing  at  Vienna . 

,  Government  Printing . 

....  P 

II 

6 

7 

Novelly  on  luhricating-apparatus . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

413 

306 

safety-valves . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

413 

307 

Nursery . 

.  Education . 

....  K 

II 

3 

1 

Nursing  a  progressive  art . . 

....  K 

II 

8 

3 

babies . . 

....  K 

II 

8 

3 

Nut  and  holt  machine,  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manu- 

facturing  Company. . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

381 

259 

o. 

» 

Oats,  bread . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

85 

185 

meal  porridge . . 

. . do . 

....  B 

II 

110 

236 

separation  from  other  grains . 

....  B 

I 

23 

54 

Obernetter's  carbon  process . 

Photography . 

....  D 

11 

19 

49 

Object-lessons . 

.  Education . 

....  K 

II 

34 

17 

Observatory,  trial  of  watches . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

15 

19 

Oil . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

9 

23 

Oils  and  fats,  chemistry  of . 

,  Chemical  Industry . 

....  A 

II 

7 

7 

cotton-seed . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

463 

366 

kerosene . 

....  B 

I 

463 

367 

Kopp’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

468 

371 

mineral . 

Chemical  Industry . 

....  A 

II 

8 

7 

petroleum  .  . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

468 

372 

Oker  Smelting  Works,  copper . 

,  Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

127 

300 

copper- vitriol . 

....  F 

IV 

130 

306 

Onimus  on  dental  manufacture . 

,  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

342 

199 

Opera-house  at  Vienna . 

.  Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

22 

45 

Optics .  . . 

.  Chemical  Materials . 

....  F 

II 

7 

8 

Ordnance — 

Krupp’s . . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

374 

363 

Results  of  tests  of . 

....  A 

III 

331 

307 

Use  of  bronze  for . 

....  A 

III 

331 

306 

Whitworth’s . 

....  A 

III 

436 

413 

compared  with  W ool wich .... 

. do  . . 

....  A 

III 

438 

413 

Ore,  and  furnace-charges . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

47 

28 

Swedish,  composition  of . . . . 

......  do  .......... _ _ _ _ _ _ 

....  E 

IV 

182 

147 

Oregon  cereals . 

.  Introduction . 

I 

298 

151 

Ores,  hematite,  of  Cumberland . . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

408 

38S 

Cleveland . 

....  A 

III 

410 

391 

and  mines,  Algerian . 

,  Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

128 

106 

Oriental  printing . . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

24 

35 

4f>  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Ornamentation  of  the  cradle . 

Education . 

.  K 

II 

4 

O 

Osborne,  D.  H.,  mowers  anil  reapers— 

Maw  &  Dredge’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

280 

142 

Schmied’s  report . . . 

.  B 

I 

429 

332 

Tisserand’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

311 

163 

Oscillating-engines  of  Penn  &  Sons’ . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

I 

450 

420 

Osnabriick  Iron  and  Steel  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

92 

63 

Osse  iron  viaduct . 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

24 

23 

Ott  on  cannod  beef . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

413 

379 

condensed  milk . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

472 

378 

meat  and  fish . 

.  B 

I 

472 

376 

meat  extracts . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

471 

375 

preserved  fruit . 

.  B 

I 

472 

377 

wines . 

.  B 

I 

470 

374 

Otto &Laiigen’sgas-etigiucs . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

168 

169 

trial  of,  by  M.  Tresca 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

168 

170 

Overfall  at  Brul6e  Island . 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

34 

40 

Oxford  downs . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

27 

33 

I\ 

Pacific  islands,  phosphate  of . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

II 

19 

19 

Paddle-wheel  and  chain  towago . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

53 

58 

feathering . 

.  A 

III 

58 

63 

Painter,  If.,  Report  on  Metallurgy  oe  Lead, 

Silver,  Goiter,  and  Zinc . 

Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

Painting,  Bayer  and  Langl’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

439 

350 

Palais,  first-class  dwelling . 

Architecture  . 

.  A 

IV 

9 

13 

Paper  and  wool  manufactures  in  Germany . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

353 

338 

barrels . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  0 

II 

27 

39 

Chiucso  and  Japaneso . 

.  0 

11 

21 

28 

for  walls . 

.  O 

II 

21 

27 

imitations . 

.  0 

11 

22 

31 

manufacture  of . ... 

.  0 

II 

22 

30 

machinery  in  Germany . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

357 

347 

McNicol's . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  O 

II 

20 

25 

manufacture . 

.  0 

II 

20 

25 

Do . 

Introduction  . 

.  B 

I 

376 

252 

pulp,  prices  and  qualities . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  O 

II 

20 

26 

Parey,  Patented  Felted  Fabric  Company . 

.  0 

II 

23 

31 

Paris,  education  at . 

Education . 

II 

20 

30 

International  Exhibition,  (see  Interna- 

tioual  Exhibition.) 

wheat-bread . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

88 

193 

.  E 

IV 

160 

Parquetry . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

18 

33 

Do . 

Wood  Industries . 

.  C 

IV 

13 

13 

Partitions  in  buildings . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

19 

39 

Pasteur  on  fermentation . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

82 

179 

Fastry . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

371 

245 

leavened  and  unleavened . . . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

76 

165 

Patek,  Philippe  &  Co.’s  watches . 

Instruments . 

.  G 

11 

14 

17 

Patronage  of  Art,  Report  by  E.  M.  Gallaudet. 

Patronage  of  Art . 

.  P 

II 

Paucksch  &  Freund's  steam-boiler . 

Machinery . 

III 

133 

147 

Paul  on  the  Steiuway  piano-fortes : 

devices,  special . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

330 

276 

system  of  construction . 

I 

385 

273 

tone,  quality . 

I 

388 

275 

upright  piano . 

I 

386 

274 

GENEE 

:al  index. 

47 

Subject. 

ItEl’ORT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Paur’s,  Ignaz,  apparatus . 

Vienna  Bread . . . 

....  B 

II 

32 

69 

method  of  milling  . . . . 

....  B 

II 

32 

68 

purifier . . . 

....  B 

II 

50 

111 

PaTilion,  Imperial . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

11 

20 

Japanese . 

....  Aa 

IV 

12 

24 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 

. do . . 

.. ..  Aa 

IV 

12 

22 

school-house  annex . 

....  Aa 

IV 

12 

23 

Sell  warzenburg . 

....  Aa 

IV 

12 

21 

I’eekskill  Plow-Works . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

272 

129 

Peez  on  cotton  and  cotton-goods . 

......  do  . . . . 

....  B 

I 

404 

292 

spinning  and  weaving . 

. .do . . . . . 

....  B 

I 

404 

203 

Penmanship,  Hiipscher’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

458 

363 

Penn  &  Sons’  steam-engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

450 

420 

....  10 

IV 

162 

coals . 

Introduction . 

....  B  . 

I 

314 

166 

Pens,  gold,  Nagel's  report . 

....  B 

I 

409 

301 

Periere’s  principles  of  teaching  idiots . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

75 

32 

Periere,  action  of  his  enemies . 

- - do . - . 

....  K 

II 

55 

26 

his  claims  . . . . 

. .do . 

...  K 

II 

49 

24 

classification . 

..  K 

II 

49 

24 

death . 

....  K 

II 

55 

26 

discovery  defined . 

....  K 

II 

52 

25 

Perin  &  Co.’s  band-saw . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

284 

274 

Periodicals,  German . 

Education . 

L 

II 

20 

30 

Perkmann  and  others,  (see  Schwab.) 

Persia,  forests  of . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

38 

41 

Peruc  forests . 

....  D 

I 

91 

121 

Peruvian  guano . 

Fertilizers . 

....  c 

IV 

44 

42 

Pesth,  grits-purifier,  at . 

Vienna  Bread . 

..  B 

II 

50 

112 

AValzmiihle . 

B 

II 

103 

229 

analysis  of  flour . 

..  B 

II 

105 

232 

Petroleum,  Kopp's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

468 

372 

Pettigrew  on  mines . 

B 

I 

295 

149 

Pharmaceutical  preparations,  Kopp’s  report _ 

.  B 

I 

468 

370 

Phosphates  and  sulphates . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

12 

29 

in  vital  tissues . 

B 

II 

111 

237 

analysis  of . 

Fertilizers . . 

C 

IV 

24 

27 

Canadian . 

.  C 

IV 

20 

23 

French . 

C 

IV 

19 

30 

price . 

....  c 

IV 

26 

31 

German . 

.  C 

IV 

20 

22 

price . . 

...  c 

IV 

25 

29 

Pacific  islands . . 

.  C 

IV 

19 

19 

Sombrero . 

.  c 

IV 

18 

16 

South  Carolina . 

.  c 

IV 

20 

24 

Spanish . 

.  c 

IV 

20 

21 

price  . . . . . 

.  c 

IV 

26 

30 

St.  Martin’s . 

.  c 

IV 

19 

18 

Prussian . 

.  c 

IV 

22 

25 

prices  of . 

.  c 

IV 

24 

28 

United  States . 

.....  c 

IV 

26 

32 

English  super . 

.  c 

IV 

34 

34 

Germau  super . 

.  c 

IV 

21 

33 

Phosphatic  bread . 

.  B 

II 

109 

233 

Phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen,  mutual  dependen- 

cies . . 

,  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

15 

39 

in  bread . 

.  B 

n 

93 

206 

price  . . . . . . . . . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

IV 

35 

35 

48  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1373. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Tol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Phosphoric  acid  iD  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

13 

33 

Phosphorus . 

Fertilizers . 

....  C 

IV 

7 

5 

Photo-engraviDg,  Pousse  Ion’s  process . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

12 

26 

Photographs  in  colors . 

II 

13 

28 

moonlight . 

....  D 

II 

14 

33 

Photography,  American . 

....  D 

II 

5 

3 

awards . 

Introduction . . 

....  B 

I 

337 

192 

Davanne's  report,  astronomical. .. 

....  B 

I 

338 

193 

French  society . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

10 

21 

Moiickhoven’s  treatise . 

....  D 

II 

15 

39 

Portuguese . 1 . 

....  D 

11 

10 

18 

Server’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

410 

304 

Society  of  Bologna . 

Photography . . 

....  D 

II 

15 

34 

Photo-lithograplis  ..." . 

....  D 

II 

17 

44 

Photo-lithography,  progress  in . 

Printing  and  Paper . . 

....  0 

II 

9 

9 

Photometer,  Tidal’s . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

13 

29 

Physical  apparatus . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

....  F 

II 

15 

22 

Physiological  education . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

123 

73 

primary  school . 

....  K 

II 

111 

64 

training  of  genius . 

....  K 

11 

34 

17 

Piano,  Steinway’s,  (see  Paul’s  report.) 

Pickering’s  steam-engine . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

35 

43 

Holmes'  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

252 

104 

Maw  A  Dredge’s  report 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

266 

121 

Padinger’s  report . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

419 

313 

Picker-motion,  Ross’ . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

290 

282 

Pictorial  printing  in  Japan . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

11 

25 

38 

‘'Picturesque  America,”  graphic  arts,  Masson’s 

report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

336 

191 

pjlA  . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

96 

215 

Pile-driver,  steam . . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  . . . . 

...  D 

III 

56 

69 

Pipe-bonding  machine,  Miller's . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

319 

294 

Do . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

241 

87 

Pitkins  Brothers’  steam-boiler . 

Machiuerv .  . 

...  A 

III 

109 

126 

Pittsburgh  steels . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

397 

281 

Planers,  Pratt  &  ’Whitney  Company’s . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

228 

238 

Plane-tables . 

Instruments . 

...  H 

II 

8 

11 

Austrian . 

...  H 

II 

8 

13 

Japanese . 

...  H 

II 

8 

14 

Kraft  &  Sons’ . 

...  H 

11 

8 

13 

Starke  Sc  Kammerer’s . 

. do . 

...  H 

II 

8 

13 

StupendorfFs . 

...  H 

II 

8 

12 

Swiss . 

...  H 

II 

9 

*  15 

Planing-machiue  for  wood,  Arbey's . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

284 

274 

Plans,  architectural . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

25 

58 

Plant-food,  constituents  of . 

Fertilizers . 

...  C 

IV 

5 

1 

Plastering . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

17 

35 

ceilings . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

12 

18 

Plate,  Fagersta,  tests  of . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

150 

125 

Playthings,  object-lessons  with . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

34 

17 

Plows,  Collins  Co.’s . 

Introduction .  ... 

...  B 

I 

272 

128 

Fiirst  Sc  Bradley's . 

...  B 

I 

273 

130 

Peekskill  Plow  W orks . 

...  B 

I 

272 

129 

Schmied’s  report . 

...  B 

I 

424 

324 

Pneumatic-pier  sinking . 

Hydraulic  Engineering . 

...  D 

III 

8 

.11 

tubes  for  dispatches . 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

II 

26 

36 

Pokorny  and  others,  (see  Schwab) . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

410 

351 

Polaristrobometers . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

...  F 

II 

8 

9 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


49 


Subject. 

Retort. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Polarized  relays  of  Siemens . 

Telegraphs . 

....  j 

II 

6 

3 

Polishing-maoliine,  lithographic . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

17 

22 

Politico-economic  relations . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

321 

175 

Polytechnic  school  at  Dresdenl . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

362 

356 

Porcelain  cylinder-mill . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

44 

102 

decoration  of . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

16 

42 

stores,  German . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

16 

27 

Port  a  1’ Anglais  Canal  lock . 

Hvdraulic  Engineering  . . . . 

...  D 

III 

37 

46 

Portable  steam-engines,  trade  in . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

103 

119 

sources  of  their  economy 

. do . 

III 

98 

112 

Porter-Alien  engine . . 

...  A 

III 

33 

42 

Portland  cement . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

34 

41 

stone . 

...  D 

IV 

12 

12 

Portugal  forest-product . 

Forestry . 

I 

15 

14 

telegraphic  administration . 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

II 

57 

39 

Portuguese  educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

...  L 

II 

22 

34 

photographs . 

Photography . 

II 

16 

42 

schools . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

102 

53 

Posts,  telegraph . 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

II 

10 

10 

Potash  as  a  fertilizer . 

Fertilizers . 

...  C 

IV 

52 

58 

cost  in  various  salts . 

...  C 

IV 

53 

60 

from  wood-ashes . 

. do . 

...  C 

IV 

51 

55 

salts  at  Leopoldshall . 

Chemical  Industry . 

...  A 

II 

7 

5 

Stapfurt . 

...  A 

II 

7 

5 

Stassfnrt . 

Fertilizers . 

...  C 

IV 

53 

59 

production . . . 

Chemical  Industry . 

...  A 

II 

7 

5 

Potassium  in  plants . 

Fertilizers . 

...  C 

IV 

8 

5 

Power-looms,  weaving  by . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

in 

348 

325 

Powis,  James,  &  Co.’s  exhibits . 

...  A 

iii 

283 

272 

Prague  flour  mills . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

n 

60 

130 

school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . : _ 

...  D 

i 

99 

146 

Prang’s  chromos . . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

n 

11 

15 

Pratt  &  Whitney  Company’s  tools . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

m 

220 

227 

Do . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

239 

84 

Preeducation . 

Education . 

...  K 

n 

102 

53 

Preface,  general . 

Introduction . 

...  A 

i 

29 

to  abstracts  of  foreign  reports . 

...  B 

i 

219 

Preservation  of  timber . 

Preserved  food,  ( see  Food.) 

Telegraphs . 

...  J 

ii 

18 

26 

Preserves,  Warhanek’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

403 

291 

Press,  Stiles  &  Parker  drop . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

iii 

236 

245 

the  fly . 

iii 

357 

348 

Presse,  Neue  Freie . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

ii 

6 

3 

Pribram  Smelting- Works . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

158 

374 

production . 

. do  . . 

...  F 

IV 

163 

378 

Primary  instruction . . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

348 

210 

expenses . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

350 

211 

Primary  schools,  physiological . . . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

111 

64 

Prime-movers  in  Germany . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

354 

340 

Priming  in  steam-boilers,  measurement  of . 

...  A 

III 

123 

136 

Printing  and  dyeing  in  Switzerland . 

...  A 

III 

348 

325 

art  of . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

II 

5 

1 

at  Vienna . 

...  0 

II 

5 

2 

in  China . 

...  0 

n 

24 

35 

in  Japan . 

...  0 

ii 

24 

35 

Japanese  pictorial . . 

. do . 

...  0 

ii 

25 

38 

music . 

...  0 

ii 

18 

24 

oriental . 

4 

...  0 

ii 

24 

35 

50 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873, 


SUBJECT. 

Repoet. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Printer,  Hughes’ . . 

.  Telegraphs . . 

. j 

II 

21 

28 

Printing-Office,  French  ^National . . . 

Government  Printing . 

_ p 

II 

11 

24 

State,  Vienna . 

_ p 

II 

5 

4 

of  notes  and  bonds . . 

_ p 

II 

6 

7 

photography . . 

....  p 

II 

7 

11 

presses  . 

....  p 

II 

9 

19 

Sarch’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

377 

254 

and  dyeing,  Stieger-Mayer's  report _ 

....  B 

I 

475 

382 

Prizes,  ( see  Awards.) 

to  American  educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

....  L 

II 

24 

41 

Production  in  America,  increase . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

323 

176 

tabular  exhibit  of . 

I 

325 

179 

of  coal,  Russian . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

217 

151 

iron  and  steel,  Austrian . 

....  E 

IV 

8 

7 

in  the  Alpine  region . 

....  E 

IV 

8 

8 

world . 

....  E 

IV 

1 

o 

iron-oro  in  Sweden . . 

....  E 

IV 

162 

135 

metals . . 

. do  . 

....  F 

IV 

163 

378 

pig-iron  in  the  Alpine  region _ 

....  E 

IV 

10 

9 

Bohemia,  Moravia, 

and  Silesia . . 

....  E 

IV 

18 

18 

steel  works,  Belgian . 

....  E 

IV 

139 

118 

Profiling-machine  by  tko  Pratt  &  Whitney 

Company . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

221 

229 

for  sewing-machines . 

Sewing-Machines . 

....  B 

III 

20 

7 

Progress  in  America,  causes  of . 

Introduction . . 

....  B 

I 

328 

183 

Propulsion  of  vessels,  principles  of  economy  in. 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

53 

58 

Propvl  series . 

Chemical  Materials . 

....  F 

II 

15 

22 

Prunier’s  pumping-machinery . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

191 

200 

Prussia,  schools  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

96 

133 

Prussian  iron-making  and  ore-extraction . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

56 

41 

insulators  . 

Telegraphs . 

....  J 

II 

21 

23 

schools . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

102 

55 

Silesia,  wool-growing  in . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

I 

42 

56 

Public  buildings,  locating . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

23 

51 

Pnddler,  Ehrenwerth's . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

50 

33 

Sellers  &  Co.'s  rotary,  Anderson's  re- 

port . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

240 

86 

Gruner's  report. 
Kupelwieser's 

....  B 

I 

294 

143 

report . 

..  B 

I 

397 

283 

Puddling-furnace,  Sellers'  rotary . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

292 

287 

process,  Ackerman's  report . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

175 

141 

works  in  the  Alpine  regions . 

....  E 

IV 

11 

10 

Pulp,  paper . 

Printing  and  Paper . . 

....  O 

II 

20 

26 

Pumpernickel  of  Westphalia . 

Vienna  Bread . . 

....  B 

II 

88 

192 

groats  . 

....  B 

II 

no 

236 

Pnmping-machinerv,  Decker  Brothers' . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

in 

189 

197 

Prunier's . 

....  A 

iii 

191 

200 

Pumps,  applications  of  the  centrifugal . 

. do . . 

....  A 

hi 

199 

211 

and  classification  of . 

....  A 

in 

185 

194 

Pumps  and  blowing  apparatus . 

...  A 

in 

359 

351 

Bernays' . 

...  A 

in 

197 

205 

Boulton  &  Jmravs’ . . 

...  A 

in 

199 

210 

Cameron's  steam . 

...  A 

in 

166 

196 

centrifugal,  their  proper  form . 

...  A 

in 

193 

202 

Coignard's . 

...  A 

in 

193 

207 

Earle's  steam . 

...  A 

in 

189 

199 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


51 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art, 

Pumps,  Erste-Briinner-  Maschinen  ■  Fabrik-Ge- 

sellschaft’s . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

m 

193 

201 

G  Wynne's . 

....  A 

iii 

195 

203 

Nagel  &  Kaemp’s . 

....  A 

m 

198 

208 

Neut  &  Dumont's . 

....  A 

in 

197 

206 

Schiele's . 

....  A 

m 

199 

209 

Selden’s  steam . 

....  A 

in 

189 

198 

steam,  later  forms  of . 

....  A 

iii 

186 

195 

Holmes’  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

253 

106 

Zwiauer’s  report . 

....  B 

i 

423 

320 

Punch.  Stiles  &.  Parker's . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

in 

238 

246 

Purification  of  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

_  B 

n 

55 

121 

Purifier  at  Pesth . 

....  B 

n 

50 

112 

Q. 

Quarrying  stone . 

Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

17 

15 

Quicksilver,  distillation . 

Metallurgy . . . 

....  F 

IV 

211 

473 

R. 

X 

Rader’s  lithographic  press . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.....  0 

n 

16 

21 

Eadinger’s  report,  (see  Eeports,  Austrian.) 

Eailroad  construction . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

22 

45 

exhibits . 

IV 

22 

44 

plant,  German . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

iii 

360 

351 

Eailroad-signals,  Austrian . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

25 

48 

Eailroad  Structures  and  Buildings  of  the 

Exhibition.  Eeport  of  L.  Bridges  . . 

. do . 

....  Aa 

IV 

subsidies . 

IV 

22 

45 

switches,  Saxby  &  Parmer's . 

....  Aa 

IV 

23 

47 

ties,  continuous . 

IV 

23 

46 

Railway  and  telegraph  administration,  relation 

between . 

Telegraphs . 

....  i 

n 

58 

46 

station . 

Architecture . 

_  A 

IV 

24 

36 

Do . 

....  B 

IV 

21 

41 

terminus  at  Paris . 

Civil  Engineering . 

....  C 

m 

20 

11 

Rambert  on  school-desks . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

485 

390 

Eambouillet  stock  of  France . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

i 

35 

44 

Eamie . . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

309 

155 

Eankine's  theory  of  the  gas-engine . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

in 

174 

177 

Bansome  <fc  Co.'s  exhibits . 

....  A 

iii 

270 

270 

Eausome’s  artificial  stone . 

“Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

41 

49> 

chemistry  of  manufac- 

ture . 

....  D 

IV 

43 

53 

durability . 

....  D 

IV 

44 

54 

history  of  invention  of. 

. do . . 

....  D 

IV 

41 

50 

process  of  manufac- 

ture . 

.  D 

rv 

43 

53 

Eansome,  Sims  &  Head's  straw-burner . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

in 

101 

117 

Bates  for  telegraphing . 

Telegraphs . 

....  J 

n 

30 

40 

Eeapers,  (see  Mowers.) 

Bed  cement  tor  curved  brick-work . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

9 

15 

Register,  Morse’s  telegraphic . 

Telegraphs . 

_  J 

ii 

7 

5 

Regulations  for  buildings . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

17 

28 

genera],  at  Vienna . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

76 

51 

for  United  States  commissioners  to 

Vienna . . 

....  A 

I 

159 

62 

Belay,  Siemens' . 

Telegraphs . 

....  J 

n 

5 

2 

polarized . 

....  J 

ii 

6 

3 

52  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Remington's  cultivators . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

273 

132 

fire-arms . 

.  B 

I 

255 

111 

Remington  sewing-machine . 

Sewing-Machines . 

.  B 

III 

25 

3 

Reports,  Austrian : 

Bayer  and  Langl  on  painting . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

350 

439 

Benedikt  on  artificial  teeth . 

.  B 

I 

311 

432 

dental  apparatus . 

I 

312 

432 

Borg  on  book-binding . 

.  B 

I 

302 

109 

Brinckman  on  split-wood  manufactures . 

.  B 

I 

300 

108 

veneers . 

.  B 

I 

299 

408 

Cohn  on  sowing-machines . 

*  I 

322 

123 

Exner  on  wood-working  machines: 

Knapp’s  dovetailing  machines _ 

I 

318 

422 

I.ane  &  Bodloy . 

.  B 

I 

317 

421 

C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.’s . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

310 

421 

B.  I).  Whitney . 

.  B 

I 

315 

420 

B.  D.  Whitney’s  lathe . 

.  B 

I 

323 

421 

Woodbury’s  brush-machine . 

.  B 

I 

319 

422 

Flattich  on  house-carpentry . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

298 

408 

Friedmann  on  Now  York  harbor  improve¬ 
ments  . 

.  B 

I 

319 

437 

Gintl  on  resins . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

088 

401 

starch  . 

.  B 

I 

287 

400 

Goldschmidt  on  leather . . . 

.  B 

I 

295 

4  JO 

Grofo  on  lithography  and  chromo-lithogva- 

pi>y . 

.  B 

I 

305 

411 

Haardt  on  iron  and  steel  wares . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

297 

407 

Ilanamann  on  sugar  and  apparatus . 

.  B 

I 

280 

402 

Iliipschoron  penmanship . 

.  B 

I 

303 

458 

Ilannak  on  instruction  in  history . 

.  B 

I 

302 

454 

Kupelwieser  on  iron  and  its  ores . 

.  B 

I 

282 

397 

metallurgical  processes  . . .. 

.  B 

I 

280 

390 

nickel  and  cobalt . 

_  B 

I 

281 

398 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  rotary  pud- 
filer . 

.  B 

I 

283 

397 

Pittsburgh  steels . 

.  B 

I 

281 

397 

Langl  on  instruction  in  learning  and  in  art. 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

301 

451 

Lanor,  Zinner,  and  Brunner  on  shovels . 

.  B 

I 

318 

430 

Lechner,  Klar,  nud  Richter  on  the  American 
book-trade.. 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

SCO 

450 

books . 

.  B 

I 

350 

447 

National  Bureau  of  Education . 

.  B 

I 

357 

418 

Lott  on  book-binding . 

.  B 

I 

303 

410 

Lbwentlial  on  means  of  instruction . 

.  B 

I 

355 

445 

Migotti  on  linen  ready-made  clothing . 

.  B 

I 

294 

401 

Mnorhof  on  hospital  railroad-cars . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

347 

436 

Nagel  on  the  manufacture  of  steel  pens . 

.  B 

I 

301 

409 

Novelly  on  lubricating  apparatus . 

.  B 

I 

300 

413 

safety-valves . 

.  B 

I 

307 

413 

Pcez  on  cotton  and  cotton  goods . 

. B 

I 

292 

404 

cotton-spinning  and  weaving . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

293 

404 

Pokornv  on  instruction  in  natural  historv . . 

.  B 

I 

354 

415 

Radinger  on  American  engines . 

.  B 

I 

310 

415 

motor  and  belts . 

. . do . 

.  B 

I 

309 

414 

Norwalk  Iron- Works  engine  .. . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

311 

416 

Pickering's  engine . 

.  B 

I 

313 

119 

S  ifety  Steam  Tower  Compa¬ 
ny's  engine . 

.  B 

I 

312 

118 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


Subject.  Report. 

Reports,  Austrian — Continued. 

Radinger  on  Sellers  <fc  Co.’s  steam-engine  ...  Introduction . 

Richter  on  commerce . do . 

public  libraries . do . 

Rideli  on  Royer  Wheel  Company's  -wheels . do . 

tubular  barrows . do . 

wagons  and  wheels . do . 

West’s  tire-setter;  wheels . do . 

wagons  and  wheels . do . 

Schelle  on  Mason  &  Hamlin's  organ . . ..do . 

musical  instruments . do . 

Schmidt  on  fermented  liquors . do . 

Schmiedon  agricultural  machinery . do . 

Adriance,  Platt  &  Co.’s  mowers 

and  reapers . do . 

Aultman,  Miller  &  Co.’s  mow¬ 
ers  and  reapers . do . 

fertilizers . do . 

harvesting-machines . do . 

Johnston’s  harvester . do . 

McCormick’s  mower  and  reaper . do . 

New  Champion  mower  and 

reaper . do . 

Osborne  &  Co.’s  mowers  and 

reapers . do . 

plows . do . 

Sieberling  Co.’s  mowers  and 

reapers . do . 

sowing-machines . do . 

Sprague’s  mower . do . 

Superior  Machine  Company’s 

mower . do . 

Warder,  Mitchell*. Co. ’smower 

and  reaper . do . 

Schnek  on  India-rubber  good3 . do . 

Schroff  on  drugs . do . 

Schwab,  Perkmann,Pokorny,and  Knirron — 

schools . do . 

school  apparatus . do . 

school-house  plans . do . 

Schwarz  on  cotton-seed  oil . do . 

kerosene  oils . do . 

Semrad  on  the  American  rifle . do . 

Servey  on  photography . do . 

Stingl  on  illuminating  gas . do . 

Yivenot  on  mining  products . do . 

Warhanek  on  preserves . do . 

Weinwurm  on  musical  instruction . do . 

Zaffauk  on  cartography . do . 

Zeman  on  Avery’s  wool-spinner . do . 

twilled  goods . do . 

Zwiauer  on  pumps . do . 

Reports,  British : 

Anderson  on — 

American  practice,  defects  of . do . 

and  British  machinery . do . 

practice . do . 

special  tools . do . 


53 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

B 

I 

314 

420' 

B 

I 

364 

461 

B 

I 

358 

448 

B 

I 

340 

431 

B 

I 

338 

431 

B 

I 

337 

430 

B 

I 

339 

431 

B 

I 

337 

430 

B 

I 

345 

434 

B 

I 

344 

434 

B 

I 

290 

403 

B 

I 

324 

424 

B 

I 

330 

428 

B 

I 

329 

428 

B 

I 

285 

399 

B 

I 

326 

425 

B 

I 

334 

429 

B 

I 

331 

428 

B 

I 

327 

426 

B 

I 

332 

429 

B 

I 

324 

424 

B 

I 

333 

429 

B 

I 

325 

425 

B 

I 

336 

430 

B 

I 

335 

430 

B 

I 

328 

427 

B 

I 

296 

406 

B 

I 

365 

462 

B 

I 

440 

351 

B 

I 

444 

353 

B 

I 

444 

352 

B 

I 

463 

366 

B 

I 

463 

367 

B 

I 

435 

346 

B 

I 

410 

304 

B 

I 

400 

286 

B 

I 

395 

279 

B 

I 

403 

291 

B 

I 

449 

359 

B 

I 

433 

343 

B 

I 

423 

i> 

321 

B 

I 

414 

308 

B 

I 

423 

320 

B 

I 

233 

75 

B 

I 

231 

73 

B 

I 

251 

102 

B 

I 

238 

82 

54 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873, 


Subject.  Report.  Yol.  Pago.  Art. 

Reports,  British— Continued. 

Anderson  on — 


American  special  tools,  peculiarmerits  of. 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

239 

83 

Armstrong’s  dovetailing-machine . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

245 

94 

Avery’s  wool-spinner . 

.  B 

I 

247 

97 

B.  D.  Whitney’s  wood  working  tools . 

.  B 

I 

243 

93 

Bigelow's  boot  and  shoo  machinery . 

Brown  &  Siiarpo  Manufacturing  Com. 

- do . 

.  B 

I 

249 

98 

pany’s  tools . 

.  B 

I 

239 

85 

C.  B.  Rogers  &  Co.’s  wood-working  tools. . . 

- do . 

.  B 

I 

247 

96 

Darling,  Brown  &  Sharpe’s  tools . 

- do . 

.  B 

•  I 

242 

90 

Kail’s  “Sudden-Grip”  vise . 

.  B 

1 

241 

88 

Jones  &  Laughl in’s  cold-rolled  shafting. .. 

.  B 

I 

240 

86 

Knapp’s  dovetailing-machino . 

- do . 

.  B 

I 

296 

95 

Matthews’  soda-water  apparatus . 

.  B 

I 

251 

101 

Miller's  pipe-bending  machine . 

.  B 

I 

241 

87 

Morse  twist-drills . 

.  B 

I 

242 

91 

Pratt  &.  Whitney  Company’s  tools . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

239 

84 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  drill-sharpener . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

235 

78 

hammer . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

238 

81 

lathes . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

234 

70 

machinery . 

....do  . 

.  B 

I 

232 

74 

rotary  puddler . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

236 

80 

sewing-machines . 

.  B 

I 

250 

100 

Sides  &  Parker  Press  Company  's  tools. .. 

.  B 

I 

242 

69 

Tilghman's  sand-blast . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

234 

77 

AYest’s  tire-setter . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

243 

92 

Woodbury’s  brush-making  machinery _ 

Maw  &  Dredge  on — 

Adrianco,  Piatt  &  Co.’s  mower  and 

- do . 

.  B 

I 

250 

99 

reaper . 

Aultmau,  Miller  &  Co.’s  mower  and 

.  B 

I 

279 

141 

reaper . 

.  B 

I 

277 

137 

American  drills . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

274 

134 

building  materials . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

288 

144 

Capron  water-wheels . 

.  B 

I 

272 

127 

Collins  &  Co.’s  plows . 

.  B 

I 

272 

128 

Deere  A  Co.’s  hoes . 

- do - . . 

.  B 

I 

273 

131 

D.  M.  Osborne’s  mower  and  reaper . 

....do  . 

.  B 

I 

280 

142 

Pttrst  &  Bradley’s  plows . 

.  B 

I 

273 

130 

iron  and  steel . 

.  B 

I 

281 

145 

Johnston  Harvester  Company . 

.  B 

I 

277 

138 

locomotive-engines . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

287 

117 

double-bogies . 

.  B 

I 

260 

113 

length  of  tubes . 

.  B 

I 

262 

119 

passenger-engines . 

_ do . . 

.  B 

I 

264 

120 

■mineral  fuels  of  the  United  States . . 

_ do . . 

.  B 

I 

255 

115 

Nishwitz’s  harrow . 

.  B 

I 

273 

133 

Norwalk  Iron- Works  engine . . 

.  B 

I 

267 

123 

Peekskill  Plow  Works . 

.  B 

I 

272 

129 

Pennsylvania  coals . . 

- do . 

.  B 

I 

256 

116 

Pickering’s  steam-engines . 

.  B 

I 

266 

121 

reapers  and  mowers . 

.  P. 

I 

274 

135 

Remington’s  cultivators . . 

.  B 

I 

273 

132 

Sieberling’s  mower  and  reaper . 

.  B 

I 

279 

140 

technical  schools . 

_ do . 

.  B 

I 

269 

125 

Underhill’s  angular  belt . . 

Warder,  Mitchell  &  Co.’s  mower  and 

.  B 

I 

266 

122 

reaper . 

...  do . 

.  B 

I 

279 

139 

GENERAL  INDEX 


55 


Subject. 

Report. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Reports,  British — Continued. 

Maw  &  Dredge  on— 

“Wood's  mowers  and  reapers . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

275 

136 

workmanship . . 

_  B 

I 

271 

126 

Fussell  on  educational  appliances . 

_  B 

I 

280 

143 

Holmes  on — 

American  steam -machinery . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

252 

103 

cold-rolled  shafting . 

_  B 

I 

253 

105 

Pickering’s  engine . 

....  B 

I 

252 

104 

steam-pumps  and  water-wheels . 

_  B 

I 

253 

106 

Russell  on  small-arms  from  the  United  States. 

. . do . 

_  B 

I 

255 

111 

Vizetelly  on  wines . 

....  B 

I 

284 

146 

Reports,  French : 

Damplimot  on  the — 

silk  industry  ;  silk-worm  culture . 

. . do . 

B 

I 

332 

186 

silk  production  and  consumption . 

_  B 

I 

333 

187 

Davanne  on— 

astronomical  photography . 

_  B 

I 

338 

193 

photography ;  awards . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

337 

192 

Delhaye  on  cotton  manufactures . 

....  B 

I 

332 

188 

Grnner  on — 

mineral  industry  ;  iron  and  steel . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

293 

147 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  rotary  puddler  and  rolls. . 

_  B 

I 

294 

148 

Xleitz  on — 

civil  engineering ;  Sutro  tunnel . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

345 

207 

Fink  bridge,  at  Louisville . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

346 

209 

New  York  harbor  improvements . 

_  B 

I 

345 

208 

Levasseur  on— 

attendance  at  schools . 

_  B 

I 

352 

215 

colleges  for  young  women . 

. . do . 

_  B 

I 

356 

219 

education . 

_  B 

I 

348 

210 

in  the  South . 

....  B 

I 

354 

216 

secondary  . 

....  B 

I 

355 

218 

educational  exhibits . 

....  B 

I 

356 

220 

globes . 

....  B 

I 

358 

223 

instruction  in  geography . 

....  B 

I 

357 

221 

primary . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

348 

210 

expenses  of . 

....  B 

I 

350 

211 

rural  charts . 

....  B 

I 

357 

222 

school  edifices . 

....  B 

I 

351 

212 

teachers’  salaries . 

....  B 

I 

351 

213 

teaching  as  a  profession . 

....  B 

I 

352 

214 

methods  of . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

358 

224 

text-books . 

....  B 

I 

358 

224 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

354 

217 

Masson  on  the  graphic  arts  ;  “  Picturesque 

America  ” . 

....  B 

I 

336 

191 

Mertian  on — 

the  art  of  war . 

....  B 

I 

343 

200 

Colt  armory  work . 

....  B 

I 

343 

201 

fire-arms . 

_  B 

I 

343 

200 

Military  saddles . 

_  B 

I 

345 

206 

Sharpe's  rifles . 

_  B 

I 

343 

203 

Smith  &  Wesson’s  fire-arms . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

343 

202 

Springfield  rifles  and  muskets . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

343 

204 

Onimus  on  dental  manufacture . 

_  B 

I 

342 

199 

Pettigrew  on  mineral  industry ;  iron  and 

steel  . 

....  B 

I 

293 

147 

Sayer  on— 

leather  and  caoutchouc. . 

. do . . . 

....  B 

I 

351 

189 

56 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  .  1873. 


Subject. 

Retort. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Reports,  French — Continued. 

Sayer  on — 

leather  from  cow,  calf,  and  horse  hides.. 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

335 

190 

Teissonii-re  on — 

wines,  & c. ;  viniculture  in  tho  United 
States . 

....  B 

I 

330 

184 

wine  production  of  the  world . 

.  B 

I 

330 

185 

Tisserand  on — 

Adriance,  Platt  &  Co.’s  mower  and 
reaper . . 

....  B 

I 

312 

1G4 

agricultural  development,  history  of . 

....  B 

I 

31G 

172 

implements . 

.  B 

I 

301 

157 

products . 

_  B 

I 

310 

171 

agriculture  in  the  United  States . 

.  B 

I 

29G 

150 

Aultman,  Miller  &  Co.’s  mower  and 
reaper  . 

....  B 

I 

31-1 

1G5 

awards,  distribution  of . 

_  B 

I 

31G 

170 

beet  root  sugar  cultivation . . 

_  B 

I 

355 

180 

California  exhibits . 

_  B 

I 

300 

15G 

cereals ;  Northern  Pacific  Railroad  Co.; 
Oregon . . 

....  B 

I 

203 

151 

colonial  agricultural  policy . . 

_  B 

I 

321 

17o 

cotton . 

....  B 

I 

277 

133 

Johnston's  mower  and  reaper . 

....  B 

I 

309 

1G2 

landed  property,  distribution  of . 

-  B 

I 

31G 

172 

Leopoldsdorf  trial  of  mowers  and  reapers 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

30G 

1G0 

live-stock  in  the  United  States . 

....  B 

I 

32G 

132 

McCormick's  mower  and  reaper . 

....  B 

I 

314 

1GG 

mowers  and  reapers,  American .  . 

. . do . 

....  B 

I 

303 

158 

Osborne,  D.  M.,  Sc  Co.’s  mower  and 
reaper . 

....  B 

I 

311 

163 

politico-economic  relations . 

....  B 

I 

325 

175 

production,  increaso  of . 

....  B 

I 

333 

17G 

tabular  exhibit,  1870 . 

....  B 

I 

325 

179 

progress,  causes  of . 

....  B 

I 

328 

183 

data  indicating . 

....  B 

I 

319 

173 

ramie . 

....  B 

I 

300 

155 

resume ;  Paris,  1367 ;  Vienna,  1373 . 

....  B 

I 

315 

1G9 

Sieberling’s  mower  and  reaper . 

....  B 

I 

314 

1G7 

Sprague’s  mower . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

314 

167 

staple  products  of  the  United  States . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

323 

177 

Superior  Machine  Company's  mower _ 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

314 

168 

tobacco . 

....  B 

I 

299 

152 

viniculture  in  the  United  States . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

32G 

181 

Warder,  Mitchell  &  Co.'s  mower  and 
reaper . 

....  B 

I 

307 

161 

wines,  American . 

....  B 

I 

300 

154 

"Wood's  reaper  and  binder . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

305 

159 

Tresca  on — 

machinery ;  influence  of  American  pro¬ 
gress  . 

....  B 

I 

339 

194 

metal-working  machinery . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

340 

195 

Sellers  <fc  Co.’s  tools . . 

....  B 

I 

340 

196 

sewing-machines . 

....  B 

I 

341 

193 

wood-working  tools . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

341 

197 

Reports,  German ; 

Deninger  on — 

India  rubber . 

....  B 

I 

375 

251 

leather . .do .  B  I  375  250 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


57 


Subject. 

REPORT. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Reports,  German— Continued. 

Hartig  and  others  on — 

the  Avery  wool-spinner . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

383 

266 

B.  D.  Whitney’s  tools . 

_  B 

I 

382 

264 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Com- 

pany’s  bolt  and  nut  machines . 

. do . 

_  B 

I 

381 

259 

screw-machines . 

.  B 

I 

382 

262. 

tools  . 

_  B 

I 

381 

257 

Hall’s  “Sudden-Grip”  vise . 

_  B 

I 

382 

260- 

Knapp’s  dovetailiug-machine . 

. do . 

_  B 

I 

383 

265 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  gear-cutter . 

_  B 

I 

382 

261 

tools  . 

_  B 

I 

361 

258 

sewing-machines . 

_  B 

I 

383 

267 

Grover  &  Baker . 

. do . 

_  B 

I 

383 

269 

Wheeler  &  Wilson .... 

. do . 

_  B 

I 

383 

270 

Wilcox  &  Gibbs . . 

_  B 

I 

383 

268 

Warth’s  cloth-cutter . 

. do . 

_  B 

I 

384 

271 

West’s  tire-setter . 

_  B 

I 

382 

263 

Woodbury’s  brush-making  machine _ 

. do . . 

.  B 

I 

384 

272 

Hoffman  on — 

aluminum . 

. do . . 

B 

I 

3G5 

232 

coal . 

_  B 

I 

370 

244 

copper . . . . . 

B 

I 

369 

240 

chemical  industry . 

B 

I 

364 

230 

cryolite . 

...  B 

I 

365 

233 

diamonds . 

. do . 

..  B 

I 

370 

243 

emery  and  corundum. . . . 

. do . 

B 

I 

369 

237 

gold . 

B 

I 

370 

242 

iron  and  iron  ores . . . . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

369 

238 

wrought,  production  of . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

366 

234 

magnesium . . . . . 

B 

I 

364 

230 

lamps,  Thurston's,  Larkin's  . 

. do . 

B 

I 

364 

231 

nickel . 

B 

I 

369 

239' 

silver . 

B 

I 

369 

241 

production . 

B 

I 

366 

236 

zinc  and  cadmium . 

B 

I 

366 

235- 

Indeich  on — 

agricultural  implements . 

B 

I 

362 

228 

forestry . . 

B 

I 

3G2 

227 

Warder,  Mitchell  &  Go’s,  mower . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

362 

229 

Lorck  on— 

etching  by  Tilghman’s  sand-blast . . 

. do . . 

.  B 

I 

378 

255 

graphical  arts . 

B 

I 

377 

253 

United  States  and  Germany . . 

B 

I 

379 

256 

typography  and  lithography . . 

. do . 

.  ..  B 

I 

377 

254 

Paul  on — 

Stein  way  piano-fortes  ;  devices,  special. 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

390 

276- 

system  of  con- 

struction . 

. . do . 

B 

I 

385 

273 

tone,  quality  of 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

388 

275 

upright-piano.. 

. do . 

B 

I 

3e6 

274 

Schwedler,  Sternberg, Giersberg,  and  Hons- 

selle  on  the  work  at  Hallett’s  Point,  Hew 

York . 1 . 

B 

I 

391 

277 

Serlo  and  Stolzel  on — 

nickel  and  cobalt . . 

B 

I 

361 

226 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  tools . 

. do . 

B 

I 

351 

225 

Thiel  on — 

articles  of  food . . 

....  B 

I 

371 

245- 

f)S 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject.  Report. 

Reports,  Gorman — Continued. 

Thiel  on — 

condensed  milk .  Introduction . 

meat  and  pastry . do . 

sugar . do . 

IVeber  on  manufactures  of  paper . do . 

Weigert  on  — 

cotton  goods . do . 

textile  fabrics . do . 

Reports,  Swiss : 

Herzog  on  army  equipments . do . 

llirsch  on — 

American  gun-factories . do . 

hospital;  litters . do . 

■watchmaking . do . 

Kopp  on — 

albumen  and  starch . do . 

chemicals . do . 

oils . do . 

petroloum . do . 

pharmaceutical  preparations . do . 

Landolt  on  mowing-machines . do  . 

Mercicr  on  leather . do . 

Ott  oil- 

canned  beef . do . 

condensed  milk . do . 

moat  extracts . do . 

and  fish . do . 

preserved  fruit . do . 

wines . do . 

Rambert  on  school-desks . do . 

I 

Steiger -Moyer  on — 

cotton-spinning . do . 

printing  and  dyeing . do . 

woaving  of  cotton . do . 

Tscliudi  on  education . do . 

in  Germany  and  the  United  . do  . . 

States. 

Reports  and  records  of  Paris  Exhibition  of  1867 . do . . 


Roports  of  the  United  States  Commissioners; 

Blake,  W.  P.  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel.  Metallurgy 
Bridges,  L.  Buildings  of  the  Exhibition 


and  Railroad  Structures . Exhibition  Buildings  .. 

Brooks,  D.  Telegraphs  and  Apparatus . Telegraphs . 

Brown,  A.  H.  Governmental  Printing 

Institutions  in  Europe . .  Government  Printing. . 

Carpenter,  C.  H.  Instruments  of  Precision.  Instruments . 

Collier,  P.  Commercial  Fertilizers .  Fertilizers . 

Cutts,  R.  I).  Instruments  of  Precision . Instruments . 

Davis,  C.  Hydraulic  Engineering .  Hydraulic  Engineering 

Derby,  N.  L.  Architecture  and  Materials 

of  Construction .  Architecture . 

Dodge,  J.  R.  Sheep  and  Wool .  Sheep  and  Wool . 

Doremns,  C.  A.  Photography  at  Vienna  ...  Photography . 

Fairfield,  G.  A.  Sewing-Machines .  Sewing-Machines . 

Gallaudet,  E.  M.  Patronage  of  Art . Patronage  of  Art . 

Deaf-Mute  Instruction  . . .  Deaf-Mutes . 

Garretson,  H..  Chief  Executive  Commis¬ 
sioner  . 


Vol.  Page.  Art. 


B 

I 

373 

247 

B 

I 

372 

246 

B 

I 

371 

245 

B 

I 

376 

252 

B 

I 

374 

249 

B 

I 

374 

243 

B 

I 

480 

387 

B 

I 

478 

335 

B 

I 

479 

386 

B 

I 

477 

384 

B 

I 

469 

373 

B 

I 

468 

369 

B 

I 

468 

371 

B 

I 

468 

372 

B 

I 

468 

370 

B 

I 

467 

368 

B 

I 

476 

383 

B 

I 

473 

379 

B 

I 

472 

378 

B 

I 

471 

375 

B 

I 

472 

376 

B 

I 

472 

377 

B 

I 

470 

374 

B 

I 

185 

390 

B 

I 

475 

380 

B 

I 

475 

332 

B 

I 

475 

331 

B 

I 

482 

388 

B 

I 

434 

339 

A 

I 

56 

44 

E 

IV 

Aa 

IV 

J 

II 

P 

II 

G 

II 

C 

IV 

H 

II 

e 

III 

B 

IV 

E 

I 

D 

II 

B 

III 

N 

II 

M 

II 

C  I 


GENERAL  INDEX, 


59 


Subject.  Bepokt. 

Reports  of  tiie  United  States  Commissioners  : 

Gibbs,  W.  Physical  Apparatus  and  Chem¬ 
ical  Materials .  Physical  Apparatus. .. 

Hinton,  L.  J.  Working  of  Stone .  Working  of  Stone - 

Horsford,  E.  N.  Vienna  Bread .  Vienna  Bread . 

Hoyt,  J.  W.  Education .  Education . 

Lines,  E.  B.  Telegraphs .  Telegraphs . 

Lowe,  N.  M.  Wood  Industries . Wood  Industries . . 

Nierns6e,  J.  E.  Private  Dwellings  in 

Vienna . Architecture . 

Painter,  H.  Metallurgy  of  Lead,  Silver, 

Copper,  and  Zinc .  Metallurgy . 

Euppaner,  Dr.  A.  Medicine  and  Surgery. .  Medicine  and  Surgery 

Seguin,  E.  Education .  Education . 

Silcox,  G.  W.  Art  of  Printing  and  Manu¬ 
facture  of  Paper . Printing  and  Paper  . . . 

Smith,  J.  L.  Chemical  Industry .  Chemical  Industry _ 

Thurston,  E.  H.  Machinery  and  Manu¬ 
factures  . Machinery . 

Warder,  J.  A.  Forests  and  Forestry .  Forestry . 

Watson,  William.  Civil  Engineering, 

Public  Works,  and  Architecture . Civil  Engineering . 

Eepsold’s  theodolite .  Instruments . . 

Eesilience  of  steels  made  at  Creusot .  Metallurgy . 

Kesins,  Gintl’s  report .  Introduction . 

Ehythm,  training  of . Education . 

Eice  of  Indian  corn . Vienna  Bread . 

Eichards,  London  &  Kelley’s  tools . Machinery . 

Eichter  on  public  libraries .  Introduction . 

Eichter,  Leehner,  and  Klar  ou  American  book- 

trade  . do . 

books . do . 

National  Bureau 

of  Education . do . 

Eideli  on  Boyer  Wheel  Company’s  wheels . do . 

tubular  barrows . do . 

wagons  and  wheels . do . 

West’s  tire-setter;  wheels . do . 

Eieter  &  Co.’s  Jonval  whegj . Machinery . . . . . 

Eifles,  (see  Fire-arms.) 

Biver  improvements  between  Paris  and  Auxerre  Civil  Engineering . 

Koad-locomotives,  deductions  from  trials .  Machinery . 

foreign  trials  of . do . 

tractive  force  of . do . 

trials  by  Thurston . do . 

Roads  and  Bridges,  French  national  school  of. . .  Civil  Engineering . 

Boasting,  (see  Smelting.) 

furnace,  Binsfeldhammer .  Metallurgy . 

Freiberg . do . 

ores,  Ems  Smelting  Works . do . 

Freiberg . do . 

process,  Holzappel . do . 

Mech  ernicher  Smelting  Works . do . 

Stolberg  slock  Company . do . 

Bobey  &  Co.’s  engines . Machinery . 

Robinson  &  Co.'s  tools . do . 

Bock-drills . Metallurgy . 

Eod  and  bar  iron  produced . do . . 


Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

F 

II 

D 

IV 

B 

II 

L 

II 

I 

II 

C 

IV 

B 

IV 

F 

IV 

E 

II 

K 

II 

0 

II 

A 

II 

A 

III 

D 

I 

C 

III 

H 

II 

6 

6 

E 

IV 

125 

99 

B 

I 

401 

238 

K 

II 

23 

12 

B 

II 

110 

236 

A 

III 

256 

264 

B 

I 

448 

358 

B 

I 

450 

360 

B 

I 

447 

356 

B 

I 

448 

357 

B 

I 

431 

340 

B 

I 

431 

338 

B 

I 

430 

337 

B 

I 

431 

339 

A 

III 

179 

134 

C 

III 

26 

27 

A 

III 

92 

105 

A 

III 

85 

103 

A 

III 

93 

106 

A 

III 

87 

104 

C 

III 

68 

93 

F 

IV 

150 

352 

F 

IV 

35 

82 

F 

IV 

155 

364 

F 

IV 

42 

101 

F 

IV 

151 

354 

F 

IV 

152 

358 

F 

IV 

107 

246 

A 

III 

101 

116 

A 

III 

265 

269 

E 

IV 

137 

116 

E 

IV 

17 

17 

60  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1673. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Rogers,  C.  B.  &  Co.,  wood-working  machinery : 

Anderson’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

247 

96 

Exner’s  report . 

..  B 

I 

421 

316 

Rogers,  Miss,  school  of . 

,  Education . 

.  K 

II 

64 

28 

Rolled  tires . 

Metallurgy . 

..  E 

IV 

130 

109 

Rolling-mills . 

. do . 

.  E 

IV 

177 

144 

of  Bohemia,  Moravia, and  Silesia.. 

.  E 

IV 

19 

20 

Rolls,  bread . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

102 

225 

Sellers  &  Co.'s . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

234 

148 

Roman  tiles . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

7 

9 

Roof,  laws  relating  to . 

.  A 

IV 

15 

25 

iron,  locomotive-house  at  Montrouge . 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

oo 

17 

Roscommon  sheep . 

,  Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

31 

39 

Ross'  picker-motion . 

.  Machinery . 

..  A 

III 

290 

2612 

Rotary  puddling-apparatus . . 

. . do . 

.  A 

III 

292 

287 

furnaces . 

.  Metallurgy . 

..  E 

IV 

50 

32 

steam  fire-engine . 

,  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

103 

120 

Rotunda  and  dome . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

9 

13 

Roumania  photographic  exhibits . . 

.  Photography . 

,.  D 

II 

OO 

56 

telegraphic  administration . 

Telegraphs . 

.  I 

II 

57 

40 

Rowlev  &  Chew,  colored  printing . . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

.  0 

II 

8 

5 

Roy  &  Co.’s  water-wheels . 

..  A 

III 

179 

185 

Royal  Hungarian  mint . 

.  Metallurgy . 

F 

IV 

177 

420 

Saxon  Smelting  Works . 

.  F 

IV 

224 

Rover  Wheel  Company's  wheels . 

Introduction . . 

..  B 

I 

431 

340 

Ruppaner,  A.,  Report  on  Medicine  and  Suit- 

.  Medicine  and  Surgery . 

..  E 

II 

Russia,  black  soil  of . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

..  B 

11 

G 

3 

forests  . 

Forestry . 

..  D 

I 

55 

69 

forestry  exhibits . 

.  D 

I 

14 

12 

phosphate  of . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

..  B 

11 

OO 

25 

analysis  of . 

.  B 

II 

24 

26 

Russian  exhibit  of  sheep . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

15 

1 

locomotives . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

70 

84 

ores . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

215 

466 

production . 

..  F 

IV 

216 

492 

photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

.  D 

11 

22 

53 

statistics,  sheep . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

44 

58 

telegraphic  administration . 

.  Telegraphs . . . 

..  I 

II 

c7 

41 

Rye-bread . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

-  B 

II 

84 

183 

s. 

Saddles,  military . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

344 

206 

Saeger's  school  for  deaf-mutes . . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

41 

19 

Safety  Steam  Power  Company’s  engine, 

Radinger's  report . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

415 

310 

Safety-valves,  Novelly’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

413 

307 

Salle  d'Asyle . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

10 

5 

Saltpeter-soda  or  Chili  niter . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

II 

48 

49 

Salts,  ammonia . 

.  C 

II 

48 

50 

potash,  at  Stassfurt . 

.  C 

II 

53 

59 

Stassfurt,  deposits . 

.  C 

II 

52 

57 

Salzkammergut,  forests . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

69 

87 

Sand-blast,  Tilghman's . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

316 

292 

Do . 

.  Working  of  Stone . 

.  D 

IV 

5 

1 

Do . Anderson's  report . 

.  Introduction . 

..  B 

I 

234 

77 

Sands  for  mortar  and  cement . 

,  Architecture . 

.  A 

IV 

12 

19 

Sandwich  Islands,  photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

.  D 

II 

22 

59 

GENERAL  INDEX. 

61 

Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Sanitary  department . 

Medicine  and  Surgery _ 

....  E 

II 

13 

7 

Sardinia,  forests . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

59 

74 

Saullick  cement _ . 

Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

39 

45 

Saw-quarrying  machine . 

....  D 

IV 

17 

15 

Saws,  band,  B.  D.  Whitney’s . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

253 

260 

history  of  the . 

....  A 

III 

256 

264 

Porin  &  Co.’s . 

....  A 

III 

234 

274 

Richards,  London  &  Kelley’s . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

255 

263 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotka  forests . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

49 

60 

exhibits . 

. do . 

....  D 

I 

47 

57 

pavilion . 

,  Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

12 

22 

Saxe- Weimar  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

97 

138 

Saxon  mines,  production . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

97 

226 

Saxony  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

97 

135 

sheep-raising  in . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

....  E 

I 

41 

55 

Sayer  on  leather  and  caoutchouc . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

334 

189 

leather  from  cow,  calf,  and  horse  hides. 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

335 

190 

Scaffolding . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

19 

38 

Schiele’s  pump . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

199 

209 

Schmied,  (see  Reports,  Austrian.) 

Schmidt  on  fermented  liquors . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

403 

290 

Schneider  &  Co.'s  engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

199 

209 

locomotives . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

61 

71 

works . 

....  A 

III 

394 

376 

Schnek  on  India-rubber  goods . 

. B 

I 

406 

296 

Scholar,  his  text-book  and  his  teacher. . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

111 

64 

Scholtenbrand’s  iron  cross-ties . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

06 

58 

School,  American . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

86 

41 

apparatus  . 

....  K 

II 

103 

62 

Do . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

444 

353 

as  it  is,  and  as  it  should  be . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

99 

48 

as  it  should  be . 

....  K 

II 

105 

59 

at  Barre . 

....  K 

II 

88 

42 

Columbus . 

....  K 

II 

90 

45 

Frankfurt . 

....  K 

II 

90 

45 

Hartford . 

....  K 

II 

64 

23 

home . 

....  K 

II 

23 

11 

Leignitz . 

. do . 

....  K 

II 

43 

20 

Media . 

....  K 

II 

90 

44 

Syracuse  . 

. do . 

....  K 

II 

87 

43 

attendance . : . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

352 

215 

bells . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

64 

28 

conclusion . 

....  K 

II 

93 

47 

Dr.  Amman’s . 

...  K 

II 

43 

19 

edifices . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

351 

212 

plans . 

....  B 

I 

444 

352 

education,  (see  Education.) 

exhibition  of,  at  Vienna . 

,  Education . . 

....  K 

II 

104 

58 

extent  and  character  of  Hollando-Ger- 

man . . . 

....  K 

II 

43 

20 

for  blind  and  deaf,  combined . 

....  K 

II 

46 

23 

deaf-mutes . 

....  K 

II 

34 

17 

idiots,  American . 

....  K 

II 

86 

42 

Belgian . 

....  K 

II 

77 

34 

Bicetro . 

. do . 

....  K 

II 

80 

36 

Dutch . . 

....  K 

II 

77 

34 

Earlswood . 

....  K 

II 

83 

39 

English . 

....  K 

II 

82 

38 

62 


VIENNA.  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

School  for  idiots,  Essex  Hall . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

82 

38 

French . '. ... 

.  H 

n 

70 

35 

Gentilly . 

.  K. 

II 

81 

37 

German . 

.  K 

II 

70 

33 

Ghcel . 

.  K 

II 

77 

34 

Ghent . 

.  K 

II 

77 

34 

Gladbaeh . 

.  K 

II 

75 

32 

Hague . 

II 

77 

34 

Lancaster . 

.  K 

II 

85 

40 

Norman  Field . 

.  K 

II 

85 

40 

origin  of  . 

II 

75 

32 

SalpOtrii-ro . 

. do . 

.  IC 

II 

81 

37 

furniture . 

.  1C 

11 

100 

G1 

general  education  in  American . 

.  K 

II 

99 

49 

Austx-ian . 

.  K 

II 

102 

54 

Belgian . 

.  K 

II 

103 

50 

English . 

.  K 

II 

99 

48 

French . 

. do . 

_  K 

II 

103 

57 

Italian . 

.  K 

II 

101 

52 

Portuguese . 

.  IC 

II 

102 

53 

Prussian . 

.  IC 

II 

102 

55 

Swedish . 

.  K 

11 

99 

50 

Swiss . 

.  IC 

II 

100 

51 

Ht-inicko's . 

.  IC 

II 

43 

19 

Hills . 

.  K 

II 

43 

19 

Hirscli’s . 

.  IC 

II 

43 

19 

history  of,  for  deaf-mutes . 

.  IC 

II 

41 

18 

Hollando-Gcrmnn . 

.  IC 

II 

43 

19 

house.  American . 

.  Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

G 

7 

IV 

12 

23 

model . 

.  Education . 

.  L 

II 

14 

13 

.  L 

II 

23 

37 

Tnilcd  States . 

. do . . 

.  L 

II 

1 

7 

interior  arrangements  of . 

_  K 

II 

105 

CO 

JanUe's . 

. do . 

.  IC 

II 

43 

19 

like  a  family . 

_  K 

II 

70 

31 

methods  of  traiuing  in . 

....  K 

II 

111 

05 

Hiss  Hull's . . 

. . do . 

_  K 

II 

G4 

23 

Roger's . . 

....  ic 

II 

04 

28 

Trask's . 

....  K 

II 

04 

23 

of  Illinois . 

....  K 

II 

04 

28 

of  Roads  and  Bridges,  Paris . 

Ciril  Engineering . 

....  C 

III 

08 

92 

opportunities  for  its  establishment  at 

home . 

Education . 

....  IC 

II 

23 

11 

origin  and  basis  of . 

. do . 

....  K 

II 

23 

11 

origin  of  . 

....  IC 

II 

75 

23 

Periere's . 

....  1C 

II 

75 

24 

physiological  infant . 

. do . 

....  IC 

II 

23 

11 

primary . 

....  K 

II 

111 

04 

polytechnic  at  Berlin . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

307 

359 

Dresden . 

....  A 

III 

302 

359 

Saegart's . 

Education . 

....  K 

n 

43 

19 

technical . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

209 

125 

text-books . 

Education . 

ii 

108 

03 

training  in,  prominent  points  of,  and 

their  application . 

....  K 

ii 

90 

40 

Schooling,  its  object,  means,  and  tendencies _ 

....  K 

ii 

113 

00 

Schools,  apparatus,  American . 

....  L 

ii 

14 

13 

GENERAL  INDEX. 

63 

Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Schools,  apparatus,  German . 

Education . 

....  L 

II 

20 

28 

Swedish . 

....  L 

II 

23 

38 

industrial,  Belgian . 

...  L 

II 

17 

20 

of  British  India . 

. do . 

...  L 

11 

18 

22 

Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Company  . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

101 

67 

horology . 

Instruments . 

...  G 

II 

13 

15 

Schroff  on  drugs . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

4G2 

365 

Schwab  and  others’  reports,  ( see  Reports, 

Austrian.) 

Schwedler  on  New  York  Harbor  improvements . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

391 

277 

Schwarz  on  cotton-seed  oils  . 

...  B 

I 

463 

366 

kerosene  oils . 

...  B 

I 

463 

367 

Schwarzenberg  forestry  exhibits . 

,  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

41 

52 

pavilion . 

,  ExhibitionBuildings . 

. . .  Aa 

IV 

12 

21 

plants . . 

.  Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

46 

55 

worked  timber . 

. do . 

...  D 

I 

45 

54- 

Scotland,  blast-furnace  practice  in . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

419 

396 

Scott’s  gear-molding  machine . 

...  A 

III 

321 

295 

Scourer,  wheat . 

,  Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

29 

63 

Scraper,  B.  D.  "Whitney's . . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

252 

259 

Screw-machine  of  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufac- 

turing  Company . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

382 

262 

Screw,  Swedish  twin . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

59 

65 

Seasoning  of  wood,  "Wood’s  method . 

"Wood  Industries . 

...  C 

IV 

10 

9 

Sea-thermometer . 

Instruments . 

...  H 

n 

10 

19 

Seeds,  separating  and  winnowing . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

ii 

22 

53 

Seguin  E.,  Report  on  Education . 

Education . 

...  K 

ii 

Seine  and  Yonne  river  improvements . 

Hydraulic  Engineering  . . . . 

...  D 

hi 

14 

24 

Selden's  pumps . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

in 

189 

198 

Sellers  &  Co.'s  drill-sharpener . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

235 

78 

details . 

...  B 

i 

236 

79 

gear-cutter . 

...  B 

i 

382 

261 

hammer . 

...  B 

i 

238 

81 

injectors  . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

hi 

138 

150 

lathes . 

...  B 

i 

234 

76 

machinery,  Anderson’s  report... 

. do . 

...  B 

i 

232 

74 

Hartig  and  others’ 

report  . 

...  B 

i 

381 

258 

Serlo  and  Stolzel’s 

report . 

. do . 

...  B 

i 

361 

225 

Tresea’s  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

i 

340 

196 

rolls . 

...  B 

i 

294 

148 

rotary-puddler,  Anderson's  re- 

port . 

...  B 

i 

240 

86 

Gruner’s  report. 

. do . 

...  B 

i 

294 

148 

Kupelwieser's 

...  B 

i 

397 

283 

report. 

steam-engine . 

. do  — . 

...  B 

i 

420 

314 

steam-hammers . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

hi 

294 

298 

rotary  puddling-machine. . 

. do . 

...  A 

MI 

292 

287 

tools  . 

...  A 

III 

205 

216 

...  E 

IV 

165 

...  E 

IV 

164 

Semrad  on  American  rifles . 

Introduction  .  . . 

...  B 

I 

435 

346 

Senegal  forests . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

81 

107 

Sensation,  seat  of . 

Education . 

...  K 

II 

33 

16 

training  of . 

...  K 

II 

34 

16 

Senses,  education . 

...  E 

II 

115 

68 

64 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Senses,  effect  of  colors  and  ornamentation  of 

cradle . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

II 

4 

o 

industrial  education  of . 

...  K 

II 

117 

70 

mechanical  education  of . . 

II 

llfi 

C9 

training  of  special . 

...  K 

II 

33 

IG 

Seraing,  Cockerill’s  works  at . . 

.  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

383 

3G5 

Serlo  and  Stiilzel  on  nickel  and  cohalt . 

.  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

3G1 

226 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  tools . 

...  B 

I 

301 

2*25 

Survey  on  photography . 

...  B 

I 

304 

410 

Servian  telegraphic  administration . 

,  Telographs . 

...  I 

II 

57 

42 

Service  bridges . 

Civil  Engineering . 

...  C 

III 

33 

37 

Sewage,  Stanford’s  process . 

.  Fertilizers . 

...  C 

II 

55 

G2 

waste . 

...  C 

II 

55 

62 

utilization  by  irrigation . 

...  C 

II 

59 

66 

Sewerage  of  Hamburg . 

Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

...  D 

III 

12 

20 

the  exhibition . . 

...  D 

III 

11 

19 

Vicuna . 

...  D 

III 

11 

18 

Sewing-machines,  Report  by  George  A.  Faik- 

FIELD . 

Sowing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

Sewing-machines . . . 

,  Machinerv . 

...  A 

III 

35G 

289 

adjustment  of  parts . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

33 

9 

American . 

...  B 

III 

10 

3 

A mcrican  compared  with 

foreign . 

...  B 

III 

5 

1 

Anderson’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

253 

100 

blacksmith's  works . 

.  Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

31 

8 

Canadian . 

...  B 

III 

10 

2 

Cohn’s  report . . . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

423 

322 

European . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

G 

2 

foundry  work . 

...  B 

III 

27 

6 

German . 

...  B 

III 

6 

2 

Hartig  and  others'  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

383 

267 

Grover  Si  Baker . 

...  B 

I 

383 

269 

W heeler  Si  Wilson . 

...  B 

I 

383 

270 

Wilcox  &  Gibbs . 

...  B 

I 

383 

268 

Howe . 

Sewing-Machines . 

...  B 

III 

10 

2 

machine-work . 

. do . 

...  B 

in 

26 

7 

mode  of  selling . 

...  B 

in 

3i 

10 

origin  of . 

...  B 

in 

27 

5 

Remington . 

...  B 

hi 

25 

3 

Secor  . 

...  B 

iii 

14 

3 

Singer . 

...  B 

HI 

10 

3 

Thimonnier’s . 

...  B 

iii 

8 

o 

Tresca’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

341 

193 

Weed . 

Sewing-Maeliincs . 

...  B 

iii 

16 

3 

Wheeler  &  Wilson . 

...  B 

m 

22 

3 

Wilcox  &  Gibbs . 

...  B 

iii 

13 

3 

Wilson . 

...  B 

iii 

15 

3 

Sexes,  co-education  of . 

Education . 

...  K 

n 

4G 

23 

Sex  in  education . . . 

...  K 

n 

117 

70 

Shafting,  cold-rolled.  Anderson's  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

240 

86 

nolmes'  report . 

...  B 

i 

253 

105 

Jones  &  Longhlin's  cold-rolled . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

in 

322 

296 

weight  and  strength  of . 

...  A 

iii 

214 

224 

Shaft  roasting-furnace  at  Freiberg . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

35 

82 

Shaping-machine,  Pratt  &  Whitney  Company's. 

Machinery . 

...  A 

iii 

213 

228 

Sharpe's  fire-arms.  Mertian's  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

i 

343 

203 

Russell's  report . 

...  B 

i 

255 

113 

GENERAL  INDEX 


65 


SUDJECT. 

REroitT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Sharpe,  Stewart  &  Co.'s  tools  and  works . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

Ill 

399 

381 

Sheep  and  Wool,,  Report  by  J.  R.  Dodge . 

.  Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

Sheep,  (see  Wool.) 

Austrian  exhibits . 

.  E 

I 

12 

13 

Cotswold  merinoes  . . 

.  E 

I 

13 

14 

merinoes . 

.  E 

I 

13 

14 

Austro-Hungarian . 

.  E 

I 

38 

50 

Bavarian . 

.  E 

I 

43 

57 

breeding  in  Trance . 

.  E 

I 

3G 

45 

crosses  . 

.  E 

I 

38 

48 

crosses  in  France . 

.  E 

I 

34 

42 

Do . 

.  E 

I 

36 

45 

for  mutton . 

.  E 

I 

8 

8 

French  methods . 

. do  . . 

.  E 

I 

38 

49 

in  Bavaria . 

.  E 

I 

43 

57 

Great  Britain . 

.  E 

I 

17 

19 

Hungary . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

39 

51 

Saxony . 

.  E 

I 

41 

55 

modifications  by . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

5 

2 

progress  in . 

.......  E 

I 

5 

1 

British  black-faced . 

. . do . 

.  E 

I 

30 

38 

Border-Leicester . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

21 

24 

Cotswold . 

.  E 

I 

21 

26 

Cheviot . 

.  E 

I 

29 

37 

different  breeds  .  . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

18 

20 

Do . 

.  E 

I 

31 

39 

Dorsets . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

28 

35 

Exmoor . 

.  E 

I 

27 

34 

Hampshire  downs . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

26 

32 

Leicester . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

19 

21 

Lincolns . 

.  E 

I 

22 

27 

Oxford  downs . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

27 

33 

Romney  marsh . 

. do  . 

.  E 

I 

22 

28 

Roscommon . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

31 

39 

Shropshire  downs . 

. . do . 

.  E 

I 

25 

31 

Southdowns. . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

23 

29 

Welsh  mountain . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

29 

36 

French,  ancient  breeds . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

37 

47 

cross-breeds . . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

36 

45 

distribution . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

33 

41 

local  adaptation . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

35 

43 

mutton -producing . . 

.  do . 

.  E 

I 

37 

46 

Rambouillet . 

. . do . 

.  E 

I 

35 

44 

German . 

.  E 

I 

10 

12 

entries . 

.  E 

I 

9 

10 

merinoes . . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

11 

10 

Spanish  breeds . 

. . do . 

.  E 

I 

40 

52 

Rrussian-Silesia . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

42 

56 

Russian . . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

44 

58 

entries . 

.  E 

I 

15 

16 

United  States . 

.  E 

I 

20 

23 

yard,  plan  of . 

. d  . 

.  E 

1 

7 

5 

Sheffield  steel  and  armor-plate . 

.  Machienry . 

.  A 

III 

446 

417 

Ship-building,  iron . 

. . do . 

.  A 

III 

421 

398 

vs.  wood . . 

.  . do . 

.  A 

III 

421 

398 

Shoe  and  boot  machinery,  Bigelow's . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

249 

98 

Shoe-machinery,  Bigelow’s . . 

. do . . . 

.......  A 

III 

309 

291 

Shovels,  Lauer,  Zinnor,  and  Brunner’s  n  port  . . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

436 

348 

5 


6(>  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Pago. 

Art. 

Shropshire  downs . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

25 

31 

Sicily  forests . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

59 

74 

Sidewalks  of  London . 

Working  of  Stone . 

.  D 

IV 

26 

33 

Sieherling’s  mower  and  reaper — 

Haw  &  Dredge’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

279 

140 

Schmied’s  report . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

■429 

333 

Tisserand's  report . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

314 

167 

Siemens’  deep-sea  thermometer . 

Instruments . 

.  H 

II 

10 

19 

direct  process  . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

15t» 

engine . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

38 

45 

regenerative  furnace . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

151 

353 

relays . 

Telegraphs . 

. I 

II 

5 

2 

polarized . 

II 

6 

3 

Sight,  care  of . . 

Education . 

.  K 

II 

52 

25 

Sighs  boiler . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

133 

148 

Signs,  a  means  of  learning . 

Education . 

II 

66 

30 

Sii.cox,  G.  W.,  Report  on  Art  of  Printing 

and  Manufacture  of  Paper . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

.  0 

II 

“  Silent  World” . 

Deaf-Mutes . 

.  M 

II 

9 

7 

Silesia,  Prussian,  wool-growing . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

42 

56 

Silk  industry;  silk-worm  culture . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

332 

186 

manufactures  of  Switzerland . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

349 

284 

production  and  consumption . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

332 

187 

Silsby  Manufacturing  Company’s  steam  (Ire- 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

105 

121 

engine. 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

369 

241 

IV 

115 

267 

Lower  Hungary . 

.  F 

IV 

181 

432 

Mansfield  Copper  Works . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

134 

317 

Royal  Hungarian  Mint . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

177 

420 

Stolberg  Stock  Company . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

149 

348 

production  of . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

366 

236 

Sweden . 

Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

25 

61 

refining,  Freiberg . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

74 

175 

Simultaneous  systems  of  telegraphing . 

Telegraphs . . 

.  J 

II 

29 

16 

Sinclair’s  boiler . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

in 

127 

140 

rti  a 

Eorestr  y . 

.  D 

i 

92 

123 

Slaughter-house  refuse . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

n 

49 

53 

Slide-valve  engines . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

in 

24 

35 

Slotting-machine,  Sellers  A  Co.’s . . . 

.  A 

hi 

29 

236 

Sluice-gates,  Girard's . 

Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

in 

34 

40 

Smelting,  (see  Roasting.) 

lead,  Brixlegg  Smelting  Works . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

165 

386 

. do . 

_  F 

IV 

104 

364 

Julius  Hutto . - . 

.  F 

IV 

132 

311 

process,  Bley  berg . 

.  F 

IV 

17 

42 

Carinthia . 

.  F 

IV 

169 

397 

V  *1 

.  F 

IV 

58 

136 

roasted  matte . 

IV 

77 

187 

Holzappel . 

.  F 

IV 

151 

354 

. do . 

_  F 

IV 

14 

38 

Meclieruiclier  Smelting  Works- 

. do . . 

_  F 

IV 

152 

358 

Miiblbacb  Smelting  Works  .. . 

....  F 

IV 

1(6 

390 

Stolberg  Stock  Company . 

. do . 

....  F 

IV 

167 

246 

St  ria 

. do . 

_  F 

IV 

172 

410 

Tarnowitz . . . 

_  F 

IV 

137 

324 

Turkey . 

_  F 

IV 

217 

500 

Smelting  works,  ( see  Furnaces.) 

Binsfeldhammer  furnaces .  do 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


67 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Smelting  works,  Bieiberg  Smelting  Company  .. 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

169 

396 

Brixlegg . 

. do . 

.  F 

IV 

164 

381 

Ems . 

.  F 

IV 

155 

364 

Krupp's . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

in 

370 

361 

Miiklbach . . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

166 

390 

Priam . 

.  F 

IV 

158 

374 

Smith  &  Wesson's  fire-arms,  Mertian’s  report  . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

343 

202 

Bussell's  report . . 

.  B 

I 

235 

114 

Smith,  J.  L.,  Report  on  chemical  industry . 

.  Chemical  Industry . 

.  A 

II 

Smut-machine  for  wheat . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

28 

62 

SociOtO  Anonyme  de  Couillet  locomotives . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

m 

63 

75 

des  Hauts-Fourneaux . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

130 

108 

Cockerill's  mariue  engines . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

in 

58 

62 

locomotives . 

. do . 

.  A 

TIT 

62 

74 

Society,  Photographic,  of  Bologna . 

.  Photography . 

.  D 

II 

15 

34 

Socin  &  Wick’s  engine . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

21 

32 

Soda  manufacture . 

.  Chemical  Industry . 

.  A 

n 

6 

3 

saltpeter . 

.  Fertilizers . 

.  C 

n 

48 

49 

water  apparatus,  Matthews' . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

i 

251 

101 

Soil,  black,  of  Russia . 

.  Fertilizers . 

.  C 

ii 

6 

3 

exhaustion  of . 

. do . 

.  C 

ii 

6 

2 

Sombrero  phosphate . 

.......  do . . .  - . 

.  C 

n 

18 

16 

Sounding-line  of  deep  sea  thermometer . 

.  Instruments . 

.  H 

ii 

10 

22 

Southdowns . ., .  Sheep  and  "Wool .  E 

history  and  characteristics . do .  E 

Southern  flour . Vienna  Bread .  B 

South  Kensington  Museum .  Patronage  of  Art . .  K 

Sowing-machines,  Scbmied's  report . Introduction .  B 

Spain,  educational  exhibits .  Education . .  L 

forest . Forestry .  D 

metallurgical  exhibits . Metallurgy .  F 

method  of  education .  Education .  L 

photographic  exhibits .  Photography .  D 

Spanish-French  school  for  deaf-mutes .  Education .  K 

phosphate .  Fertilizers .  C 

price . do .  C 

sheep  in  Germany .  Sheep  and  Wool .  E 

telegraphic  administration .  Telegraphs .  I 

Spectroscopes .  Physical  Apparatus .  F 

Speech,  alphabet .  Education .  K 

Bell's  theory  of . do .  K 

class  books . do .  K 

symbols . do .  K 

visible . do .  K 

Spinning  of  cotton,  Peez’s  report .  Introduction .  B 

Steiger-Meyer’s  report . do .  B 

machine  for  wool,  Avery's . do .  B 

Split-wood  manufacture . do .  B 

Sprague  mower,  Scbmied's  report . do .  B 

Tisserand’s  report . do .  B 

Springfield  muskets  and  rifles . do .  B 

Staatsdruckerei,  Vienna .  Government  Printing .  P 

Stairways .  Architecture .  B 

construction .  AVorking  of  Stone .  D 

Stanford's  products  from  sea-weed .  Fertilizers .  C 

sewage . do .  C 

Stapfurt  potash .  Chemical  Industry .  A 

Staple  products  of  the  United  States .  Introduction .  B 


I 

I 

II 
II 

I 

II 

I 

IV 

II 
II 
II 
II 
II 

I 

II 
II 
II 
II 
II 
II 
II 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 

I 

II 
IV 
IV 
II 

n 

ii 

i 


23 

24 
66 

8 

425 

22 

16 

7 
22 
10 
43 
20 
26 
40 
55 

8 
65 

64 

65 
65 
65 

414 

475 

383 

408 

430 

314 

343 

5 

19 

23 

55 

55 

7 

326 


29 

30 
138 

7 

325 

35 

15 

12 

35 

19 

19 

21 

30 

52 

33 

10 

29 

28 

29 

29 

29 

293 

380 

266 

300 

336 

167 

204 

4 
38 
27 
61 
62 

5 
177 


68  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Starch . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

9 

18 

character  of . 

....  B 

II 

06 

145 

charges  of . . 

....  B 

II 

92 

202 

conversion  into  dextrine . 

....  B 

II 

92 

203 

grains . . 

....  B 

II 

73 

154 

Gintl's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

401 

287 

Kopp's  report . 

....  B 

I 

469 

373 

Starke  <fc  Hammerer's  plane-tables . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

II 

8 

13 

Stassfurt  saline  deposits . 

Fertilizers . 

....  C 

II 

52 

57 

Stato  monopoly  of  the  telegraph . 

Telegraph . 

....  I 

II 

52 

28 

patronage  of  art . 

Patronage  of  Art . 

....  N 

II 

7 

6 

printing  establishment  at  Vienna . 

Government  Printing . 

....  P 

II 

C 

5 

State,  Secretary  of,  Introductory  Note . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

Stations,  railway . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

21 

30 

Statistics  of  commerce  in  metals . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

59 

43 

iron  and  steel  production  at  Creusot 

. do . 

....  E 

IV 

120 

94 

iron-making  industry,  Ackerman's 

. do . 

....  E 

IV 

178 

145 

report. 

mining . 

. do . 

....  E 

IV 

0 

5 

Russian  iron  and  steel  making _ 

. do . 

....  E 

IV 

208 

149 

Steam-engine — 

American,  Rndinger’s  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

415 

310 

Norwalk  Iron  Works,  Maw  &.  Dredge's 

report . 

. do . 

. . . .  B 

I 

267 

123 

Radinger’s  report . . . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

416 

313 

Pickering's,  Holmes'  report . 

....  B 

I 

252 

104 

Radinger’s  report . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

419 

313 

....  B 

I 

418 

312 

Sellers  &  Co.'s . . 

....  B 

I 

420 

314 

Steam-engines,  advantages  of,  in  traction . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

97 

111 

British  and  American  fire . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

106 

123 

compared  with  hydraulic  motors 

. . . .  A 

III 

175 

:78 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

103 

120 

Henderson's  theory  of  the  :cro  .. . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

151 

158 

merits  of  American  fire . 

....  A 

III 

106 

124 

New  York  Safety  Steam  Power 

Company's . 

....  A 

HI 

26 

37 

Tangye  &  Co.'s . 

.  do . 

. . . .  A 

III 

20 

38 

Steam  fire-engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

HI 

103 

120 

....  A 

III 

204 

288 

....  A 

III 

41 

53 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

186 

195 

uses  of,  in  breadmaking . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  15 

II 

94 

208 

....  A 

HI 

147 

152 

Stearns'  duplex  telegraph . 

Telegraphs . 

....  i 

11 

31 

17 

Steel,  Bairow . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

408 

387 

and  iron,  Maw  &  Dredge's  report . 

Introduction  .  . . 

....  15 

I 

261 

145 

G  rimer's  report . 

. do . 

....  B 

T 

203 

147 

ami  iron  ware,  Haardt’s  report . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

407 

237 

castings,  Bochum . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

112 

£5 

compared  with  cold-rolled  bronze . 

Machinerv . 

. . . .  A 

III 

334 

310 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

144 

103 

introduction  of . 

Machinerv . 

....  A 

III 

82 

90 

Krnpp's . 

. . . .  A 

III 

390 

360 

wheels . . 

. do .  . 

.  . ..  A 

HI 

81 

06 

made  in  the  Alpine  country . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

13 

12 

making,  growth  in  Germany . 

....  E 

IV 

56 

41 

Pittsburgh . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

397 

281 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


G9 


SUBJECT. 

REPO  LIT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

I  Steel,  Sheffield . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

Ill 

440 

417 

Siemens-Martin  process  of  making . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

449 

419 

Thurston's  tests  at  the  Stevens  Institute 

of  Technology . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

409 

388 

use  in  German  car-buikling . 

. do .  .. 

....  A 

III 

300 

354 

vs.  iron . . . 

.  do  .  .  . 

....  A 

III 

80 

94 

Whitworth’s  compressed  cast . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

439 

415 

works  at  Barrow . 

. do . 

. . ..  A 

III 

406 

385 

Steiger-Meyer  on  cotton-spinning . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

475 

380 

printing  and  dveing. . . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

475 

382 

weaving . 

. do . . 

....  B 

I 

475 

381 

school-desks . - . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

485 

390 

Steinway’s  pianos,  devices,  special . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

388 

276 

system  of  construction . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

385 

273 

tone,  quality  of . 

.  do . 

....  B 

I 

388 

275 

upright  piano . . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

386 

274 

Sternberg  and  others  on  operations  at  Hallett’s 

....  B 

I 

391 

077 

Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Thurston's 

tests  of  Barrow  steel  at . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

409 

388 

St.  Gallen  flour-mill . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

44 

103 

Stiles  &  Parker's  tools . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

•136 

245 

Stiles  &.  Parker  Press  Co.'s  tools . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

242 

89 

Stingl  on  illuminating  gas . 

....  B 

I 

400 

286 

Stirling's  hot-air  engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

151 

156 

St.  Martin  phosphate . 

Fertilizers . 

....  C 

II 

19 

18 

Stolberg  Stock  Company . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

107 

246 

zinc  desilverization  .. 

_ _ do  . . . 

....  F 

IV 

148 

347 

Stone,  American  and  foreign  . . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

17 

29 

artificial . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

....  Aa 

IV 

17 

34 

bedding . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

17 

30 

Carrara  marble . 

_ _ do . 

....  B 

IV 

16 

28 

economy  in  use  of  European . 

- - - do . 

....  B 

IV 

5 

4 

molded  for  cornices  . . 

Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

10 

8 

Portland . 

....  D 

IV 

12 

12 

Ransome’s  artificial . 

. do . 

....  I) 

IV 

41 

49 

Stoke,  Working  of,  Report  by  L.  J.  Hinton.  . . 

. do . 

....  I) 

IV 

Stone-dressing,  application  of . 

. do . 

....  H 

IV 

23 

26 

luster  of  . 

....  D 

IV 

18 

16 

machine,  Annani’s . 

....  D 

IV 

10 

7 

Stone- working  in  America . 

....  D 

IV 

21 

21 

Europe  . 

. do  . . 

....  D 

IV 

19 

20 

Vienna . 

. do . 

....  D 

IV 

21 

22 

Store,  union,  of  the  Georgs-Marien-Hiitte  Com- 

pany . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

104 

74 

Stove,  German  porcelain . 

Architecture . 

....  A 

IV 

16 

27 

St.  Petersburg,  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

ICO 

151 

Strauss  Music-Hall,  Vienna . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

_  Aa 

IV 

14 

26 

vertical  water-wheels . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

179 

187 

Straw-burner,  Kansome,  Sims  <fc  Head’s . 

. .do . 

....  A 

III 

101 

117 

braiding . 

....  A 

III 

349 

331 

Strikes  of  workmen . 

Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

5 

2 

Stucco,  application  and  uses . . 

.  Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

32 

39 

uses  in  London . 

....  D 

IV 

33 

40 

Vienna . 

. . do . 

....  D 

IV 

39 

45 

Stupendorif  s  plane-table . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

II 

8 

12 

Styles  of  architecture . . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

21 

44 

Styria  forest  culture . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

30 

36 

70 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


SUBJECT. 

REPORT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Styria  forest  products . . 

Forestry . 

...  i) 

I 

:to 

33 

forests  of . . 

...  i) 

I 

75 

99 

ores . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IY 

172 

410 

Stock  Company,  zinc  desilverization _ 

..  F 

IV 

172 

41  L 

Styrnm  Company,  exhibits,  of . 

. do . 

...  E 

IY 

CO 

47 

Submarine  operations  in  New  York  Harbor, 

(see  New  York  Harbor.) 

Sugar,  Thiel’s  report . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

371 

245 

and  apparatus,  Hanamanu’s  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

402 

289 

from  beet  root,  Tisserand's  report . 

. do . 

...  B 

I 

325 

180 

and  dextrine . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

II 

0 

20 

Sulphates  and  phosphates . 

...  B 

II 

12 

29 

Sulphuric  acid,  Freiberg . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

4G 

108 

Kofreltorps  Stock  Company  ... 

. do . 

...  F 

IY 

24 

58 

Mansfield  Copper  Works . 

. . .  F 

IY 

135 

319 

Oker  Smelting  Works . 

...  F 

IV 

130 

30K 

Sulzcr  P’r Ores’  steam-engines . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

21 

33 

trial  of . 

...  A 

III 

23 

34 

Superintendence  of  buildings . 

IV 

1C 

31 

Superior  Machine  Co.’s  mower,  Sehmied’s  report  Introduction  . 

Tisserand's  re- 

...  B 

I 

430 

335 

port . 

...  B 

I 

314 

1C7 

n 

II 

34 

34 

z  German . . 

...  c 

II 

31 

33 

Surface-condensation . 

.  Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

44 

52 

SUKGERY  AND  MEDICINE,  Report  by  Dlt.  A. 

E 

11 

Surveying  instrument,  "  Universal " . 

.  Instruments . 

...  H 

II ' 

G 

7 

Sutro  Tunnel . 

.  Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

342 

207 

Sweden  educational  exhibits . 

...  I, 

II 

2*2 

30 

forestry  exhibits . 

.  Forestry . 

...  D 

I  . 

14 

11 

forests . 

...  1> 

I 

53 

ce 

photographic  exhibits . . 

.  Photograph v . 

....  L> 

II 

15 

35 

school-house . 

....  I. 

II 

22 

36 

furniture  and  apparatus. . 

....  I. 

11 

23 

38 

Swedish  schools . 

...  IC 

II 

100 

51 

telegraphic  administration . 

.  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

57 

43 

twin-screws  for  steamers . 

...  A 

III 

50 

65 

Swiss  clocks . 

.  Instruments . 

....  G 

II 

5 

o 

industries,  influences  affecting . 

...  A 

III 

347 

323 

metal-working  tools . . 

....  A 

III 

245 

253 

plane-table . 

.  Instruments . 

....  II 

II 

9 

15 

railroads . 

.  Telegraphs . 

....  I 

11 

or. 

52 

schools . 

.  Education . . 

....  K 

II 

100 

51 

silk  manufactures . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

291 

284 

telegraphic  administration . 

.  Telegraphs . 

...  I 

II 

58 

44 

employes . 

....  I 

II 

75 

CG 

offices . 

....  I 

II 

70 

59 

telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

CG 

52 

watches . 

.  Instruments. . 

....  G 

II 

12 

12 

Switzerland  educational  exhibits . 

.  Education . 

....  L 

11 

24 

39 

forest  area . 

.  Forestry . 

....  D 

1 

53 

67 

forestry  exhibit . 

...  D 

I 

15 

13 

photographic  exhibits . . 

.  Photography . 

....  1) 

II 

13 

31 

text-books . 

.  Education . 

...  K 

II 

24 

42 

Symmetry,  its  effects . . 

...  K 

II 

29 

14 

Sympathetic  function,  precedence  of . 

. do . 

...  K 

II 

23 

12 

Syracuse  school  for  idiots . 

...  K 

II 

89 

43 

GENERAL  INDEX 


71 


SUBJECT. 

REPORT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

T. 

Tact,  concord  of . 

.  Education .  . 

.  K 

II 

52 

25 

Tangye  &  Co.'s  engines . . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

29 

38 

Tarnowitz  Lead  and  Silver  Smelting  Works. . . . 

.  Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

136 

323 

Tartaric  acid  in  self-raising  flour . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

91 

198 

Taste,  architectural . 

Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

26 

59 

Teacher  and  text-hooks . 

.  Education . 

.  K 

II 

111 

64 

kindergarten . 

.  K 

II 

16 

8 

mother’s . 

.  K 

11 

46 

23 

theoretical  and  practical . 

. . do . . . 

.  K 

II 

16 

8 

women . . . . 

.  K 

II 

46 

23 

Teaching,  ( see  Education,  Training.) 

as  a  profession . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

352 

214 

methods  of . 

.  B 

I 

358 

224 

Technical  schools,  influence  of . 

.  B 

I 

269 

125 

Teeth,  artificial . 

.  B 

I 

132 

341 

Teissoniere  on  wines  ;  viniculture  in  the  United 

States . 

.  B 

I 

330 

184 

-wine  production  of  the  world _ 

.....  B 

I 

330 

185 

Telegraphic  administration . 

Telegraphs . • . 

.  I 

II 

57 

25 

Austro-Hungarian . . 

. do . . 

.  I 

II 

54 

30 

Belgian . 

.  I 

11 

55 

31 

British . 

.  I 

II 

56 

35 

Banish . 

.  I 

II 

55 

32 

European . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

51 

20 

French . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

55 

34 

German . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

54 

29 

Italy . 

. do . . 

_  I 

II 

57 

36 

Netherlands . 

. do . . . 

T 

II 

57 

38 

Norway . 

.  I 

II 

57 

37 

Portugal . 

- - do . . 

.  I 

II 

57 

39 

Roumania . 

. do . 

....  I 

II 

57 

40 

Russia . 

. do . 

_  I 

II 

57 

41 

Servian . . . 

. do . 

_  I 

II 

57 

42 

Spanish . 

. do . 

....  I 

II 

55 

33 

state; . 

_  I 

II 

52 

28 

Swedish . . 

. do . . . 

_  I 

II 

57 

43 

Swiss . 

. do . 

.....  I 

II 

58 

44 

Turkish . 

. do . 

_  I 

II 

58 

45 

apparatus . 

....  I 

II 

9 

9 

Bo . 

Physical  Apparatus . 

_  F 

II 

9 

12 

automatic . 

Telegraphs . 

. I 

II 

11 

14 

Bo . 

_  I 

II 

12 

12 

Little’s . 

_  I 

II 

15 

13 

Siemens’.. . . 

. do . 

_  J 

II 

11 

15 

auxiliary . 

. do . 

....  I 

II 

42 

23 

batteries . 

.  I 

11 

7 

6 

Bo . 

.  .T 

II 

16 

21 

Belgian . 

_  J 

II 

9 

8 

Callaud’s . 

. do . 

_  J 

II 

16 

23 

Daniells . 

. do . 

_  J 

II 

16 

22 

Grove’s . 

. do . 

.  J 

11 

16 

22 

Bauer's . 

.  I 

II 

36 

19 

classification . 

. do . 

_  I 

II 

7 

5 

B’Arlincourt’s . 

_  I 

II 

40 

22 

Edison’s  automatic . 

. do . . . 

....  I 

II 

13 

13 

duplex . 

. do . . 

....  I 

II 

34 

18 

English  and  French . 

_  J 

11 

24 

34 

72 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


SUISJECT. 

Report. 

Yol. 

Page.  Art. 

Telegraphic  apparatus,  European .  Telegraphs . 

.  I 

n 

10 

10 

French . 

.  .do . 

.  J 

II 

23 

32 

Gally’s . . 

..do . 

.  I 

II 

29 

15 

German  historical . 

..do . 

.  I 

II 

-13 

24 

Hughes'  printer . . 

..do . 

.  J 

II 

9 

7 

ink-writer,  European . 

..do . 

.  J 

II 

7 

G 

Jaite’s . 

..do . 

.  J 

II 

12 

1G 

Do . 

..do . 

.  I 

II 

11 

11 

Little's . 

..do . 

.  I 

11 

13 

13 

Meyer’s . 

..do . 

.  I 

II 

oo 

14 

Morse's . 

..do . 

.........  .1 

II 

is 

05 

register,  Morse’s . 

..do . 

.  J 

11 

7 

5 

relays,  Siemens’  polarized . . . 

. .  do . 

.  J 

II 

C 

3 

Siemens’ . 

..do . 

.  J 

II 

5 

2 

Stearns's  duplex . 

..do . 

.  I 

II 

29 

15 

transmitting . 

..do . 

.  I 

11 

0 

0 

circuit,  connecting . 

..do . 

.T 

II 

0 

4 

conductors . 

..do . 

.  I 

II 

8 

7 

wire . 

..do . 

.  J 

II 

11 

19 

European . 

..do . 

.1 

ir 

14 

19 

galvanized . 

..do . 

.  .1 

n 

15 

20 

correspondence . 

..do . 

I 

ii 

e2 

73 

employes . 

..do . 

I 

n 

71 

GO 

/  Austro-Huagariau . 

..do . 

I 

ii 

71 

G1 

Itelgian . 

..do . 

I 

ii 

72 

G2 

British . 

..do . 

I 

ii 

74 

64 

French  . 

..do . 

1 

ii 

70 

G3 

German . 

..do . 

I 

11 

71 

60 

Italian . 

..do . 

I 

II 

74 

G5 

Russian . 

..do . 

I 

II 

7G 

G7 

Swiss . 

..do . 

I 

II 

75 

GG 

exhibits,  American . 

. .  do . 

I 

II 

5 

2 

German . 

..do . 

I 

II 

43 

24 

insulators  . 

..do . 

.1 

II 

10 

11 

Do . 

I 

II 

8 

7 

manufactures . 

..do . 

J 

II 

oo 

29 

tests,  European . 

..do . 

■T 

II 

22 

30 

Prussian . 

..do . 

J 

II 

21 

28 

offices . 

..do . 

I 

II 

G7 

53 

Austro-Hungarian . 

..do . 

I 

II 

C8 

54 

Belgian . 

..do . 

I 

II 

G8 

55 

British . 

..do . 

I 

II 

G9 

57 

French . 

..do . 

I 

II 

C9 

56 

German . 

..do . 

I 

II 

G7 

53 

Italy . 

..do . 

I 

II 

69 

58 

Swiss . 

..do . 

I 

II 

70 

59 

resistance . 

..do . 

.  T 

II 

23 

33 

measures  of . 

..do . 

.  J 

II 

17 

24 

statistics.  European . 

..do . 

I 

n 

82 

72 

of  cost . 

..do . 

I 

ii 

7G 

86 

tariff . 

..do . 

.  I 

ii 

80 

G9 

traffic . - 

..do . 

.  I 

n 

81 

70 

transmission,  double . — 

..do . 

.  .T 

ii 

12 

18 

pneumatic  tubes . 

..do . 

.  J 

ii 

26 

36 

rates  . 

..do . 

.  J 

ii 

30 

40 

Telegraphs  and  Aitaratus,  Report  by  David 

Brooks . 

..do . 

.  J 

ii 

Telegraphs  and  Telegraphic  AdjuRIstra- 

tion,  Report  by  R.  B.  Lines . 

..do . 

.  I 

ii 

GENERAL  INDEX 


73 


Subject. 

Beport. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Telegraphs  and  railroads . 

..  Telegraphs . 

....  I 

II 

58 

46 

Austro-Hungarian  . . . 

. . do . 

.  I 

II 

59 

47 

Belgian . 

. do . 

....  I 

II 

60 

48 

British . 

. do . 

_  I 

II 

63 

50 

French . 

. do . 

_  I 

II 

62 

49 

German  . 

. . do . 

.  I 

II 

58 

46 

Italy . . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

65 

51 

Swiss . . 

. do . . 

.  I 

II 

66 

52 

batteries  for . . 

. do . . 

.  I 

II 

7 

6 

branch  lines . 

. do . 

.  J 

11 

29 

39 

cost  of . . 

. do . 

.  J 

II 

28 

38 

English  and  French . 

.  J 

II 

14 

34 

European . 

- - do . 

....  -I 

II 

31 

41 

French . 

. do . . 

.  I 

II 

62 

49 

German . 

_ ...do . 

.  I 

II 

58 

46 

historical  sketch  . . . 

. do  . . 

.  J 

II 

30 

40 

methods . 

I 

II 

6 

4 

modern  construction . 

. do . 

.  J 

II 

19 

27 

monopolies . 

.  J 

II 

27 

37 

posts  for . 

. do . 

.  J 

II 

28 

38 

preservation  of . . 

.  J 

11 

16 

26 

proper  system . . 

. do . . 

.  J 

II 

32 

42 

•  rates . 

.  J 

II 

30 

40 

simultaneous  system  . . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

29 

16 

system,  Wheatstone’s . 

. do . 

.  J 

II 

12 

17 

underground  lines . . 

. do . 

.  J 

II 

11 

13 

Do . 

. do . 

.  I 

II 

9 

8 

underground  wire  in  cities . 

. do . 

.  J 

II 

23 

35 

United  States . 

.  ,J 

11 

31 

41 

Telegraphy,  automatic . 

1 

II 

12 

12 

Tenement-houses . 

. .  Architecture . . 

.  A 

IV 

8 

12 

Terra-cotta . . 

. .  Working  of  Stone . 

.  D 

IV 

39 

46 

Do . 

. .  Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

5 

i 

Austrian . . 

.  B 

IV 

5 

2 

Tessits  and  Marechal's  photographic  process.. 

. .  Photography . . 

.  D 

II 

11 

24 

Tests  of  watches . 

. .  Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

15 

19 

Tetschen  forests . 

. .  Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

90 

119 

Text-books  and  teachers . 

. .  Education . 

.  K 

11 

111 

64 

in  schools . 

.  K 

II 

108 

63 

in  Switzerland . 

.  K 

II 

24 

40 

Textiles,  (see  Cotton.) 

Textile  machinery  at  Vienna . 

. .  Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

288 

278 

manufactures  of  Germany . 

. . do . 

.  A 

III 

352 

337 

Weigert’s  report . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

374 

248 

Zeman  on  twilled  goods . 

.  B 

I 

414 

308 

Text-books . 

.  B 

I 

358 

224 

Theaters,  Vienna . . 

. .  Architecture . 

.  A 

IV 

24 

30 

Thermometer,  air . . 

. .  Physical  Apparatus . 

.  F 

II 

13 

17 

balance . 

. .  Instruments . 

.  H 

II 

11 

23 

for  deep-sea  sounding . . 

. do  .  . . 

.  H 

II 

10 

19 

mercurial . 

..  Physical  Apparatus . 

.  F 

II 

13 

18 

resistance . . 

. .  Instruments . 

.  H 

II 

10 

20 

Thiel  on  articles  of  food . 

. .  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

371 

245 

condensed  milk . 

.  B 

I 

373 

247 

meat  and  pastry . 

.  B 

I 

372 

246 

sugar  .. . 

.  B 

I 

371 

245 

Thilenius  mill-stone . 

..  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

40 

92 

Thime’s  turbine  water-wheel  . 

. .  Machinery . 

.  A 

II 

184 

192 

74 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Thimmonier's  sewing-machine . 

.  Sewing-Machines . 

....  B 

Ill 

8 

2 

Thompson,  J.  L.,  paper-barrels . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

27 

39 

Thun,  Count,  estate  of . 

.  Forestry . 

....  D 

1 

89 

118 

Thurston,  R.  H.,  Report  on  Machinery  and 

Manufactures . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

tests  of  Barrow  steel . 

. do . 

III 

109 

388 

trials  of  steam-boilers . . 

....  A 

III 

119 

133 

Braytou's  gas-engines . do . 

III 

105 

105 

traction-engines . 

III 

87 

104 

Tide-motors . 

,  Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

....  D 

III 

1-1 

25 

Tiles,  English . 

.  Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

7 

8 

Roman . . 

....  B 

IV 

7 

9 

Tilghman’s  sand-blast . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

31G 

292 

Do . 

Working  of  Stone . 

....  D 

IV 

5 

i 

Anderson's  report . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

234 

77 

Lorck’s  report . . 

....  B 

I 

378 

255 

Timber,  durability  of . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

I 

29 

32 

transportation . 

Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

....  D 

III 

& 

12 

Tire-setter,  West’s,  Anderson’s  report  . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

1 

243 

92 

Hartig’s  report . 

....  B 

I 

382 

202 

Thurston’s  report . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

Tissera nd's  reports,  (tree  Reports,  French.) 

Tobacco . 

.  Introduction . 

. . . .  B 

I 

299 

152 

Tools,  (see  Reports.) 

American . 

...  B 

I 

239 

83 

and  British  compared . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

190 

204 

wood-working . 

. do  . . 

....  A 

III 

249 

257 

B.  D.  Whitney’s  . 

...  A 

III 

249 

257 

British . 

...  A 

III 

205 

206 

Brown  &  Sharpe  Manufacturing  Co.'s... 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

232 

240 

Fay  &  Co.'s . 

...  A 

III 

259 

267 

for  special  purposes . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

I 

338 

62 

French  metal  working . 

...  A 

III 

244 

252 

wood-working . . 

...  A 

III 

284 

273 

German  machine . 

...  A 

III 

358 

350 

opinion  of  American . . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

338 

317 

Tratt  &  Whitney  Company’s . 

. do . 

...  A 

in 

220 

227 

Robinson  &  Co.’s . 

...  A 

in 

205 

269 

Sellers  &  Co.’s . 

...  A 

in 

205 

210 

Sharpe,  Stewart  &  Co.'s . 

. do . 

...  A 

iii 

399 

361 

Swiss  metal-working . 

...  A 

in 

245 

253 

Towing  and  chain . 

...  A 

in 

53 

58 

Traction-engines. . 

...  A 

iii 

83 

101 

advantages  of  steam . 

...  A 

iii 

97 

111 

Thurston's  trial  of . 

. do . 

...  A 

iii 

87 

104 

Training,  (see  Teaching.) 

automatism .  . 

Education . 

...  K 

ii 

25 

13 

contractility . 

. do . 

...  K 

ii 

25 

li 

imitation . 

...  K 

ii 

25 

13 

kindergarten  ...« . 

...  K 

ii 

19 

10 

methods  of . 

...  K 

ii 

111 

65 

objective  and  subjective  . 

...  K 

ir 

19 

10 

prominent  points  of . 

. do . 

...  K 

ii 

90 

46 

rhythm . 

...  K 

n 

25 

13 

special  senses . 

...  K 

ii 

33 

16 

symmetrical . 

...  K 

ii 

29 

14 

Transferring  drawing  to  stone . 

Printing  and  Paper . 

...  0 

ii 

17 

Transportation.  Ackerman's  report . 

Metallurgy . 

...  E 

IV 

155 

131 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


75 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Transportation  rates . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

II 

85 

55 

Trask,  Mi«s,  school  anil  method . 

Education . 

....  K 

II 

64 

28 

Tresca's  trial  of  the  Lenoir  gas-engine . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

iii 

163 

163 

Otto  &  Langen  gas-engine. . 

. do . 

....  A 

HI 

168 

170 

on  machinery  ;  influence  of  American 

progress . . . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

i 

339 

194 

metal-working  machinery . 

. do . . 

....  B 

i 

340 

195 

Sellers  &  Co.’s  tools . 

. do .  .. 

....  B 

i 

340 

196 

sewing-machines . 

. do . 

....  B 

i 

341 

198 

wooil-working  tools . 

. do . 

....  B 

i 

341 

197 

Trial  of  mowers  at  Leopoidsdorf . 

. do . 

....  B 

i 

306 

160 

Tschndi  on  education . 

. do . 

....  B 

i 

482 

388 

in  Germany  and  the 

United  States . 

. do . 

. . . .  B 

i 

484 

389 

Tunnel,  Sutro . 

....  B 

i 

345 

207 

Turbines  as  motors . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

in 

176 

180 

at  Conde . 

Civil  Engineering . 

....  C 

hi 

50 

64 

Capron’s . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

in 

177 

182 

efficiency  of . 

. do . 

....  A 

hi 

177 

181 

G Wynne  &  Co.'s  Girard . 

. do . 

....  A 

hi 

178 

183 

Nagel  &  Kaemp’s  Fonrneyron . 

. do . . . . 

....  A 

hi 

180 

188 

Tliime’s  Fourneyron-.Jonval . 

. do . 

....  A 

hi 

184 

192 

Turin  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

i 

100 

149 

Turkey,  educational  exhibits . 

Education . 

....  K 

ii 

24 

41 

forestry  exhibits . 

Forestry . 

....  D 

i 

38 

39 

metallurgical  exhibits . 

Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

217 

498 

photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

....  I) 

ii 

22 

55 

Turner’s,  E.  &  F.,  engines . 

Machinery . 

....  A 

hi 

101 

116 

Turu-halle  of  Georgs-Marien-IIiitte  Company  .. 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

100 

77 

Twilled  goods . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

414 

308 

Typo-foundery,  state  printing-office,  Vienna _ 

Government  Printing . 

....  P 

II 

6 

9 

foundery . 

. do . 

....  P 

II 

10 

20 

setting  machine . 

. do . 

....  P 

II 

14 

35 

Typography . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

377 

254 

Tyrol,  Forestry  exhibits . 

Forestry . 

u. 

....  1) 

I 

30 

34 

Uchatius*  cold-rolled  brouzo . 

Machinery . . 

....  A 

III 

.324 

298 

theory  of  working  gun-barrels . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

328 

302 

Underhill's  angular  belt . 

. do . 

....  A 

III 

334 

312 

United  States,  (see  American.) 

agricultural  development . 

Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

316 

172 

Bureau  of  Education . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

354 

217 

commissioners  to  Vienna . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

156 

60 

commissioners  to  Vienna,  regu- 

lations . 

. do . 

....  A 

I 

150 

02 

contributions  of  the  different 

States . . 

....  A 

I 

197 

64 

landed  property,  distribution  of. 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

320 

174 

politico-economic  relations . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

321 

175 

production,  increase  of . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

323 

176 

tabular  exhibit,  1 870. 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

325 

179 

progress;  data . 

....  B 

I 

319 

173 

section  of  exhibition . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

IV 

7 

8 

section  ;  official  catalogue . 

Introduction . 

....  A 

I 

190 

63 

staple  products . 

....  B 

I 

323 

177 

“  Universal'’  surveying  instrument . 

Instruments . 

....  H 

11 

6 

7 

Uruguay  photographical  exhibits  . 

Photography . 

....  D 

II 

23 

60 

VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


SUIi.IRCT. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Alt, 

Y. 

Vallambrosa  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

100 

149 

Valve-gear,  Guinotte’s . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

03 

70 

Valve,  plain  slide . 

...  A 

III 

24 

35 

Valves,  safety . 

Introduction . 

...  B 

1 

413 

307 

V  eneers . 

...  B 

I 

408 

291) 

Venezuela  photographic  exhibits . 

Photography . 

...  D 

II 

7 

8 

Vessols,  classification  of . 

Machinery . 

. ..  A 

III 

420 

405 

Swedish  twin-screw . 

. do . 

...  A 

III 

59 

G5 

Viaduct,  Boable . 

Civil  Engineering . 

...  C 

III 

15 

i 

over  the  Osse . 

...  C 

III 

24 

23 

D 

III 

10 

10 

Victoria  wheat . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

ir 

15 

40 

Vidal’s  photometer . 

Photography . 

...  1> 

n 

13 

2!) 

Vienna,  (see  International  exhibitions.) 

American  mechanics  at . 

hi 

343 

322 

apartment  buildings . 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

...  Aa 

IV 

'  13’ 

29 

arsenal . 

. do . 

IV 

14 

27 

bakery . . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

ii 

07 

217 

phosphatie  bread . 

. do . 

. . .  B 

li 

112 

213 

Vienna  isukad,  Report  by  E.  N.  lIoitsFOBU . 

. do . 

...  B 

ii 

bread . 

. do . 

...  B 

n 

1 

o 

superiority  of . 

. do  . 

...  B 

ii 

100 

223 

huildijigs  of  the  exhibition,  Report  on.. 

Exhibition  Buildings . 

. ..  Aa 

IV 

buildings . 

Working  of  Stone . 

.  it 

IV 

33 

44 

city  of . 

...  Aa 

IV 

5 

2 

configuration,  iutlnence  in  plans  for 

buildings . 

Architecture . 

...  A 

IV 

3 

10 

education  of  workmen  iu . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

2*2 

24 

Hour . . . . 

Vienna  Bread . 

...  B 

ii 

59 

120 

grits . .  . 

...  B 

ii 

31 

07 

IV 

15 

30 

making  mosaic-works . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  1) 

IV 

25 

31 

metal-working  machinery  at  . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

iii 

201 

212 

modes  of  work . 

Working  of  Stone . 

...  D 

IV 

22 

25 

opera-house . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

22 

45 

private  dwellings,  report  on . 

...  A 

IV 

size  and  situation  of . 

--  A 

IV 

5 

t 

state  printing  office . 

Government  Printing . 

...  P 

ii 

0 

5 

stock  company's  office . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

T 

83 

113 

stone-working  nt . 

Working  of  Stone . 

D 

IV 

21 

22 

IV 

14 

20 

textile  machinery  at . 

Machinery . 

...  A 

III 

288 

278 

Working  of  Stone . 

D 

IV 

32 

30 

wages  of  workmen  in . 

...  D 

IV 

25 

31 

water  supply . 

Hydraulic  Engineering - 

...  D 

III 

10 

15 

woods  used  in  building . 

Architecture . 

...  B 

IV 

17 

32 

wood-working  machinery  at . 

Machinery . 

--.  A 

III 

247 

255 

Villach  lead . 

Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IV 

168 

395 

Villers-Cotteret’s  school  of  forestry . 

Forestry . 

...  D 

I 

100 

149 

Viniculture,  (see  "Wines.) 

In  the  United  States,  Teissoniere's 

report . 

Introduction  . 

...  B 

I 

330 

184 

Tisserand's  report _ 

...  B 

I 

320 

181 

of  the  world,  Teissoniere’s  report  . . 

...  B 

I 

330 

185 

Vise,  Hall’s  “Sudden-Grip" — 

Anderson's  report . 

...  B 

I 

241 

88 

Hartig  and  others'  report . 

...  B 

I 

385 

2GO 

GENERAL  INDEX. 


77 


Subject.  Retort.  Vol.  Page.  Art. 


Vivenot  on  mining  products . . 

.  Introduction . . . 

....  B 

I 

395 

279 

Vizetelly  on  wines . 

....  B 

I 

284 

146 

Voice,  vibrations,  effect  upon  babes . 

.  Education . 

....  K 

II 

53 

25 

w. 

Wages,  French  Rational  Printing-Office . 

.  Government  Printing _ 

....  P 

II 

12 

28 

mosaic  workmen . 

.  Working  of  Stone . 

. . . .  D 

IV 

25 

31 

State  PrintiDg-Office,  Vienna . 

.  Government  Printing _ 

....  P 

II 

9 

16 

stone-cutters  of  Vienna . 

.  Working  of  Stone. . 

....  D 

IV 

22 

23 

Wagons  and  wheels,  Eideli’s  report . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

430 

337 

Wald-Biirgerschaft  Smelting  Works . 

.  Metallurgy . 

....  F 

IV 

212 

476 

Wall-paper . 

.  Printing  and  Paper . 

....  0 

II 

21 

27 

Walls,  bonding  of . 

.  Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

7 

10 

durability  of . 

....  A 

IV 

13 

21 

of  the  exhibition  buildings . 

.  Exhibition  Buildings . 

-  -  -  -  Aa 

IV 

8 

11 

partition . 

.  Architecture . 

....  B 

IV 

19 

39 

thickness  of . 

. do . 

....  A 

IV 

14 

22 

Walter  printing-press . 

.  Government  Printing . 

. . . .  P 

II 

14 

36 

Walzmiible,  Pesth . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

103 

229 

prize  flour  from . 

. .  -  -  B 

II 

105 

232 

Wcgmann's . 

....  B 

II 

44 

101 

War,  {see  Army;  Army  Equipments;  Fire- 

arms.) 

Wakdek.  J.  A. .ReportonFouESTs  and  Forestry  Forestry . 

-  -  -  D 

I 

Warder,  Mitchell  &  Co.’s  mower  and  reaper— 

Indeich’s  report . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

302 

229 

Schmied's  report . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

427 

328 

Tisserand's  report . 

...  B 

I 

307 

161 

Warhanek  on  preserves . . . 

. do . 

....  B 

I 

403 

291 

Warth’s  cloth-cutter . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

319 

294 

Do . 

.  Introduction . 

....  B 

I 

384 

271 

AVatch  and  clock  manufactures  in  Switzerland 

.  Machinery...’. . . 

....  A 

III 

349 

328 

Watches,  Audemar’s . 

.  Instruments . . . 

....  G 

II 

16 

21 

,  Austrian . 

....  G 

II 

20 

27 

Badollet  &  Co . 

. do . 

-  -  -  -  G 

II 

14 

18 

Breguet . 

....  G 

II 

17 

23 

report . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

18 

24 

chronometers,  English . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

9 

7 

French . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

10 

9 

Harrison . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

7 

Italy . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

10 

9 

marine . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

7 

3 

Netherlands . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

10 

9 

pocket . 

. do . 

....  G 

II 

10 

10 

Switzerland . 

. do . 

....  G 

n 

10 

9 

Do . 

. do . 

....  G 

ii 

11 

10 

compensation  of . 

....  G 

II 

11 

11 

Dufour,  Zentler  &  Brother . 

. do . 

....  G 

11 

17 

22 

Ekegren,  M.  R . 

. do . 

-  ..  G 

ii 

15 

20 

English . 

....  G 

ii 

19 

25 

and  Swiss . 

. do . . 

....  G 

ii 

12 

12 

French  &  Co . 

....  G 

ii 

19 

25 

German . 

. do . . 

....  G 

ii 

19 

20 

Gratel . 

. do . 

....  G 

ii 

18 

23 

Haas  &  Co . 

. do . 

....  G 

ii 

17 

22 

improvements  in . 

. do . - . 

....  G 

ii 

20 

20 

isoclironism . 

. do . 

....  G 

ii 

8 

.5 

Jaccaid .  . 

. do . 

....  G 

ii 

16 

22 

78  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Redout. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Alt* 

Watches,  Japay  Brothers  &  Co . 

Instruments . 

.  G 

II 

18 

23 

JeaDjaqnet  &  Co . 

.  G 

II 

17 

22 

Kloftenberger . 

.  G 

II 

19 

25 

Kullberg . 

. (lo . 

.  G 

II 

19 

25 

Lange  &  Sons . 

.  G 

II 

19 

26 

Leroy  &  Sons . 

.  G 

II 

17 

23 

Montandon . 

. do . 

.  G 

II 

16 

22 

Paintard . 

.  G 

II 

15 

18 

Patek,  Philippe  &  Co . 

. do . 

.  G 

II 

14 

17 

Rodanet  &  Co . 

. do . 

.  G 

II 

18 

23 

Romieux . 

.  G 

II 

15 

18 

Souchy  &  Son . 

. do . 

.  G 

II 

20 

27 

Swiss  and  English . . 

. do . 

.  G 

II 

12 

12 

tests  at  observatories . 

.  G 

II 

15 

19 

Watchmaking . 

. do . . 

.  B 

I 

477 

384 

Water  in  wheat . 

.  Vienna  Broad . 

.  B 

II 

9 

25 

power  compared  with  steam-power . 

.  Machinery . 

....  A 

III 

175 

178 

iu  Sweden,  Ackerman's  report . . 

IV 

157 

133 

proportion  in  bread . . . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

96 

213 

supply  of  tho  exhibition . 

.  Architecture . 

.  15 

IV 

9 

14 

Vienna . 

. do . 

.  B 

IV 

10 

15 

Water-wheels . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

253 

106 

Capron's . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

272 

127 

Collation's  floating . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

179 

180 

<G Wynne  &  Co.'s  turbine . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

178 

183 

principles  of  construction  . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

164 

193 

Boyer  Wheel  Co.'s . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

43  L 

340 

Straub's  vertical . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

179 

187 

turbines . 

.  A 

III 

176 

180 

Watson,  W.,  Koport  on  Civil  Engineering, 

Public  Works,  and  Architecture . 

.  Civil  Engineering . 

.  C 

III 

Watt,  Janies,  &  Co.’s  Works . . 

.  Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

475 

395 

Weaving  by  power-looms . 

. do .  . 

-  A 

III 

348 

325 

of  cotton,  Poez's  report . 

.  Introduction . 

B 

I 

404 

293 

Steiger-Meyer's  report  ... 

.  B 

1 

475 

381 

Webb's  wheol-finisbing  machine . 

.  A 

III 

243 

249 

Weber  on  the  manufacture  of  paper . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

376 

252 

Weed  sewing-machine . 

Sewing-Machines . 

.  B 

III 

16 

3 

Wegmann's  Wolzniiible . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

47 

101 

Wcigert  on  textile  fabrics . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

374 

248 

.  A 

I 

219 

72 

value  of  . 

.  A 

I 

27 

Do . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

224 

Weinwimn  on  musical  instruction . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

449 

359 

Weisswasser  school  of  forestrv . 

.  Forestrv . . 

.  D 

I 

99 

145 

Welsh  mountain-sheep . . 

.  Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

29 

3G 

Weltrns  forests . 

.  Forestry . 

. .  D 

I 

92 

125 

Westphalian  pumpernickel . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

88 

192 

West’s  tire-setter,  Hartig  and  others'  reports. . 

.  Introduction . 

.  15 

I 

382 

263 

Rideli’s  report . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

434 

339 

Thurston's  report . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

Wheat,  (sec  Bread.) 

analysis,  approximate . 

.  Vit nn a  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

9 

26 

DempwoltT  s . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

72 

152 

Horsford's . 

.  B 

II 

105 

232 

Austialian . 

.  B 

II 

18 

45 

Banst . 

.  do . 

.  B 

II 

18 

45 

chemical  composition  of . 

. do . . 

.  B 

II 

G 

9 

GENERAL  INDEX. 

79 

Subject. 

REPORT. 

Vo’. 

Page, 

Art. 

Wheat,  chemical  ingredients . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

8 

16 

climate,  effect  of . 

.  B 

II 

10 

27 

colors . 

. ‘b 

II 

16 

41 

comparison  of  Victoria  with  Hungarian 

. do . . 

.  B 

II 

16 

40 

description  of  the  grain  of . . 

. . . do . 

.  B 

II 

2 

4 

diseases  and  enemies  of . 

. do . . 

.  B 

II 

21 

51 

European  varieties . 

_ ...do . 

.  B 

II 

19 

46 

Hungarian . 

.  B 

II 

11 

36 

and  Victoria. . . . 

II 

15 

40 

DempwolfFs  investigations  . 

. do . 

. .  B 

II 

103 

229 

products  of . 

.  B 

II 

57 

125 

impurities . 

.  B 

II 

21 

52 

in  American . 

_ _ _ do . 

.  B 

II 

66 

139 

kinds  usually  sown . 

.  B 

II 

18 

44 

Minnesota  “Fife” . . 

.  B 

II 

56 

122 

Paris  bread . 

.  B 

II 

88 

193 

phosphorus  in . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

13 

33 

plant,  structure . 

_ ..do . 

.  B 

II 

19 

47 

pulverization  by  blows . 

.  B 

II 

31 

65 

purification  of . 

.  B 

II 

55 

121 

table  of  varieties  of  Hungarian . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

16 

43 

Wheeler  &  Wilson’s  sewing-machine . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

383 

270 

Do . 

Sewing-Machines . 

.  B 

III 

22 

3. 

Wheels,  (see  Water-wheels) . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

430 

337 

Colladon’s  floating . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

179 

186 

feathering  paddle . 

.  A 

III 

58 

63 

forged-iron  driving . 

.  A 

III 

81 

95 

locomotive . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

335 

314 

Krupp’s  steel . 

.  A 

III 

81 

96 

White-lead  manufacture,  Puntschare  Works. .. 

Metallurgy . 

.  F 

IV 

171 

405 

Whitney  &  Co.’s  lathe,  Exner’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

424 

323 

wood  -  working  machinery, 

Anderson’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

243 

93 

Exner’s  report . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

420 

315 

Hartig  and  others'  report  . . 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

382 

264 

Whitney’s.  B.  D.,  tools . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

II 

249 

258 

.  E 

IV 

155 

Whitworth’s,  Sir  Joseph,  compressed  cast-steel. 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

439 

415 

machinery . 

. do . . 

.  A 

III 

435 

’412 

orduance . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

436 

413 

compared 

with  Wool- 

wich . 

.  A 

III 

438 

414 

Wiener-  Wahl-forest . 

Forestry . 

.  D 

I 

66 

81 

Wiesner’s  views  of  the  yeast-plant . 

Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

80 

176 

Wilcox  <fc  Gibbs’  sewing-machines . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

383 

26S 

Do . 

Sewing-Machines . 

-  B 

III 

13 

3 

Willow-ware  industry . 

Wood  Industries . 

.  C 

IV 

24 

19 

Wilson  sewing-machine . 

Sewing-Machines . . 

.  B 

III 

15 

3 

Wilson  &  Co.’s  steam-cranes . 

Machinery . • . 

_  A 

III 

335 

315 

Window,  double,  advantages . 

Wood  Industries . . 

.  C 

IV 

8 

5 

Wines,  (see  Liquors,  Viniculture.) 

American . . . . 

Introduction . . 

.  B 

I 

300 

154 

Ott’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

470 

374 

production  of  the  world . . 

....  B 

I 

330 

185 

Vizetelly's  report . 

....  B 

I 

284 

146 

Winnowing  and  separating  grains . 

Vienna  Bread . 

....  B 

II 

22 

53 

Wire-rope  traces . 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

53 

35 

80  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

"Wires,  telegraphic,  (see  Telegraphs.) 

"Wire-works,  Hamm . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

62 

52 

Lippstadt . 

. do . 

.  E 

IV 

63 

54 

Nachrodt . 

.  E 

IV 

62 

53 

"Werdohl . 

.  E 

IV 

64 

55 

Women,  colleges  for . • . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

356 

219 

needed  as  teachers . 

Education . 

.  Ii 

II 

46 

23 

the  best  teachers . . 

. do . 

.  K 

II 

70 

31 

Wood-ashes,  potash  from . 

Fertilizers . 

.  C 

II 

21 

55 

and  paper  manufactures  of  Germany  .... 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

353 

338 

carving . . 

Wood  Industries . 

.  c 

IV 

15 

15 

for  musical  instruments . 

. .  c 

IV 

25 

20 

Wood  Industries,  Report  by  N.  M.  Lowe . 

......do . 

.  c 

IV 

preservation  of . 

Telegraphs . 

. .  J 

II 

18 

26 

split,  manufacture  of . 

Introduction.  - . 

.  B 

I 

408 

3C0 

r*.  iron  in  ship-buildiug . 

Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

421 

398 

Wood-working: 

Machinery . 

Wood  Industries . 

.  C 

IV 

6 

3 

Armstrong’s  dovetailing  machine 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

245 

.94 

at  Vienna . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

247 

255 

Austrian . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

287 

277 

C.  B.  Rogers’— 

Anderson's  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

247 

96 

Exner's  report . 

.  B 

I 

421 

316 

general  character  of . 

.  A 

III 

249 

256 

Knapp’s  dovetailing  machine — 

Anderson's  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

246 

95 

Exner’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

422 

318 

Tools,  American . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

249 

257 

British . 

.  A 

III 

205 

208 

B.  D.  Whitney's — 

Anderson’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

243 

93 

Exner's  report . 

. do . 

. .  B 

I 

420 

315 

Hartig  and  others’  report . 

.  B 

I 

382 

264 

Ereneh  . . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

284 

273 

Lane  &  Bodley's . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

421 

317 

Trcscn’s  report . 

.  B 

I 

341 

197 

Woodbury's  brush-making : 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

307 

290 

Anderson's  report . 

Introduction...  . 

.  B 

I 

250 

99 

Exner's  report . 

.  B 

I 

422 

319 

Hartig  and  others'  report . 

.  B 

I 

272 

384 

Woodbury's  photographic  process . 

Photography . 

.  11 

II 

8 

11 

Woodlmrvtvpe . 

.  I> 

II 

18 

47 

Woodland,  effect  of  pasturing  in .  . 

Forestry . 

.  I) 

I 

21 

20 

Woods’  mowers  and  reapers: 

Michael's  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

253 

108 

Tisserand's  report . 

.  B 

I 

305 

159 

Woods  for  interiors . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

II 

19 

39 

Vienna . 

.  B 

II 

19 

39 

Wool,  and  Sheep,  Report  by  J.  R.  Dodoe . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

Wool,  demand  and  supply .  . 

.  E 

I 

6 

3 

fine,  of  Saxon v . 

. do  . . 

.  E 

I 

41 

53 

German,  prices . 

.  E 

I 

41 

54 

raerinoes . . 

.  E 

I 

10 

11 

grades  of.  German  mcrinoes . 

.  E 

I 

10 

11 

growing,  future  prospects  of . 

. do . 

.  E 

1 

46 

62 

in  Saxonv . 

. do . 

.  E 

I 

41 

55 

GENERAL  INDEX, 


Subject. 

REPORT. 

Vol. 

Page. 

Art. 

W ool-growiug  in  Prussian  Silesia . 

Sheep  and  Wool . 

.  E 

I 

42 

56 

United  States . . 

.  E 

I 

45 

59 

importation  into  the  United  States . 

. . do . 

.  E 

I 

48 

61 

manufacture  in  Great  Britain . 

.  E 

I 

17 

18 

product  of  the  -world . 

.  E 

I 

49 

63 

spinner,  Avery’s . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

I 

238 

279 

Anderson’s  report . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

247 

97 

Hartig  and  others’  report 

. do . 

.  B 

I 

383 

206 

Zeman's  report . 

.  B 

I 

423 

321 

Woolen  manufactures  of  Switzerland . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

349 

329 

Woolwich  ordnance  compared  with  Whitworth. 

.  A 

III 

438 

414 

Wootz  or  Indian  steel . 

Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

171 

Working  of  Stone,  Report  hy  L.  J.  Hinton  — 

Working  of  Stone . 

.  D 

IV 

Workingmen,  British,  at  Vienna . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

342 

321 

education  in  Vienna . 

Working  of  Stone . 

.  D 

IV 

22 

24 

Association,  Georg s-M  arien- 

Hiitte  Company . 

Metallurgy . 

. .  E 

IV 

102 

72 

Working-people,  care  of,  Georgs-Marien-Hutte 

Company . 

.  E 

IV 

98 

05 

in  Europe,  condition  of . 

Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

390 

371 

W orkm  an  ship . . . 

Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

271 

126 

Works,  Borsig’s  locomotive . -  - . 

Machinery . . 

.  A 

III 

304 

358 

Cail  &  Co.’s . 

.  A 

III 

396 

379 

Dowlais . 

.  A 

III 

448 

418 

Eairfield . 

.  A 

III 

423 

399 

Krnpp’s . 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

370 

360 

Do .  . 

Metallurgy . „ 

.  E 

IV 

69 

59 

Low  Moor  iron . 

Machinery . 

.  A 

III 

415 

395 

Schneider  &  Co.’s... . 

.  A 

III 

394 

376 

Sharpe,  Stewart  &  Co.’s  locomotive _ 

. do . 

.  A 

III 

399 

381 

Socidtd  Cockerill's . 

.  A 

III 

383 

365 

Worssam  &  Co.’s  exhibits . 

.  A 

III 

280 

271 

Worthley’s  photographic  process . 

Tbotography . 

....  D 

II 

8 

10 

Wrought  iron  and  steel,  Ackerman  s  report _ 

Metallurgy . 

....  E 

IV 

172 

140 

E 

IV 

179 

.  E 

IV 

186 

in  constructing  buildings . 

Architecture . 

.  B 

IV 

13 

23 

journal-boxes . 

,  Metallurgy . 

.  E 

IV 

180 

Wiirtemberg  school  of  forestry . 

.  Eorestry . 

D 

I 

97 

136 

Y. 

Veast  bread,  problem  of  a . . . 

.  Vienna  Bread . 

.  B 

II 

86 

186 

cells . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

80 

176 

Blondeau’s  theory  of . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

79 

172 

Do  . . 

.  B 

II 

82 

178 

cavities  in . 

.  B 

II 

79 

172 

effect  of  heat  on . 

.  B 

II 

79 

173 

solution  of  sugar . 

. do . 

..  ..  B 

II 

80 

174 

illustration  of  growth . . 

. . do  . .  . 

.  B 

II 

80 

175 

size . . . . 

.  B 

II 

78 

169 

fermentation,  charges  by . 

. do . 

.  B 

II 

111 

240 

effect  of . 

.  B 

II 

83 

182 

loss  due  to . 

.  B 

II 

96 

215 

Pasteur's  theory . . 

.  B 

II 

81 

179 

process  of . . 

.  B 

II 

78 

109 

theories  of . 

.  B 

II 

81 

177 

plant,  illustration . 

.  B 

II 

80 

175 

Mitscherlich's  observations . 

.  B 

II 

78 

171 

82 


VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 


Subject. 

Report. 

Yol. 

Page. 

Art. 

Yeast  plant,  Wiesner’s  observations . 

...  B 

II 

82 

177 

pressed . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

86 

187 

preparation  of . 

. do . 

...  B 

II 

87 

189 

Zettler’s . 

...  B 

II 

87 

190 

Yonne  and  the  Seine,  river  improvements  . 

.  Hydraulic  Engineering _ 

.  D 

III 

14 

24 

Yorkshire  flagging . 

...  B 

IV 

26 

32 

Young’s  diamond-saw . 

...  D  1 

i  IY 

16 

14 

z. 

Zaffauk  on  cartography . 

.  Introduction . 

.  B 

I 

433 

343 

Zalathna  Smelting  Works . 

- Metallurgy . 

...  F 

IY 

213 

478 

Zeh’s  grate . 

...  A 

III 

134 

148 

Zeman  on  Avery's  wool-spinner . 

...  B 

I 

423 

321 

twilled  goods . . 

...  B 

I 

414 

308 

Zinc,  &c.,  Metallurgy  of,  Report  by 

H.  Painter . 

. Metallurgy .  . 

...  P 

IV 

and  cadmium . ; . 

...  B 

I 

366 

235 

dcsilvcrization,  Ems  Smelting  Works. 

...  F 

IV 

155 

367 

Germania  Smelting 

and 

Refining  Works _ 

. do . 

...  F 

IV 

4 

10 

Uerbst  &  Co . 

...  F 

IV 

144 

336 

Jarnowitz . 

...  F 

IV 

131) 

326 

Lautenthal,  Pattinson's  process . 

...  F 

IV 

118 

275 

Mccheruicher  Smelting  Works . 

. do . 

...  F 

IV 

153 

359 

metallic  production  at  Friebcrg . 

...  F 

IV 

57 

135 

Minin <4  Compnuics  do  la  Viello . 

...  F 

IV 

1!) 

46 

Stolberg  Stock  Company . 

. do . 

...  F 

IV 

148 

347 

Stvria . 

...  F 

IV 

172 

411 

vitriol  manufacture,  Julii^  Biitto  . . . . 

. do . 

...  F 

IV 

131 

310 

Zinc-blonde  for  sulphuric  acid . 

...  A 

II 

5 

o 

Zinner  and  others  on  shovels . 

....  B 

I 

436 

348 

Zins-houso . 

...  A 

IV 

G 

5 

Zurich  school  of  forestry . 

....  D 

I 

09 

148 

Z winner  on  pumps  . 

...  B 

I 

423 

320 

REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS  TO  VIENNA 


INDEXED  BY  AUTHORS’  NAMES. 

Volume. 

Blake,  Wm.  PIiipps,  Mining  Engineer,  Member  of  tbe  International  Jury. 

Metallurgy  of  iron  and  steel .  E  IV 

Bridges,  Lyman,  Member  of  tbe  Artisan  Commission  of  the  United  States. 

Buildings  of  the  Exhibition  and  railroad  structures .  Aa  IV 

Brooks,  David,  Esq.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States. 

Telegraphs  and  apparatus .  J  II 

Brown,  Arthur  IT.,  Esq.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States. 

Governmental  printing  institutions .  P  II 

Carpenter,  Charles  F.,  M.  D.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States. 

Instruments  of  precision  for  keeping  time,  etc .  G  II 

Collier,  Peter,  Ph.  D.,  Member  of  the  Scientific  Commission  of  tbe  United 
States,  Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Commercial  fertilizers .  C  II 

Cutts,  Richard  D.,  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  tbe  United 
States. 

Instruments  of  precision . . .  II  II 

Davis,  Charles,  C.  E.,  Member  ofthe  Artisan  Commissionof  theUnited  States. 

Hydraulic  engineering .  D  III 

Derby,  Nelson  L.,  B.  A.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States. 

Architecture  and  materials  of  construction . .  B  IV 

Dodge,  J.  E.,  Statistician  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Sheep  and  wool .  E  I 

Doremus,  Charles  A.,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  to  the  Chair  of  Chemistry  and  Toxi¬ 
cology,  Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College,  New  York  City. 

Photography  and  recent  improvements  in  photography .  D  II 

Fairfield,  George  A.,  Esq. 

Sewing-machines . - .  B  III 

Gallaudet,  Edward  M.,  Esq. 

Deaf-mute  instruction .  M  II 

Governmental  patronage  of  art .  N  II 

Garretson,  II.,  Esq.,  Chief  Executive  Commissioner. 

Report  of  the  Chief  Executive  Commissioner . ....  C  I 

Gibbs,  Wolcott,  M.  D.,  Rumford  Professor  in  Harvard  University,  Member  of 
the  Scientific  Commission  of  the  United  States. 

Physical  apparatus  and  chemical  materials .  F  II 

Hinton,  Louis  J.,  Esq.,  Member  ofthe  Artisan  Commission  ofthe  United  States, 

Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

The  working  of  stone  ;  Artificial  stones .  D  IV 

Horsford,  ProfessorE.  N.,  Member  of  the  Scientific  Commission  ofthe  United 
States,  Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Vienna  bread .  B  II 


84  VIENNA  INTERNATIONAL  EXHIBITION,  1873. 

Volume. 

Hoyt,  John  \V.,  A.  M.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States,  Member 
of  the  International  Jury. 

Education . .  L  II 

Limes,  Robert  B.,  Esq.,  Member  of  the  Artisan  Commission  of  the  United 
States,  Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Telegraphs  and  telegraphic  administration .  I  II 

Lowe,  N.  M.,  Esq.,  Member  of  the  Artisan  Commission  of  the  United  States, 

Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Wood  industries .  C  IV 

Niep.ns£e,  John  R.,  F.  A.  I.  A.,  Member  of  the  Artisan  Commission  of  the  United 
States,  Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Private  dwellings  in  Vienna .  A  IV 

Painter,  Howard,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States,  Member  of  the 
International  Jury. 

Metallurgy  of  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  zinc .  F  IV 

Rcppaner,  Dr.  Anthony,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Assistant  Commissioner  of  the  United 
States. 

Medicine  and  surgery . . .  E  II 

Seguin,  Edward,  M.  D. 

Education .  K  II 

Silcox,  George  \V.f  Esq.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States, 

Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Tiny  ART  OF  printing  and  manufactures  of  paper .  O  II 

Smith,  J.  Lawrence,  M.  I).,  Member  of  the  Scientific  Commission  of  the  United 
States,  Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Chemicals  and  chemical  industry .  A  II 

Thurston,  Robert  II.,  A.  M.,  C.  E.,  Editor  of  the  Reports,  Member  of  the 
Scientific  Commission  of  the  United  States,  Member  of  tho  Interna¬ 
tional  Jury. 

Introduction  to  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Commissioners 

to  Vienna .  I 

Machinery  and  manufactures . , .  A  III 

Warder,  John  A.,  M.  I).,  Member  of  tho  Scientific  Commission  of  the  United 
States,  Member  of  the  International  Jury. 

Forests  and  forestry .  D  I 

Watson,  William,  Ph.  D.,  Honorary  Commissioner  of  the  United  States. 

Civil  engineering;  Public  works;  Architecture . 


C  III 


REPORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  COMMISSIONERS 


INDEXED  BY  TITLES. 

Y  o]  ume. 

Apparatus,  Physical,  and  chemical  materials,  suitable  for  scientific 

research.  Wolcott  Gibbs .  F  II 

Architecture  and  materials  of  construction.  N.  L.  Derby .  B  IV 

private  dwellings  in  Vienna.  J.  E.  Niernsee .  A  IV 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING  AND  PUBLIC  WORKS.  WM.  WATSON  .  C  III 

Art,  Governmental  patronage  of.  E.  M.  Gallaudet .  P  II 

Bread,  Vienna.  E.  N.  Horsford .  B  II 

Buildings  of  the  Exhibition  and  railroad  structures.  Lyman 

Bridges . Aa  IV 

Chemicals  and  chemical  industry.  J.  L.  Smith .  A  II 

PHYSICAL  APPARATUS.  WOLCOTT  GlBBS .  F  II 

Civil  engineering  :  Public  works  ;  Architecture.  Wm.  Watson .  C  III 

Commercial  fertilizers.  P.  Collier .  C  II 

Dwellings,  Construction  and  embellishment  of.  ,J.  I’.  Niernsee .  A  IV 

Deaf-mute  instruction.  E.  M.  Gallaudet .  M  II 

Education.  J.  W.  Hoyt .  L  II 

Education.  E.  Seguin .  . -  K  II 

Engineering,  civil.  Wm.  Watson .  C  III 

HYDRAULIC.  C.  DAVIS .  D  III 

mechanical.  E.  PI.  Thurston . A  III 

Fertilizers,  Commercial.  P.  Collier .  C  II 

Forests  and  forestry.  J.  A.  Warder . D  I 

Hydraulic  engineering.  C.  Davis .  D  III 

Instruments  of  precision.  C.  F.  Carpenter .  G  II 

Instruments  of  precision.  E.  D.  Cutts .  H  II 

Introduction  to  the  reports.  E.  H.  Thurston .  A  I 

Machinery  and  manufactures.  E.  H.  Thurston .  A  III 

Medicine  and  surgery.  A.  Euppaner .  E  II 

Metallurgy'  of  iron  and  steel.  W.  P.  Blake .  E  IV 

Metallurgy  of  lead,  silver,  copper,  and  zinc.  H.  Painter .  F  IV 

Photography' and  improvements  in  photography'.  C.  A.  Doremus .  D  II 

Physical  apparatus  and  chemical  materials.  W.  Gibbs .  F  II 

Printing  institutions  in  Europe.  A.  II.  Brown . P  II 

Printing  and  manufactures  of  paper.  G.  W.  Silcox .  O  II 

Eailroad  structures  and  buildings  of  the  Exhibition.  Ly'man 

Bridges .  Aa  IV 

Eeport  of  the  Chief  Executive  Commissioner.  H.  Garretson .  C  I 

Sewing-machines.  G.  A.  Fairfield . B  III 

Stone-working  and  artificial  stones.  L.  J.  Hinton .  D  IV 

Telegraphs  and  apparatus.  D.  Brooks .  J  II 

Telegraphs  and  telegraphic  administration.  R.  B.  Lines .  I  II 

Vienna  bread.  E.  N.  Horsford .  B  II 

Wood  industries.  N.  M.  Lowe .  C  IV 


V 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


